Module4 PSOC

PSOC – 15EE81 Questions, answers, notes
Table of Contents
1 Q1: Discuss the General features, aspects of bus voltage relation with active and reactive power and
bus voltage control. [8 Marks] .......................................................................................................................... 5
2 Q2: Discuss the relation between complex power, Voltage, Current, power factor, instantaneous and
RMS values of power [8 Marks] ....................................................................................................................... 5
3 Q3: with the help of a phasor diagram and static performance characteristics, discuss Reactive power
control by Synchronous Generators. [8 Marks]6
3.1.1 Description from BM Weedy text Book ...................................................................................... 7
4 Q4: Discuss reactive power absorption and contribution from Transmission lines, transformers,
Shunt reactive power compensation and cables [8 marks]8
4.1 Transmission lines.............................................................................................................................. 8
4.2 Underground Cables .......................................................................................................................... 9
4.3 Transformers ...................................................................................................................................... 9
4.4 Loads ................................................................................................................................................... 9
4.5 Compensating Devices ....................................................................................................................... 9
5 Q5: Indicate the various Reactive power control devices and their methods of application for
controlling bus voltages. [8 marks] **9
6 Q6: Explain the dependence of voltage magnitude on reactive power through analytical expressions
stating approximations and assumptions if any for a two bus system connected through an impedance
R+jX[8 Marks]10
[from Recommended Text book extract] ** ................................................................................................... 10
6.1 Extract from BM Weedy Text Book on the same. [Gives original text book explanations] .......... 13
7 Q7: Example 8.1 **[8 Marks]15
8 Q8: Example 8.2** [8 Marks]17
9 Q9: Discuss the voltage magnitude and its relation between P and Q for a two bus system whose
terminal voltages are controllable [8 Marks]18
10 Q 10: Example 8.3** [8 Marks] .......................................................................................................... 20
11 Q11: Derive Expressions for sensitivity of the voltage to change in P and Q for a simple two bus
system without shunt elements [8 Marks] ** ................................................................................................. 21
12 Q12: Example 8.4 [8 Marks] **22
13 Q13: Discuss Methods of voltage Control by reactive power injection using different reactive power
controllers. [8 Marks] ** 24
13.1 Shunt Reactors ................................................................................................................................. 24
13.2 Shunt Capacitors .............................................................................................................................. 25
13.3 Synchronous Condensers ................................................................................................................. 25
13.4 Series Capacitors .............................................................................................................................. 26
13.5 Static Compensators or STATCOM................................................................................................. 26
13.6 Static Var Systems and Static Var Compensators [SVS / SVC] ...................................................... 26
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14 Q14: Write a short note on Shunt Capacitors/Shunt Reactors using appropriate illustrative figures
where applicable [8 Marks] ** 26
15 Q15: Explain the functions and Applications of Series compensation [8 Marks] **28
16 Q16: Discuss Voltage control using Power Factor Correction [8 Marks] **29
17 Q17: Discuss voltage and reactive power control by Transformer Tap [8 Marks] ** ....................... 30
17.1 Explanations Only ............................................................................................................................ 32
18 Q18: Example 8.5 [4 Marks] ............................................................................................................... 33
19 Q19: Write a short note on Booster Transformer [8 Marks] .............................................................. 33
20 Q20: Write a short note on Phase shifting transformer and its influence on Reactive power flow.
Derive the expression for active and reactive power flow in Phase shifter. [8 Marks] ................................ 34
21 Q21: Example 8.6................................................................................................................................. 36
22 Q22 : Example8.7 [4 Marks] ............................................................................................................... 37
23 Q23: Example 8.8 [8 marks] ................................................................................................................ 37
23.1 Value of capacitor needed for star connection................................................................................ 37
24 Q24: Additional Notes. Worked examples and relevant portions from BM Weedy chapter 5 may be
studied. ............................................................................................................................................................. 38
25 Q25: Explain in detail, why reactive power compensation shall be provided at load end.[8 marks]38
26 Q26: Describe and Define static voltage stability and its features [8 Marks] **39
27 Q27: Describe the various mechanisms through which voltage instability may be caused. [8 Marks]
** 41
28 Q28: Discuss different types of power system stability [8 Marks] ...................................................... 42
29 Q29: Indicate the different parameters as measures of a system bus voltage strength [8 Marks] 43
30 Q30: Discuss the power transfer characteristics, voltage instability phenomenon for a two terminal
[2 bus] system as function of load and line impedance with suitable graphical explanations and
equations. [8 Marks][Taken from Kundur Text Book, chapter 2][Corresponding portion is section 8.10.4
of Dr Uma Rao, which lacks suitable explanations and derivations] **44
30.1 Excerpts from Dr Uma Rao Text Book and Explanations on the same based on Kundur Text
Book notes.................................................................................................................................................... 48
30.1.1 Derivation of I/Isc – for understanding ................................................................................... 49
30.1.2 Derivation of PR/PRmax – for understanding. ....................................................................... 50
30.1.3 Derivation of V/E – for understanding .................................................................................... 51
31 Q31: Derive the condition for maximum power transfer for a two bus system with a series
impedance of ZLN and Load Impedance of ZLD, Source voltage of ES, with constant impedance angle for
the transmission line ZLN and power factor angle for ZLD. ** Big Question but test will carry only 8
marks. .............................................................................................................................................................. 51
32 Q32: Describe how you will determine PV curves for a simple radial two bus system.[8 Marks]
** 55
33 Q33: Define Voltage Collapse Proximity Indicator and Give examples of the same. [8 Marks]**
57
34 Q34: Describe methods of V-Q Curves and its application for voltage stability [8 Marks] ** 58
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35 Balance Portion from the Recommended Text Book [For study, merely simple problems] ............. 59
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1 Q1: Discuss the General features, aspects of bus voltage relation with active and reactive
power and bus voltage control. [8 Marks]
1. Quality of power supply requires maintaining acceptable voltage magnitude at all buses.
2. Further acceptable voltage levels improve security levels of the power system.
3. Acceptable bus voltage levels, minimizes the reactive power flow in the system and contributes to
the loss reduction in the transmission network.
4. Generator voltages are maintained at scheduled values with help from Automatic Voltage
Regulators
5. Non Generator System bus voltages must be maintained at acceptable levels by suitable reactive
power flow control.
6. Voltage magnitude and their phase angle at a bus depend both on active and reactive power flow.
However, for typical transmission network where (X/R >>1) Voltage angle is pre-dominantly
dependent on active power flow and Voltage magnitude is pre-dominantly dependent on Reactive
power flow.
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝜹 𝝏𝜹
7. Mathematically this means ≪ and ≪ , these derivatives are inverse of
𝝏𝑷 𝝏𝑸 𝝏𝑸 𝝏𝑷
Newton’s load flow jacobian elements and are called sensitivities of bus voltage magnitude and
voltage angle for active and reactive power injections at a bus.
8. These sensitivities are the basis for designing and developing Fast Decoupled Load flow which has
proved useful where X/R >> 1.0
2 Q2: Discuss the relation between complex power, Voltage, Current, power factor,
instantaneous and RMS values of power [8 Marks]
The expression for instantaneous power p(t) is given by

𝒑 𝒕 = 𝒗 𝒕 ∗ 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 𝑰𝒎𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝝋 (1)
Let A=ωt and B=ωt-φ, we have the following trigonometric identities (2)
Cos(A-B)-Cos(A+B) = 2SinASinB or SinASinB = ½[Cos(A-B)-Cos(A+B)] (3)
Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get
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** The sign of sine terms is –ve printing mistake in the text book. We use only VICosφ and VI Sinφ
Within one AC cycle, the mean value of p(t) = VI cosφ and the mean value of double frequency
components are 0.
Excerpts from BM Weedy Text book
The voltage source supplies energy to the load in one direction only. At the same time an interchange of
energy is taking place between the source and the load of average value zero, but of peak value VI sin φ.
This latter quantity is known as the reactive power (Q) and the unit is the VAr (taken from the alternative
name, Volt- Ampere reactive). The interchange of energy between the source and the inductive and
capacitive elements (that is, the magnetic and electric fields) takes place at twice the supply frequency.
Therefore, it is possible to think of an active or real power component P (watts) of magnitude VI cos φ
and a reactive power component Q (VAr) equal to VI sin φ where φ is the power factor angle, that is the
angle between V and I. It should be stressed, however, that the two quantities P and Q are physically quite
different and only P can do real work.
3 Q3: with the help of a phasor diagram and static performance characteristics, discuss
Reactive power control by Synchronous Generators. [8 Marks]

Over excited Generator supplies reactive power [Excitation current or field current is higher]
Under excited generator absorbs reactive power. [Excitation current or field current is lower]
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With over excited generator the generated EMF is higher and with under excitation, the generated EMF
is lower. [Efd is higher on stator circuit or Vfd is higher on rotor circuit or field current Ifd is higher for
over excitation]
With over excitation, the generator current lags generator terminal voltage and with under excitation, the
generator current leads the generator terminal voltage.
The equivalent circuit diagram depicting these conditions is given in figure 8.2
The phasor diagram of both over excitation and the under excitation are shown in the figure 8.3
3.1.1 Description from BM Weedy text Book

Synchronous generators can be used to generate or absorb reactive power.
An over-excited machine, that is, one with greater than nominal excitation, generates reactive power
whilst an under-excited machine absorbs it.
Synchronous generators are the main source of supply to the power system of both positive and negative
VArs.
The ability to generate or absorb reactive power is shown by the performance chart of a synchronous
generator.
Reactive power generation (lagging power factor operation) is limited by the maximum excitation voltage
allowable before the rotor currents lead to overheating.
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4 Q4: Discuss reactive power absorption and contribution from Transmission lines,
transformers, Shunt reactive power compensation and cables [8 marks]
4.1 Transmission lines
At high voltages Transmission lines generate significant reactive power through line charging
capacitances.
If L and C are the series Inductance and shunt capacitance of the transmission lines
The surge Impedance or Characteristic impedance of an overhead line is given by
𝑳
𝒁𝒄 = (8.3)
𝑪
If Vo is the rated voltage of the line at which it is operated, the natural or surge impedance loading is
given by
𝟐
𝑽𝒐
𝑺𝑰𝑳 = Watts (8.4)
𝒁𝒄
At loads below SIL, Transmission lines generates reactive power [Reactive power generated by C is more
than reactive power consumed by L]
At loads above SIL, Transmission lines absorb reactive power [Reactive power absorbed by L > Reactive
power generated by C]
At SIL, The reactive power generated by C is balanced by Reactive power absorbed by L and line voltage
profile will be flat.
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4.2 Underground Cables
Underground cables have substantial insulation material around the conductors and hence higher
capacitance with respect to the ground. Inductance is relatively smaller. These are always loaded below
their SIL and generate reactive power.
4.3 Transformers
Because of the magnetizing branch even at no load, these absorb reactive power. And with load they
absorb more reactive power, unless the load is compensated with power factor correction capacitances
significantly.
4.4 Loads
Generally most loads are inductive [motor loads for example] and absorb reactive power. Lagging power
factor loads cause voltage drops in normal transmission and distribution systems where typically X>R
4.5 Compensating Devices
There are both Inductive and Capacitive and combination of Inductance and Capacitance based reactive
power compensating devices. [Harmonic filters use combination of L and C while at fundamental
frequency they provide reactive power compensation]
EHV lines may use line reactors [shunt], bus reactors [shunt] to ensure the bus voltages remain under
control
Generally lower kV buses need shunt reactive power compensation [Capacitors]
Series compensation of long transmission lines are used to ensure more power transfer over lines.
Transformer tap controls are used to either maintain scheduled load voltage or help in better
redistribution of reactive power and minimize losses. [Q flow can be controlled or load voltage can be
controlled]
5 Q5: Indicate the various Reactive power control devices and their methods of application for
controlling bus voltages. [8 marks] **

1. Generator Excitation Controls using which generator can supply or absorb reactive power within
Generator’s reactive power operating limits [or by generator field current limits]
2. OLTC transformer taps to control load side bus voltages and help in redistribution of reactive
power flow in an interconnected network. OLTC transformer taps can also be scheduled for
specific supply of reactive power to the load bus.
3. Shunt capacitors at lower voltage buses, mainly to compensate the power factor of the load and
thus minimize reactive power transmission.
4. Shunt reactors at EHV buses/ Shunt reactors for EHV Lines. Line reactors are part of line they
get connected or disconnected along with the line]. The purpose of these shunt reactors is to limit
possible over voltage and protect damages to the equipments due to over voltages. These also help
in voltage regulation and minimization of losses by minimizing reactive power flow.
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5. Series compensation for very long transmission lines [for greater power transmission]. While
active power flow enhancement is of primary concern, evidently these minimize the reactive power
losses and contribute to better voltage profile.
6. Synchronous condensers [Primarily similar to Synchronous Motors , but only for reactive power
control, no active power generation or absorption will be there]
7. FACTS devices [Flexible AC Transmission systems, with power electronics Switching control].
Consists of statcom, series compensation, phase shifter, UPFC, SVC etc. They provide adaptability
and flexibility in the reactive power and voltage control through their built in control mechanisms.
6 Q6: Explain the dependence of voltage magnitude on reactive power through analytical
expressions stating approximations and assumptions if any for a two bus system connected
through an impedance R+jX[8 Marks]

[from Recommended Text book extract] **
** Important as text book solves problems based on the following.[however, basic and elementary
treatment of the topic. Some examiner may give this type of questions]
Consider a single voltage source E supplying a load with voltage V through a series impedance R+jX,
with a supply power of P+jQ as shown in the figure (a)
** Current I through the load lag voltage V of the load by power factor angle φ
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The phasor diagram of the system is shown in the figures (b) and (c)
Assuming (8.8b) is negligible compared to remaining quantities of (8.7) we get the following [Such
approximations are not needed in these days of engineering and computer facilities. Apparently these
techniques were developed 3 or 4 decades back.]
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In 8.11 Zsc = Thevenin’s driving point impedance as seen from the short circuit point, where voltage =0
Further 8.11 assume E and V are nearly same, which is not normally the case. V must be considered as
pre fault voltage and not as post fault voltage in which case 8.11 is reasonable.
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6.1 Extract from BM Weedy Text Book on the same. [Gives original text book explanations]
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7 Q7: Example 8.1 **[8 Marks]
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8 Q8: Example 8.2** [8 Marks]


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
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Note Short circuit Capacity is simply (V_Line_Line_kV) 2/Thevenin’s driving point impedance.
9 Q9: Discuss the voltage magnitude and its relation between P and Q for a two bus system
whose terminal voltages are controllable [8 Marks]

** Hypothetical and theoretical discussion, Not always used in practical problem solution. Primary
purpose is to understand the relation between V and Q and δ and P [Reading and Discussion]
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10 Q 10: Example 8.3** [8 Marks]
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11 Q11: Derive Expressions for sensitivity of the voltage to change in P and Q for a simple two
bus system without shunt elements [8 Marks] **
** We actually get this by inverting jacobian matrix of NR method at the load flow solution. Inverse of
Jacobian gives sensitivity of the bus voltage magnitude and bus voltage angle for bus power active and
reactive power mismatches and hence the required sensitivities. However in this text book a different
approach is used.
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12 Q12: Example 8.4 [8 Marks] **
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Short circuit MVa = Sqrt(3)*VLL_kv* IkA=Sqrt(3)*132*4.373 = 999.80 Mvar for 132 kV.
For 2 kV = 2/132*999.80 = 15.148 Mvar.
13 Q13: Discuss Methods of voltage Control by reactive power injection using different reactive
power controllers. [8 Marks] ** 

Reactive power control devices are
a. Shunt Reactors
b. Shunt Capacitors
c. Synchronous condensers
d. Series Capacitors
e. Static Compensators
f. Static Var Systems or Static Var Compensators
13.1 Shunt Reactors

These are used in EHV transmission lines to compensate excessive line charging and ensure bus voltages
are under control.
When EHV transmission lines are loaded below their surge impedance loading this will result in higher
bus voltages and these higher voltages are compensated by shunt reactors.
When significant line charging capacitance exists at a bus due to multiple EHV lines connected to the
bus, shunt reactors are usually connected to the bus itself.
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Where a EHV line is switched in/out as part of voltage control, shunt reactor may be switched in/out of
the line too. This type of shunt reactor is typically called as line reactor.
13.2 Shunt Capacitors
For substations where typically lagging power factor loads are supplied from 11 kV up to 132 kV, shunt
capacitors are used [switched in/out depending on bus voltages] to control the substation bus voltages.
These are mainly similar to the power factor correction capacitors for a specific load and reduce drawing
of inductive vars.
13.3 Synchronous Condensers
These are similar to synchronous motors but providing no Active power support or absorption. They can
either supply reactive power or absorb reactive power just like conventional synchronous generators but
at 0 MW power. They are typically represented as PV buses in load flow with P specified as 0. This is in
contrast to shunt reactor and shunt capacitors which are modelled as shunt admittances at a bus and
modeled in Y bus.
By adjusting the excitation of the synchronous condenser desired amount of reactive power can either be
supplied or absorbed, as long as the same is within the steady state reactive power limits of the
synchronous condenser.
An overexcited Synchronous Motor supplies reactive power and under excited synchronous Motor
absorbs reactive power. With 0 MW this becomes a synchronous condenser. The performance
characteristics of synchronous condenser [generator] is shown in the following figure [consider Q for 0
MW only]
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13.4 Series Capacitors
The primary purpose of the series capacitors is to reduce the transmission line reactance of long EHV
lines so that bulk power can be transmitted over the transmission line. However series capacitors also
reduces the reactive power losses in the transmission line as it reduces effective inductive reactance of the
transmission line and therefore contributes to reactive power control. Static series compensators are
better in this respect compared to fixed series compensators, as they control the duration of the series
compensation conduction per AC cycle.
13.5 Static Compensators or STATCOM
These are similar to shunt capacitors, with the difference the amount of reactive power compensation can
be controlled simply by controlling the duration for which the compensator conducts. This is an
application of power electronics switching control.
13.6 Static Var Systems and Static Var Compensators [SVS / SVC]
These are typically Thyristor controlled Reactor [TCR] with Fixed Capacitor banks [FC] or other similar
variants. The reactive power is controlled by conducting the shunt reactor with thyristor control for
appropriate duration in an AC cycle. The fixed capacitor will have several capacitor banks which may be
selectively switched on/off to control the reactive power injection.
14 Q14: Write a short note on Shunt Capacitors/Shunt Reactors using appropriate illustrative
figures where applicable [8 Marks] ** 

1. Shunt capacitors are typically used for power factor correction of individual loads.
2. Shunt capacitors may be used on LV and MV bus bars to compensate for the lagging power factor
of loads.
3. Shunt reactors are typically used to compensate for excess line charging reactive power on EHV
lines.
4. Shunt reactors can be fixed to bus bar [Fixed Reactor] or may be connected to line [Switched
out/in along with the line]
5. The current through shunt capacitor leads the voltage of shunt capacitor, and the current through
shunt reactor lags the voltage of the shunt reactor.
6. The reactive power generated by shunt capacitor is proportional to the square of the bus voltage.
The reactive power absorbed by the shunt reactor is proportional to the square of the bus voltage.
Consequently the effectiveness of the shunt capacitors/reactors are influenced greatly by the bus
voltage magnitude.
7. In EHV lines Shunt reactors help in limiting the load rejection dynamic over voltages and
switching over voltages
8. Shunt Reactor / Capacitor compensation may also be provided on the tertiary winding of the
transformers.
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15 Q15: Explain the functions and Applications of Series compensation [8 Marks] **
1. Series compensations are typically used in long EHV transmission lines to improve transfer of
more active power over the transmission lines.
2. If V1 and V2 are the sending end and the receiving end voltages of the EHV transmission line,
then the power transmitted over the line ignoring shunt reactances if any is given by the following
expression, where X12 is the effective series reactance between the buses 1 and 2 and δ are
corresponding bus voltage angles in radians.
𝑽𝟏𝑽𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐
𝑷𝟏𝟐 =
𝑿𝟏𝟐
3. From the expression of power transfer it is seen that the power transfer is limited by the
magnitude of the reactance X12 between buses 1 and 2. Consequently using series compensation in
series with X12 the overall series reactance can be reduced and thereby allow more active power
transfer from bus 1 to bus 2.
4. When the reactance between the bus 1 and bus 2 is reduced through series compensation, the
reactive power loss in the series branch reduces and the voltage magnitude drop in the series
branch reduces and thereby contributing to reduction of losses [based on current and series
resistance of the transmission line] and better voltage magnitude at the receiving end. Further, the
voltage angle difference 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐 also reduces improving steady state stability.
5. However, a heavily series compensated line may form a resonant condition with a thermal
generator having multiple rotating masses to develop a situation called sub synchronous
resonance which may lead to failure of generator shaft.
6. A series compensated line when paralleled with another regular transmission line modifies the
power sharing between parallel circuits by virtue of modified reactance, obeying current
redistribution based on individual circuit reactances.
7. Figure shows a simple implementation of Series compensation and corresponding phasor
diagram. The change in position of sending end voltage with respect to the receiving end voltage
and current may be noticed due to series compensation. The changes in voltage angles and voltage
regulation may also be noticed.
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16 Q16: Discuss Voltage control using Power Factor Correction [8 Marks] **
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Note the existence of R and X means there is always both in phase voltage change and in quadrature
voltage change. Thus we cannot maintain both unity power factor and constant voltage.
Constant voltage implies ΔV= 0 by setting Q = 0 always through compensation, we still have voltage
variation due to P and therefore cannot maintain constant voltage. Alternative we can allow Q to change
along with P such that ΔV= 0, in which case power factor is not maintained at unity power factor.
Relevant equations are reproduced for reference
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The construction details of on load or off load transformer tap position changing are omitted from the
discussion or notes. Rather only the analytical portion of reactive power control using transformer tap
will be discussed. Notes are however given from BM Weedy Text book and Dr Uma Rao Text book. It is
difficult to say whether this is important from examination point of view. In the opinion of this professor,
construction and operation should be part of transformer subject and reactive power control alone should
be part of PSOC. Read the text book for details. Major Reactive power control points will be listed in short
notes.
17 Q17: Discuss voltage and reactive power control by Transformer Tap [8 Marks] **
In phase transformer tap position can be changed so that the turn’s ratio can be changed.
Changing turns ratio, we can control load side voltage from the source side voltage.
Typically HV sides will have transformer tap position and if LV side is a load bus, load bus voltage is
controlled.
At Generating stations, Generators are typically on LV and Generator transformer taps are on HV side.
However, Generator tap position is not changed on load.
Assuming the source side is LV side, and taps are on HV side, increasing the tap [or turns ratio] increases
the HV side voltage and decreasing tap [or decreasing turn’s ratio] decreases HV side voltage.
Assuming HV is a source side supplying reactive power to the LV side load, Increasing the tap on HV
side [which results in reduction in turns ratio from HV:LV] reduces LV side voltage and decreasing the
tap on HV side [which results in increase in the turns ratio from HV:LV] increases LV side voltage. This
is valid only when HV side has reactive power support. If LV side has the reactive power source and
hence LV side voltage is held constant, then the opposite is the true.
A specific case of a radial line with sending and receiving end transformer is discussed in the following.
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The system shown has a sending end transformation ratio of 1:ts and receiving end voltage
transformation of tr:1 supplying the load of P+jQ through a transmission line of impedance R+jX as
shown in the figure.
When all parameters are transferred to the load side, the line impedance becomes , Receiving
end load voltage is V2 and sending end voltage is , where we now have all quantities referred to
on load side.
We recall the following equations for the series impedance and apply the same to the equivalent circuit
diagram of figure (b)
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17.1 Explanations Only

Explanation to equation 8.31 is not given at this juncture in the text book. However we may determine
this from the asymmetrical PI Model of the transformer.
The following figures are taken from Kundur Text book and also available in Dr Uma Rao text book in a
different chapter.
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Notice the similarity between (6.69) of Kundur Text book with 8.31 of Dr Uma Rao text book. The
difference depends on the conventions followed in the text books.
We find from the equivalent circuit one of the shunt is capacitor in nature and other shunt is inductor in
nature. Neglecting R and using only X equation 8.31 results, for one of the shunt elements of the PI
Network.
18 Q18: Example 8.5 [4 Marks]
19 Q19: Write a short note on Booster Transformer [8 Marks]
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20 Q20: Write a short note on Phase shifting transformer and its influence on Reactive power
flow. Derive the expression for active and reactive power flow in Phase shifter. [8 Marks]
** Not important from reactive power control point of view.
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21 Q21: Example 8.6
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22 Q22 : Example8.7 [4 Marks]
23 Q23: Example 8.8 [8 marks]
23.1 Value of capacitor needed for star connection.

Note when the each phase capacitors are connected in Star connection and are in parallel with the 3
phase load the following applies.
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For Delta Connection, Capacitor banks will have line to line voltage which is Sqrt(3) time more and
hence reactive power compensation is 3 times more. Consequently capacitor requirement is 1/3 rd of star
connection.
24 Q24: Additional Notes. Worked examples and relevant portions from BM Weedy chapter 5
may be studied.
 Shared through email
25 Q25: Explain in detail, why reactive power compensation shall be provided at load end.[8
marks]
1. Consider a two bus system connected through a series impedance R+jX

2. If P+jQ is the power supplied from the supply to the load and V is the supply voltage we have the
following relations for current, voltage and P and Q
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3. As far as the consumer is concerned and electricity bills are prepared, it is mostly from the active
power transfer to the Consumer. The reactive power supply to the consumer is not billed in India
where energy meters record kWh energy representing the active power supply to the consumer.
4. Typically in most transmission lines X/R >> 1 and thus from the above equation it is seen that
active power losses are smaller compared to reactive power losses up to certain transmission line
voltages. For EHV lines reactive power losses are usually compensated by significant presence of
the line charging capacitances. Thus in most cases [transmission and sub-transmission and
distribution lines], transmission of reactive power is not efficient.
5. Transmission of reactive power needs voltage gradient and causes power quality problems,
whereby it is difficult to maintain system voltages at acceptable limits.
6. It is therefore prudent to maximize the reactive power support at the point of loads which need
reactive power consumption through use of suitable reactive power compensation devices.
26 Q26: Describe and Define static voltage stability and its features [8 Marks] **

1. For a two bus system with a source and load at two ends the following characteristics may be
observed
2. For discussions let us consider the load to be made of constant impedance load with an
admittance of 𝒚𝑳 whose power is given by 𝒗 𝟐𝒚∗𝑳 = 𝑷𝑳 + 𝒋𝑸𝑳, where v is the load end voltage and
P and Q are load power with appropriate subscript L to denote load power. yL = G-jB of the Load.
3. As the load is increased with source end voltage constant, the load voltage decreases gradually and
load power increases. We notice that v is decreasing and 𝒚𝑳 is increasing with increase in the load.
This is the normal and healthy voltage behaviour at the load bus.
4. Above certain value of 𝒚𝑳, the drop in the load voltage becomes more pronounced and the load
power given by the expression 𝒗 𝟐𝒚∗ 𝑳= 𝑷𝑳 + 𝒋𝑸𝑳 , becomes lesser, even though the load
admittance has increased. When this point is reached, we say the maximum power transfer point
is reached and any addition of load by increasing its admittance will not increase the load power,
rather load power reduces.
5. At the point of voltage collapse the sensitivity of the load power changes with respect to the load
end voltage magnitude and is called static voltage collapse point. The sign of the derivative 𝝏𝑷 or
𝝏𝑽
equally 𝝏 𝑽 changes beyond the critical loading point or voltage collapse point.
𝝏𝑷
6. Before the static voltage collapse point is reached, the load end voltage decreases with increase in
𝑽
load power and increase in load admittance or 𝝏 < 𝟎 . After the static voltage collapse point,
𝝏𝑷
load end voltage decreases rapidly with increase in the load admittance and load power decreases
with increase in load admittance due to rapid decrease in 𝒗 𝟐. The sensitivity in this region is
𝝏𝑽
>𝟎
𝝏𝑷
Page 39 of 59
7. We notice that this phenomenon is different from steady state power transfer limit defined only
with voltage angle δ, where we assume load end and source end voltage magnitudes |V| are
constant and maximum power transfer occurs based on the voltage angle difference between the
sending and the receiving end
8. We may define the voltage stability as “A Power System is voltage stable, when for a small
increase in load demand, the bus voltages drops are small and remain in acceptable limits and is
associated with corresponding increase in load power. A power system is voltage unstable, when
for a small increase in load demand, the bus voltages drops significantly and become unacceptable
and load power rather decreases instead of increasing in spite of the increase in load admittance
at the load end”
9. We must notice that static voltage stability is defined with respect to the sensitivity of the voltage
magnitude and its sign for changes in load demand. When the load admittance is increased
infinitely, the condition results in short circuit of the load bus, with load bus voltage reaching 0 in
magnitude.
10. Static Voltage Stability is different from Transient stability in the senses no structural network
changes occurs and yet voltage collapse occurs. This happens because the network is loaded
beyond its power transfer capacity as determined by the voltage magnitude and voltage angles.
11. Static Voltage stability is different from Steady state stability limit, where maximum power transfer
is determined under healthy voltages based on voltage angle consideration alone.
12. Static voltage stability is different from small signal perturbations, where voltages remain healthy
and the major problem is sustained small power swings due to inability of the generator and other
controllers to damp power oscillations.
13. Static voltage stability is the inability of the system to meet the demand at rated voltages due to
limitations in the resources of active power, reactive power and transmission facilities.
** Voltage stability problems have resulted in collapse of power systems around the world without any
apparent structural changes to start with , such as loss of generation, loss of major transmission lines etc,
which are triggered due to voltage collapse and have resulted in the blackout of the power system”
Excerpts from Kundur Text Book
Page 40 of 59
27 Q27: Describe the various mechanisms through which voltage instability may be caused. [8
Marks] **

1. Generators reaching their steady state reactive power limit and unable to support the reactive
power demand of the system, resulting in the system bus voltage drops.
2. OLTC transformers adjusting their tap position to maintain load side voltage and in the process
draw reactive power from the sources. The increase in the load side voltage happens along with
appropriate decrease in the source side voltage and supply of reactive power from source to load
side, until the source side voltage is no more supported due to excessive voltage drop in the supply
lines to the OLTC transformer. Beyond this limit the load side voltage also collapses as the source
side voltage itself reduced.
3. Extreme weather conditions resulting in sudden increase in either heating loads or cooling loads
beyond available resources are known to have caused voltage instability by depressing the system
voltages below acceptable levels.
4. Load characteristics play an important role in voltage stability. Impedance type load
characteristics consume lesser power with reduced voltages and therefore aid in maintaining the
voltage. However constant reactive power type motor loads of industries will not reduce their
intake power despite reduction in bus voltages, resulting in higher reactive power flow to the load
buses accompanied by higher reactive power loss in the supply lines as well and will lead to
voltage instability. Shunt reactive power compensations will provide less of reactive power
compensation with reduced voltages and causes more reactive power consumption from the
supply.
5. Under stressed system condition resulting in low voltage, high current flows, Distance relay zone 3
settings may act tripping EHV lines. This in turn makes the remaining lines over loaded and
ultimately has resulted in some of the blackouts.
6. The trigger for voltage collapse can come from any events, even following a transient stability
situation, loss of generation, loss of transmission lines, which in the short term recovers, but
results in stressed system conditions.
7. Some of the conditions leading to voltage collapse is rapid increase in the demand [for example
due to sudden change in environmental conditions] which are not met adequately by quick
response from the sources.
Page 41 of 59
28 Q28: Discuss different types of power system stability [8 Marks]
Page 42 of 59
This is another definition for voltage stability, just like PV sensitivity.
29 Q29: Indicate the different parameters as measures of a system bus voltage strength [8
Marks]
Page 43 of 59
30 Q30: Discuss the power transfer characteristics, voltage instability phenomenon for a two
terminal [2 bus] system as function of load and line impedance with suitable graphical
explanations and equations. [8 Marks][Taken from Kundur Text Book, chapter
2][Corresponding portion is section 8.10.4 of Dr Uma Rao, which lacks suitable explanations
and derivations] **


Page 44 of 59
Page 45 of 59
Page 46 of 59
** Note PR is normalized on PRmax

** VR is normalized on Es
** I is normalized on short circuit current Isc.
** X Axis Line impedance is expressed as a fraction of Load impedance.
** 0 load means infinite load impedance.
** 0 load impedance means short circuit.
** Critical value of the load at which maximum power PRmax occurs is the load impedance magnitude
matching the line impedance magnitude.
Page 47 of 59
** Critical voltage at which maximum power transfer occurs is when |VR/ES\ = 0.5
** Critical impedance at which maximum power transfer occurs [PRmax] is when |ZLN/ZLD| = 1
30.1 Excerpts from Dr Uma Rao Text Book and Explanations on the same based on Kundur Text
Book notes
** Note Dr Uma Rao Text book explanations inadequate and equations are approximate and directly
given without derivations.
Page 48 of 59
30.1.1 Derivation of I/Isc – for understanding
Page 49 of 59
30.1.2 Derivation of PR/PRmax – for understanding.
Page 50 of 59
30.1.3 Derivation of V/E – for understanding
** Comments: Kundur equations are general and applicable for any values of line and load impedance.
Dr Uma Rao treatment is for specific parameters.
31 Q31: Derive the condition for maximum power transfer for a two bus system with a series
impedance of ZLN and Load Impedance of ZLD, Source voltage of ES, with constant impedance
angle for the transmission line ZLN and power factor angle for ZLD. ** Big Question but test
will carry only 8 marks.
** The text book of Dr Uma Rao gives approximate method. Correct method is indicated in the following
hand written notes. ** Important topic, but too long for a question and answer **
Page 51 of 59
Page 52 of 59
Page 53 of 59
To summarize
1. Maximum power transfer occurs when Load impedance is reduced to transmission system
impedance.
2. At this point, the voltage drop in the transmission line and voltage across the load will be same.
Page 54 of 59
3. Any further decrease in load impedance [increase in load] results in greater voltage drop in the
transmission line and load bus voltage will be lower than the voltage drop in the transmission line.
Consequently load power reduces instead of increasing with increase in load due to rapidly
decreasing bus voltage. That is the sensitivity of bus voltage changes with load power. This point
at which the sensitivity of bus voltage changes with respect to load power is the critical loading
power.
4. A voltage collapse proximity indicator is therefore defined as the ratio of |ZLN/ZLD|. As long as this
ratio remains < 1, the system is voltage stable. When this ratio reaches a value of 1, the bus
loading is at critical loading level. When this ratio exceeds 1 [>1], the system is unstable from
voltage stability point of view.
32 Q32: Describe how you will determine PV curves for a simple radial two bus system.[8 Marks]
**

Figure shows a simple two bus system with a sending end voltage Es and Transmission line impedance
ZLN with an angle θ and load impedance ZLD with power factor angle φ
The receiving end active power for this simple system is given by the following equations.
Where φ is the load power factor angle, ZLN is line impedance and ZLD is the load impedance and F is
given by the following expression
Page 55 of 59
For specific value of ZLN and θ and for specific load power factor φ, we can start with infinite load
impedance ZLD corresponding to 0 load and start decreasing the load impedance [start increasing the load
power] and compute the current and voltage drop from sending end to receiving end. The transmission
line and load current is given by the following equation
The receiving end voltage is given by the following equation

𝑽𝑹 = 𝑬𝑺 − 𝑰𝒁𝑳𝑵
With active power given by PR from the given equation [2.6]
We can now plot the PR along the X axis and VR along the Y axis as in the following figure.
Notice that both X and Y axis may be normalized on appropriate bases.

Notice also as the load power factor improves, maximum power transferred also increases and critical
voltage also increases.
For a multi machine system with a number of buses PV curves are generated for each bus, by increasing
the demand at the bus of interest and performing load flow solution. One possible requirement of this
type of load flow is that specific generation may have to be changed to meet specific load to represent
realistic planned power supply.
Page 56 of 59
As conventional load flow will fail to converge at the critical voltage point, special load flow techniques
called continuation load flow solution are employed. Continuation load flows use predictor method to
start from most appropriate voltage values to ensure convergence. [This is instead of typical flat start bus
voltages of conventional power flow solution].
From the PV curve it is seen that for each power there are two voltage solutions [at critical point we have
only one voltage solution]. The higher voltage solution for the load bus is stable and acceptable solution
and the lower voltage solution for the load bus is unstable and unacceptable solution. The sensitivity
dV/dP will be negative in stable region and it will be positive in unstable region. That is in the stable
region, the load bus voltage drops as load in P value is increased and in unstable region, load bus voltage
rises if load in P value is increased. At critical voltage however there is only one voltage solution
corresponding to maximum power transfer to the load.
The critical power point [Maximum power that can be transferred] is also called knee point as the curve
shape appears like a knee. Sometimes PV curves are also referred to as VP curves.
33 Q33: Define Voltage Collapse Proximity Indicator and Give examples of the same. [8
Marks]**

1. The power system steady state operation given by its load flow solution [in off line studies] or state
estimation [for real time static state estimation from measurements] is measured for its voltage
stability based on the distance to voltage collapse point or from sensitivity of bus voltages to the
load power change.
2. When PV curves are used, the distance of the actual bus load to its critical maximum power point
gives the voltage collapse proximity indicator of a bus in terms of the additional loads that can be
imposed on the bus without losing stability with higher stable voltage operating region.
3. The sensitivity dV/dP or dV/dQ for active or reactive power injection at a bus is also used as a
measure of the voltage collapse proximity of a bus. These sensitivities should be typically small for
a stable operation. Large variation of bus voltage magnitude for small bus power change indicates
unstable operation.
𝒊=𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 ∆𝑸𝒈𝒆𝒏
4. The sensitivity of indicates the total change in the reactive power output from
∆𝑸𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
generator. Large change in generator reactive power output for a small reactive power change at a
bus indicates unstable operating region from voltage stability point of view.
5. The inverse of load flow jacobian in NR method using polar coordinate formulation, also provides
these sensitivities at an operating point. [i.e 𝝏 𝑽 /𝝏𝑷; 𝝏 𝑽 /𝝏𝑸]
6. Further the minimum singular value of load flow jacobian [a measure of how close it is to rank
deficiency due to extreme loading] is also used as measure of voltage collapse proximity indicator.
In addition the left and right singular vectors provide information about critical bus voltages and
bus injections from view point of the voltage collapse.
7. Apart from PV curves, QV curves are also used and matched with shunt reactive power
compensation to determine possibility of the voltage collapse.
8. There are many other reliable voltage collapse proximity indicators such as the L-index, |Zii/Zi|,
Methods based on equilibrium conditions [Method of Centroid] etc.
9. The significance of voltage collapse proximity is that, it gives a numerical measure and limits on
this measure can be used to check whether the system is adequately stable or unstable [or
Secure/Insecure].
Page 57 of 59
34 Q34: Describe methods of V-Q Curves and its application for voltage stability [8 Marks] **

Another set of curves similar to PV or VP curves is the QV or VQ curves. To obtain this we can make use
of VP curves of different power factors shown below
It is seen from the VP curves, for a given load power PR, there is a family of curves for different load
power factors. By choosing different power factors and related value of Q for a given PR we can plot the
VQ curves, which are shown in the following figure.
These curves are compared with the reactive power compensating device characteristics at the load bus.
Notice that there are again two parts [or two voltage solutions for a given Q]. The higher voltage solution
is typically stable and matches with conventional reactive power support devices such as a capacitor.
The lower voltage solution does not match with the typical shunt reactive power compensation and
represents unstable operating condition.
Using conventional power flow VQ characteristics may be developed by treating the bus of interest as PV
bus with a negative power injection for load but various voltages specified and Reactive power consumed
may be obtained from load flow solution. Note for a PV bus, load flow provides Q and δ as solution. Thus
keeping P constant and varying V , power flow solution gives V and Q characteristics.
Page 58 of 59
35 Balance Portion from the Recommended Text Book [For study, merely simple problems]
Study section 8.10.8 page 333 to Example 8.17 page 339.
Page 59 of 59

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PSOC – 15EE81 Questions, answers, notes

The expression for instantaneous power p(t) is given by

3.1.1 Description from BM Weedy text Book

4.2 Underground Cables

4.5 Compensating Devices

7 Q7: Example 8.1 **[8 Marks]

8 Q8: Example 8.2** [8 Marks]

10 Q 10: Example 8.3** [8 Marks]

12 Q12: Example 8.4 [8 Marks] **

13.1 Shunt Reactors

13.2 Shunt Capacitors

13.3 Synchronous Condensers

13.4 Series Capacitors

13.5 Static Compensators or STATCOM

17.1 Explanations Only

18 Q18: Example 8.5 [4 Marks]

19 Q19: Write a short note on Booster Transformer [8 Marks]

** Not important from reactive power control point of view.

21 Q21: Example 8.6

22 Q22 : Example8.7 [4 Marks]

23 Q23: Example 8.8 [8 marks]

23.1 Value of capacitor needed for star connection.

 Shared through email

1. Consider a two bus system connected through a series impedance R+jX

28 Q28: Discuss different types of power system stability [8 Marks]

This is another definition for voltage stability, just like PV sensitivity.

** Note PR is normalized on PRmax

30.1.1 Derivation of I/Isc – for understanding

30.1.2 Derivation of PR/PRmax – for understanding.

30.1.3 Derivation of V/E – for understanding

The receiving end voltage is given by the following equation

Notice that both X and Y axis may be normalized on appropriate bases.

Study section 8.10.8 page 333 to Example 8.17 page 339.

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