Chapter – IV

Mutation: An Analysis of Religion and Culture in Nigeria in the Select Novels of

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
“For surely it is one of the unhappiest characteristics of the age to have produced
more refugees, migrants, displaced persons, and exiles than ever before in
history . . .”
(Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism 137)

Half of a Yellow Sun focuses mainly on the Civil War or the Biafra War which is fought
between the Islamic majority in the north and the Christian Igbo and Yoruba people in the south.
It also does not fail to capture the religious and cultural conflicts. The novel explores the
horrifying truth of the Christian priests who are very avaricious and male chauvinistic and some
are even perverted. Through the eyes of the protagonist Olanna the author brings out the
Christian clergy members’ acts of injustice and sexual abuses committed on the lay people. This
leaves the people annoyed and traumatized.
The novel Americanah captures the influence of the alien culture ruining the lives of the
Nigerians. The novel brings to light the mushrooming of the Christian sects in Nigeria. These
sects have a powerful hold on the people’s emotions and their hollow words make people believe
in their false promises and acts. The novel deciphers the craftiness of the Pastors who are keen
on making quick money and expanding their luxuries. They trick their followers competently and
extract money from them, thus portraying that Evangelism is a persuasive technique.

In Half of a Yellow Sun Richard is stopped by the Igbo soldiers at the check post where
he answers the soldier’s questions in Igbo language. The soldiers allow him to continue his
journey as they trust Richard because he speaks the native language. Amidst the converted Ibos
who feel their language inferior, Richard the White Man takes pride in speaking Igbo. He thus
redefines identity as he assimilates himself into the Igbo clan.
Igbo land has numerous vivid traditional festivals, apart from Masquerades, the other
significant festival that remains in the forefront is the Feast of New Yam. Yam is the staple crop
of the Igbos and its harvest is celebrated in a grand manner as a part of thanksgiving to the gods
for showering a good harvest. The Nigerians celebrate this feast annually. In Achebe’s Things
Fall Apart, the novelist graphically explores the Feast of New Yam.
The Christian Missionaries did not decrease the significance of the Feast of New Yam or
the harvest celebration. The Christian missionaries, especially the Irish Catholic Church who
introduced Christianity in Nigeria faced challenges to convert the Igbo without including some
of their cultural observances to Christianity in a syncretic bond. Hence, the Church built some
acceptable accommodation with such practices like the observance of the Feast of New Yam and
the Ozo title-taking celebration. In the Catholic Church, there has been many similar instances
previously such as the Roman feast for the Sun God which was adapted as Christmas day.
During Eugene’s annual visit to Abba, the village elders insisted that he takes up the
traditional title assuming ceremony. After a major consultation with the Catholic Priests, Papa
Eugene takes up the title with a huge number of terms and conditions laid down to the villagers.
And thus, most of the traditional rituals are eliminated as they are considered to be pagan and
therefore the festival becomes a small version of the New Yam festival. Papa accepted to take
the title “after extensive talks with the parish priest and insisting that all pagan undertones be
removed from his title-taking ceremony, it was like a mini–New Year Festival” (PH 59). The
incident highlights the fading of the Igbo cultural festivals due to adaptation of Western culture.
The author displays the idiocy of the converted Igbos as they keep consulting the white priests
for concurrence in order to celebrate their own traditional festivals. The integration of some of
the Igbo practices into the church leaves the traditional Igbos in the lurch unsure of their own
cultural practices. Kambili notes that schools close early in December to celebrate Christmas
which proves that the other native festivals remain insignificant.
The New Yam festival is now considered to be more or less a Christian festival. Kambili
narrates that during their annual visit to Abba for Christmas, the roads are packed with numerous
cars carrying Christmas yams and sacks of rice. Their staple food which has been existing for
more than thousands of decades has now received a new connotation ‘Christmas Yams’. “Many
cars horned and overtook us; some were so full of Christmas yams and bags of rice” (PH 54).
The author shows that the traditional New Yam festival lost its importance and value due to the
Europeanization of Nigeria. The Christmas celebration is popular by borrowing a few aspects of
New Yam Festival which eclipses the native festivals. Falola points out J.S. Mibiti’s observation
that “Songs for African gods have been adapted into Christian songs, and dancing steps and
drumming have also been adopted. (Falola 209). The converts celebrate Christmas with much
fanfare. The converted Igbos take humongous efforts and passion to celebrate Christmas and
reject the native festivals of their ancestors as they have been tricked by the Europeans to believe
that their native festivals are heathen.
During the eve of Christmas people migrate to their native places where they celebrate it
in grandeur. This yearly migration is seen in Purple Hibiscus where the Achikes move to Abba
and in Adichie’s Americanah the protagonist’s lover Obinze describes his annual visit to Abba
along with his mother to celebrate Christmas. Ifemelu goes for an annual visit for Christmas to
Umunnechi which is a stop away from Abba. Likewise, Kainene, Olanna’s sister in Half of a
Yellow Sun recounts their annual visit to Umunnechi for Christmas.
Masquerades are found in many areas, even if their forms and function differ. These
traditional masquerades that were celebrated with grandeur in Nigeria for more than thousands of
years, suddenly attains a pagan status as a result of the Christian missionaries who indulged in
conversion of the natives. The question of conflict rises when the native Igbo people support
their ancestral beliefs and the converted Igbos feel that the European culture is superior to theirs.
The clash begins when the native Igbos’ decision of reviving their native culture contrasts with
the ideology of the converted Christian Igbos that lead to a huge conflict. Apart from this the
Muslims also express their desire of reviving their lost culture resulting in ethnic conflict.
Papa Eugene who is a first generation converted Igbo scorns traditional customs
especially the Masquerades. Falola notes that the converts are warned to avoid participation in
rituals, ceremonies, and other activities that supposedly doomed their future salvation (206).
Eugene condemns people participating in masquerades and also warns his children that even
watching it is a sin. “Papa had driven us past the crowds at Ezi Icheke once, some years ago, and
he muttered ignorant people participating in the ritual of pagan masquerades” (PH 85). Papa
Eugene calls Masquerades evil therefore labelling his own ancestral cultural practices as sinful.
He instils fear in his children and they obey his orders loyally.
His narcist effects on his children makes Jaja and Kambili feel guilty as they witness their
first Masquerade. Kambili’s mind is filled with terror and horror when she watches the
Masquerades. “It was eerie, watching it, and I thought then of chairs running” (PH 48).
Nevertheless, she has participated in the Masquerade and has enjoyed the privilege of watching
them with awe. It is obvious when she makes her confession in the church where she agrees to
the Catholic Priest that she has watched the Masquerades with pleasure. She is warned by the
priest for not being mindful of the catholic doctrines and tries to erase the memory of her past
culture.
The traditional Igbos take great pride in their ancestral culture which binds people
together and hence they feel that it is their duty to pass it down to the next generation. Papa-
Nnukwu takes pride in his culture. “that is our agwonatumbe” (86). The way he describes the
masquerades to his grandchildren with enthusiasm and vigour shows that he remains faithful to
his roots and is loyal to his culture. He explains every single element of the masquerade in detail
and displays his pride and love for his land unlike the converted Igbos who betray their own
culture and religion.
It is the most powerful mmuo in our parts, and all the neighbouring villages fear
Abba because of it. At last year’s Aro festival, agwonatumbe raised a staff and all
the other mmuo turned and ran… Look! Obiora pointed at another mmuo moving
down the road. It was like a floating white cloth, flat, taller than the huge avocado
tree in our yard in Enugu. (PH 87).
Confusion regarding culture and religion creeping into Jaja and Kambili is visible when
they witness the masquerade which has been portrayed to them as a heathen festival by Papa
Eugene. They learn the fact that Masquerades are a unique celebration of the Nigerians and it
remains as a part of their ancestral culture and celebrations. Kambili expresses a feeling of
betrayal that crushes her as Papa has hidden facts of their unique culture from them. Papa cannot
be completely blamed as his Western education and Christian up bringing has led him to hide
certain fact from his children. Through Kambili the author manifests the plight of Nigerian
children who will have to learn about their own culture from other alien sources in future.
Aunty Ifeoma is also a product of the Christian missionaries yet she remains neutral in
her approach when it comes to Christianity and Nigerian traditional beliefs. Although she is
brought up by the Christian Missionaries, she is not influenced by them as much as Eugene. She
does not abandon her native culture like Eugene who blindly follows the teachings of the
Europeans. She boldly stands up to Eugene’s irrational religious ideology and beliefs. Unlike her
brother she educates her children to value the best in both the cultures. Aunty Ifeoma is a well-
balanced character in the novel deliberately created by the author to bring about the glory of the
Igbo culture through a Christian eye.
Aunty Ifeoma is annoyed by her brother’s violent behaviour and attitude. She passes an
angry statement to her sister-in-law Beatrice “Eugene has to stop doing God’s job. God is big
enough to do his own job. Eugene collectively represents the Colonizers who acted as God’s
ambassador which makes everyone detest them. A parallel is drawn between the Colonizers and
Eugene where both employ oppression and violence on the people which stirred a lot of hatred
and anger.
“Papa – Nnukwu snapped, turning to glare at Jaja. Aunty Ifeoma laughed and
spoke in English “Jaja, you’re not supposed to say there are people in there.
Didn’t you know that?”
“No, Jaja said.
She was watching Jaja. “You didn’t do the ima mmuo, did you? Obiora did it
two years ago in his father’s hometown.”
“No, I didn’t Jaja mumbled.
 I looked at Jaja and wondered if the dimness in his eyes was shame. I suddenly
wished, for him, that he had done the imo mmuo, the initiation into the spirit
world I knew very little about it. (PH 87)
Internal conflict erupts in Jaja and Kambili when Aunty Ifeoma inquires Jaja if he has
participated in the ima mmuo. Pathetically, Jaja has no idea of the word ima mmuo and acquires
knowledge from Aunty Ifeoma that mmuos’ are Nigerian traditional Masquerades. Amaka
gleefully informs Jaja that Oibora had already taken part in the ima mmuo two years ago. On
hearing Amaka, Jaja’s eyes are filled with shame, disgust and self – hatred that he turns his face
away from Kambili. At this juncture Jaja undergoes a significant transformation and cultural
resistance creeps into his mind. Ngugi in his book Decolonising the Mind elucidates the results
of colonization according to which the colonizers make the natives feel guilty and inferior of
themselves. They view the colonizers as a superior race. Ngugi terms this effect as cultural bomb
which not only leaves the native people alienated, but also instigates them to discard their own
language, culture, heritage, religion and beliefs.
Kambili secretly feels sad for Jaja and wishes that her brother could have taken up ima
mmuo so that it could have saved him from embarrassment. Jaja becomes frozen with shame and
painful emotions bring about self – hatred and inner turmoil in him. The colonizers have
snatched away the Nigerian’s rightful knowledge and traditional cultural beliefs and rights.
Masquerades are constructed on folklore or traditional stories. Folklore is traditional
beliefs, customs, and stories of a community, tradition passed down orally from generation to
generation. Simon J. Bronner defines Folklore as a scholarly term, used in a broad sense to refer
to manifestations of traditional knowledge: that is, cultural practices and expressions learned
through word of mouth, imitation and demonstration, and custom. Folklore glorifies one’s
culture and tradition. The stories Mmuo that takes place in the masquerades is based on folklore.
Folklore is condemned as Devilish Folklore by the converted Igbo people. Adichie sketches the
pathetic condition of the Nigerian traditional culture that is slowly fading away from Nigeria.
Adichie throughout her novels keeps reiterating the fact that the European culture and religion
drastically replaced the traditional one. Jaja and Kambili are forbidden to listen to folklores as
the devils’ blood might get into their blood stream.
In folktales, the spider and the tortoise stories are common in many parts of West and
East Africa says Falola. Once when Papa- Nnukwu is willing to tell a native story, everyone
becomes interested. Oborio explains “It is better than TV anyway.” (PH 157). The children are
particular about the story. They want to listen to the story of the tortoise cracking the shell. “Tell
us the story of why the tortoise has a cracked shell! Chima piped up.” (PH 157). Obiora claims it
as our people’s story indirectly expressing his soul wants to reach out to his roots which yearns
to go back to past culture. The most heart wrenching statement is when Obiora speaks in English
to acquire his native history that pertained to folklore “I would like to know why the tortoise
features so much in our people’s stories,” Obiora said in English. (PH 86).
In Purple Hibiscus the author revives folklore by infusing traditional stories into her
novels in order to enlighten the present generation about the traditional beliefs and culture. In the
novel Papa says “He said that the stories about mmuo, that they were spirits who had climbed out
of ant holes, that they could make chairs run and baskets hold water, were all devilish folklore.
Devilish Folklore. It sounded dangerous the way Papa said it” (PH 85).
Papa- Nnukwu maps the magnificence and the grandeur of the Nigerian Masquerade
with awe “Look at this,” Papa- Nnukwu said, “this is a woman spirit, and the women mmuo are
harmless. They do not even go near the big ones at the festival.” (Adichie 85). The splendour of
the Igbo cultural festival is brought out by the way Adichie narrates it through her character
Nnukwu in her novel Purple Hibiscus.
Papa – Nunukwu, Aunty Ifeoma and her children along with Jaja and Kambili spend time
in the car watching the long, colourful Masquerades. Kambili feels a sense of connection to her
ancestral roots that gives her a sense of freedom. She witnesses her own cultural practices for the
first time with awe and surprise. She expresses her feeling of joy to her brother that the
Masquerades had made her happy. Kambili feels herself returning to her roots which makes her
laugh enthusiastically. Kambili has never observed herself being so happy as she has never had
the opportunities to witness the Masquerades. The freedom that she gains for few hours gives her
a sense of belongingness and happiness and above all it liberates her, breaking her free from the
colonial domination.
The happiness she gains from watching the Masquerades is genuine yet she is scared of
her father. It hints at her state of mind that remains conflicted throughout the novel. Her father
undermines their ancestral beliefs and therefore to participate in what he calls devilish culture is
sinful. Kambili is in a state of conflict like many Igbos who are found in a similar situation by
following colonizing teachings.
Nigerians unique healthy diet undergoes a drastic change as it gets infused with the
European food. The Westernization of Africa has brought in a wide range of variety into Nigeria.
Milk powder, Maggi soup cubes, soft drinks, aeriated drinks, biscuits, wafers, cornflakes, Lipton
tea, European cutlery and European table manners etc. Papa himself runs a factory that produces
bottled juice, wafers and cream biscuits. After every meal, juices made from Papa’s factory are
served at the dining table. Serving of Lipton tea is a regular feature at Eugene’s house. Papa
allows Jaja and Kambili to take a sip from Papa’s tea cup and he calls it the love sip. Papa
performs the love sip like a Eucharistic ceremony as he is so much under the western influence.
Adichie portrays the converted Igbos confusion over the newly introduced culture and religion
by the Britishers through the behaviour of Papa at the dinner table. Through Kambili’s narration
it is evident that the converted Igbos behaved as if they were direct European descendants and
looked down upon the native Igbos who still follow their own traditions.
The food habits of the people largely depend on the environment that they are surrounded
by and culture also plays a vital role in preparing the traditional dishes. Nigerian Cuisines
include grains, vegetables, fruits, meat, poultry, fish and milk. Corn / maize are uniquely named
in different parts of Africa as tuozafi, bugali, sadza, solora, nsima, chima depending on which
part of the continent one lives in. Culinary art has always been the female domain throughout the
world and particularly in the Igbo culture women rules the kitchen. The only place where women
are allowed to exhibit their domination is the kitchen and the dining room. Before colonialism
Nigeria was different, where women were honoured and respected by the men, who also
respected women deities and priestess and even obeyed their commands. Achebe in his book
Things Fall Apart draws the importance of women deities and priestesses in Igbo Culture. Chielo
the priestess walks into Okonkwo’s house and carries away his daughter to a cave to restore her
health and Okonkwo respects her.
After colonialism things have changed as women are no longer respected by men. They
are in constant fear as they are scared of men and remain very submissive like Beatrice and
Kambili. According to Homi. K. Bhabha the colonized ape the colonizers in all aspects as they
want to rise to the level of the colonizers which led to cultural loss. Eugene is one among the
colonized who loved to imitate the Westerners and exercised domination inside the house.
Unlike Eugene there are other people like Ade Coker, Ifeoma and Ifediora who are Christians yet
maintain a neutral approach to both the cultures.
Food habits differed from place to place in Nigeria and are unique and healthy. When
Papa Eugene and his family visit Abba for Christmas, as they near their native village, Papa
Eugene stops to buy okpa and agidi. The native Igbos are found consuming pure Nigerian
traditional food and the villages remains unblemished by the Western cuisines. The considerable
change in the food and life style is displayed when Papa Nnukwu complains that the fufu that is
eaten by the current generations lacks nutritional value and taste when compared to the
traditional ones. Modernity and European standards have upset the style of cooking the native
food as the natives add Maggi soup cubes to almost all the dishes thus removing the traditional
flavours of natural food stuff.
In Purple Hibiscus, the novelist explicitly tangles ritualized abuse and cultural
beliefs in order to express the violence harboured by men towards women. Further Adichie
symbolically uses preparation of meals and the dining table as a tool to prove that culture has
undergone a complete transformation after colonization. Adichie mentions a few prominent
traditional Nigerian food stuffs like fufu, jollof rice, moi- moi, onugu soup, ofe nsala, egusi soup
akara and azu in her novels as she in unable to forget her roots.
In the novel Half of a Yellow Sun the author unravels the colonial impact through the
character Harrison who cooks for Richard. He takes pride in rolling out American recipes for
Richard day after day but Richard is keener on eating the local Nigerian cuisine. Harrison is
very disappointed when he is commanded by Richard to cook Nigerian dishes. Harrison believes
that the White man’s food is healthier compared to the food eaten by the Nigerians. He also
refers to the Nigerian food as ‘Nonsense”.
In the novel Purple Hibiscus most of the key events that paved a path to religious
confusions and conflicts in Papa Eugene’s house happens in the dining room at the dining table.
Traditionally in any family meal time is a time of happiness where the members of the family
come together to share pleasant exchanges and celebrate every meal with joy. After
independence change was inevitable as the culture underwent sea change thus leaving the land
and culture distressed and in complete chaos.
According to Karl Marx culture promoted inequality in society thus the ruling class
enjoyed luxury while the poor suffered. Socio-economic status can affect culture and the
surrounding environment. Adichie highlights the class differences and inequality in Nigeria
through Aunty Ifeoma who stays in Nsukka University along with her three children and
struggles to make both ends meet. While Uncle Eugene, her brother belongs to the upper class,
has servants to cook and follows strict English etiquettes. When Kambili and Jaja visit Aunty
Ifeoma’s house, their aunt serves very little food in each one’s plate as she is able to afford only
a meagre amount of food. Kambili and Jaja are raised in an upper - class life style and have
always had sufficient food and drink and therefore, Kambili is amazed to find the scantily laid
food on every one’s plate. She further moves on to investigate the cutleries and is stunned by the
odd plates and is shocked by Obiora using a plastic plate. The other cousin has a plain glass plate
with silver lines or dainty flowers drawn on it. Kambili also notices that Aunty Ifeoma’s kitchen
is a small place where hardly two people can stand. The wooden dining table is cracked from dry
weather and shedding its outermost layer and the dining chairs are mismatched. The food on her
plate is jollof rice, fried plantains and half of a drumstick. Although there are no proper matching
cutleries and napkins yet the happiness and laughter that surrounds the table is priceless which
Kambili does not have a chance to experience in her own home.
 Gramsci’s theory of hegemony puts forth the conception of the ruling class who executes
domination over the poor. In Half of a Yellow Sun Amala hails from a poor family and her
poverty is exploited by Odenigibo’s mother. Amala becomes the victim and an immoral person
in the novel. Ugwu and his family are immersed in poverty and economically poor. Ugwu is
employed by Odenigbo who is dumb struck looking at his master’s house filled with luxurious
things. Eberichi is another victim whose poverty is exploited by a General. He offers a job to
Eberichi’s brother and hence she returns him favours.
The war made everyone suffer economically and yet the dominant class managed to live
a posh life. Olanna is in a state of shock as she witnesses Mr. Ezeke has a luxurious house, well-
furnished and even furnished bunkers while people outside die from starvation. Olanna is unable
to digest this fact, she is helpless in the situation and returns home worried for her people and the
country. Olanna compares this to her uncle Mebazi’s family who lived in poverty. They lived in
a small house with a dinning- table filled with cockroach eggs.
Within Igbo culture, an individual’s name serves as a form of incantation or prayer which
is repeated each time that person is called. “The importance of naming is entwined with the
belief in the power of the spoken word, as to repeatedly enunciate an intention to conceivably
usher in being” (Emenyonu 25). In Purple Hibiscus Amaka’s assertiveness in preserving her
African culture by asserting that is evident when she rejects the western names suggested by
Father Amadi. Her intelligent argument and shrewdness leaves Father Amadi puzzled. Amaka
stresses the fact that the African names and the western names were similar in meaning.
“What the church is saying is that only an English name will make your
confirmation valid. ‘Chiamaka’ says God is beautiful. ‘Chima’ says God knows
best, ‘Chiebuka’ says God is the greatest. Don’t they all glorify God as much as
‘Paul’ and ‘Peter’ and ‘Simon’?” (PH 144).
Amaka shows her resistance against changing her Igbo name to a western name for her
Confirmation and thus involves herself in an argument with Father Amadi :
And the next day, Easter Sunday, Amaka did not join the rest of the young people
who wore all white and carried lit candles, with folded newspapers to trap the
melting wax. They all had pieces of paper pinned to their clothes, with names
written on them. Paul. Mary. James. Veronica. (PH 144)
Yet Amaka through her assertiveness becomes the daughter of Igbo in protecting the
culture from the alien intrusion. Her stubbornness represents her ancestors who resisted the
Whites who tried to thrust their culture on the Igbos. She is unlike papa Eugene who followed
the whites irrationally. Aunty Ifeoma does not approve of Amaka questioning their religion by
dismissing her questions as senseless. Aunty Ifeoma gets annoyed; She knows by her raised
voice, by her snappy tone. “O gini! You don’t have to prove a senseless point here! Just do it and
get confirmed, nobody says you have to use the name!”
Similarly, Obiora elucidates the religious scenario in Nigeria to Father Amadi by citing
example of steaming cowpea flour along with palm oil. He further moves on to say that one can
neither extract cowpea flour nor the palm oil once it is steamed together. He goes on to prove his
example to Father Amadi that religion and oppression are like the cowpea flour and the palm oil
which cannot be separated. (Adichie PH 94) meaning that the old and the new once blended
cannot be separated.
Father Amadi’s intimidating reply to Obiora is akin to the colonial rulers which failed to
recognize the native people’s sentiments. Father Amadi tries to make Obiora feel guilty for his
speech rather than fails to perceive his own mistake. He simply asks Obiora “That streak of
madness has returned and is disturbing you again, okwia?” (PH 94). The Catholic Priests keep
them by the catholic doctrines which focuses more on sins, fear and eternal damnation when they
raise questions against Catholicism. They instantly put them down and instigate guilt inside them
and make them feel sorry for their unfitting behaviour.
Amaka recognizes the cunningness of the priests who are not willing to accept the truth.
The truth is that they have ruined the entire country by meddling into their country’s political,
social, economic and religious affairs. They brand the traditionalists as heathens and when the
converted Igbos start posing rational questions concerning Christianity, they categorized them
‘mad’. Amaka’s fitting reply to Father Amadi brings out the true condition of religion in Nigeria.
Amaka says to Father Amadi “Spoken like the true missionary priest, Father, when people
challenge you, label them mad” (PH 94)
At several occasions Obiora exhibits his qualms about Catholicism as most of the rituals
and words that they uttered make no sense to Obiora. Praising God, conversations that ended
with a sentence as ‘giving glory to God’ made Obioro wonder at this practice of chanting praises
to God at appropriate time and place and it annoys him. Most of the time they seem to be
artificial and therefore the words lose its real essence.
Papa poured for everyone and proposed a toast. “To the spirit of Christmas and to
the glory of God.”
We repeated him in a chorus. Obiora’s sentence had a lift at the end, and it
came out sounding like a question: “to the glory of God?”. (55)
Father Amadi is unlike Eugene who is loyal towards his pastoral duties. Father Amadi
develops a special bond with Kambili and helps her break open from her cocoon. He showers his
affection on Kambili which is noticed by Amaka and mocks Kambili by calling her Father
Amadi’s sweetheart.
Father Amadi praises Kambili who watches the argument silently and helplessly. Kambili
is taught not to argue about religion by her father who is a typical colonial product. Amadi senses
that Kambili has numerous questions pertaining to religion yet maintains silence as she is scared
of her father. Her father has made her blindly follow Catholicism. She juxtaposes Nigeria in
being oppressed and muted by the Colonizers like the many other converted Igbos. Amaka and
Obiora have started questioning the entire system yet not fully. The author hints that in near
future Kambili may take side with the traditionalists.
Ugwu describes the Ori – Okpa where the mmuo parads the village flogging men and
chasing women during the Masquerades. Richard the white man from London shows a lot of
interest in the Masquerades by raising questions regarding the parade a cultural significance of
Nigeria. Although the converted black Christians considered the Masquerades demonic, a few
whites have started valuing the indigenous cultural practices of Nigeria.
Umunna is a form of patrilineage maintained by the Igbo. Law starts with the Umunna
which is a male line of descent from a founding ancestor (who the line is sometimes named after)
with groups made up of closely related families headed by the eldest male member. Umunnu is
brought into the novel Purple Hibiscus through the character Papa Eugene who refuses to let his
children meet their Grandfather Papa -Nnukwu. Papa Nnukwu calls for Umunna where he
launches a complaint against Eugene who does not want his children to meet his father since he
considers him to be a pagan. In the Umunna it is decided that the grand- children must be
allowed to meet their grandfather once in a year during Christmas. Jaja and Kambili are
completely unaware of the Umunna as their father hides these facts from them. Eugene fails to
educate his children on the traditional laws and beliefs thereby he deliberately conceals his own
culture from them.
Papa prefers his father-in-law who has made an impact on Papa as he supports the
whites and Catholicism. Papa teaches his children to address him as Grandfather in English
unlike the way address the other grandfather as Papa- Nnukwu in Igbo or sometimes call him
Nna- Ochie. The children are under the impression that only good people speak in English and
they are superior while the others remain in the heathen circle and are detested as they speak in
Igbo. The traditional culture of addressing the grandparents with respect in Igbo has been erased
by the converted Igbos as they find it inferior and below their dignity to talk in the Igbo
language. Kambili is bemused by the fact that the alien language and culture is able to teach the
converted Igbos to decide who should remain as their kith and kin and also makes them ashamed
and inferior to claim their traditional Igbo family members as their blood relations. Papa -
Nnukwu notes how the white man made the Nigerian’s believe that the dead man on the wooden
cross came to save the world and ironically brough in divide between their kith and kin.
Who is the person that was killed, the person that hangs on the wood
outside the mission? They said he was the son, but that the son and the
father are equal. It was then that I knew that the white man was mad. The
father and the son are equal? Tufia! Do you not see? That is why Eugene
can disregard me, because he thinks we are equal. (PH 84)
Papa Eugene feels more comfortable with the converted Igbo and the Catholic priests
than with his own father since he remains in his pagan culture worshiping idols. He gives
financial assistance to his parishioners and sets up a trust for Ade Coker’s family which creates a
permanent income for Ade’s family, he donates a huge amount of money for the Parish priest’s
quarters but fails to care for his biological father. He allows him to die in poverty because of his
refusal to convert to Catholicism. Papa Nunkwu’s voice of resistance is felt as he remains loyal
to his religion and culture is willing to give material richness in exchange for conversion.
The Igbos have interesting beliefs for example when vultures turned up to eat the guts of
animals used in sacrifices it means that the Gods are happy. Papa- Nunkwu regrets that the
vultures have lost their respect, indirectly hinting that Igbo culture has lost its prestige. He even
predicts rain and teaches his grandchildren that an angry sun brings rain. These trivial concepts
which are combined with scientific knowledge has been branded as superstitious belief by the
Europeans.
Western clothes have replaced the traditional clothes and the Nigerians and have been
introduced to make – up. Girls in teens and women are dabbing on lipsticks and heavy makeup.
Kambili was taken up so much when she sees Aunty Ifeoma’s lipstick. In Nsukka she is
introduced to Amaka’s friends who are wearing tight clothes and their lips shinning with lipstick.
Western – style attire is fashionable for attending church and going to offices remarks Falola.
(207) Kambili is dumbstruck by their miniskirts and tight clothes. Kambili feels inferior as she
wears skirts below her knee and feels out of place in the group. The traditional Nigerian clothes
are created in accordance to climatic conditions and locations they lived. The colonizers neither
understood the needs of the Nigerians nor respected the culture. They left the Nigerian in
mortification and discombobulation.
“Jaja of Opobo? Obiora asked” (PH 144) the answer to the question is given by Aunty
Ifeoma to Obiora. Aunty Ifeoma traces the Nigerian history where Opobo was a rebellious King.
When Jaja was a baby, he did not speak more than JA- JA and therefore aunty Ifeoma suggested
to Jaja’s mother that he should be called Jaja. Adichie gives importance to connections, culture
and history and thus proves that a person cannot completely eschew one’s culture. Similar to the
Jaja of Opoba who rebelled against the Whites and refused to let the British take control over the
land, the character Jaja in the novel rebels against his father. Thus, Jaja indirectly rebels against
western culture and beliefs.
The novel opens with Jaja revolting against his father and the foreign culture by skipping
Holy Communion. He begins to revolt against his father and the European beliefs and speaks out
against the religious rituals. He feels discomfortable at the church during the Eucharistic
celebration which he expresses to his father saying “And the priest keeps touching my mouth and
nauseates me” (PH 7). The blasphemous statement makes Papa very angry that he throws the
Missal at him. It can be argued that throwing the ‘Missal’ which is a holy book at Jaja is also a
sinful but Papa never acknowledges his mistake. Kambili through the incident of the Missal
attack is able to foresee the catastrophe to be encountered by the entire family.
The Eucharistic celebration recollects Jesus’s declaration at the last supper where he says
“This is my body, which is for you; do this in remembrance of me” (Mark 14:22-25). Jaja thus
by rejecting the Eucharistic celebration does not want to follow an alien religion blindly. Thus,
Jaja the modern Okonkwo revolts against the Christian religion by rejecting its rituals. He even
says “The wafer gives me bad breath” (PH 6), Jaja refers to the host which is sacred to the
Catholics. Consuming the host liberates the person from sins but for Jaja the host created a
hostile feeling. His father warns him that he will meet his death if he keeps insulting the sacred
host but Jaja declares that he would rather meet his death than to be tied down to a religion
which does not belong to them. This open revolt by Jaja leaves his father in a state of shock and
all his threats are in vain. Revival of the lost Nigerian culture can be seen in Jaja’s revolt and
rejection of the alien culture and religion. A moment of relief and liberation begins when Jaja
exhibits retaliation and rejection of a part of the European religion which ironically begins on
Palm Sunday.
The novel is divided into three namely Palm Sunday, before Palm Sunday and after Palm
Sunday. The novelist narrates the story by merging time frame with religion as Jaja’s retaliation
against the Catholic religion begins on the most significant day in the Catholic calendar. Jesus’s
arrival in Jerusalem on a colt is welcomed and celebrated by holding palm fronds on Palm
Sunday. This momentous event is celebrated before Easter when Jesus emerges victoriously by
resurrecting from death and is celebrated by the entire world. Jaja rejects the Christian religion
and he says he is willing to lay his life down. His rejections of the religion being followed by his
father proves that he wants to break free from the religion introduced by the Europeans.
Jaja’s retaliation is occasionally displayed in the novel. In yet another incident Jaja
demands Kevin, the car driver to drive Kambili and him to Nsukka. Kevin hesitates and askes
Jaja “Who will take your father to church, now?” he asked, … “Your father is not well enough to
drive himself” (PH 139). Jaja lacks concern for his sick father as he becomes insusceptible to his
father’s violence ascribed to religion. Jaja stands firm in his decision of leaving his sick father
“He said you should take us to Nsukka” (PH 139). To Jaja his father is a catholic symbol and
thus rejecting his father while he is sick is an indirect rejection of his own religion.
Papa Eugene “shouting gibberish from a severe case of malaria” (PH 13) Malaria is
caused by a parasite that infects the blood stream and makes the patient delirious. Similarly, the
colonial teachings have infected Eugene that he apes the white man and his religious policies. He
degrades the natives and rejects the traditional cultural and religious practices of Nigeria. He
embodies the white colonial rule by following their suit of being ridged, harsh, cruel, brutal,
arrogant and oppresses the family members mercilessly.
 Papa plays only English devotional songs and hymns and prefers English choir in
Churches to Igbo singing. He never gives importance to Igbo songs sung in the church as he feels
that the Igbo language is inferior. The Europeans have made the natives believe that English
language is superior. On the other hand, at Nsukka Aunty Ifeoma sings songs in Igbo during
prayer and Kambili finds it interesting and better than the English songs. She also notices her
brother Jaja tapping his feet to the Igbo songs. She feels there is a sense of belonging when songs
were sung in their native language than the foreign language.
During Christmas the Achikes visit their native village Abba where they spend time with
the natives. Eugene converses only to the converted Igbos in English and rejects the others as
they embraced the native traditions. When his children return after their visit to their grandfather
house at Abba Eugene inquires “What did you do there? Did you eat food sacrificed to idols?
Did you desecrate your Christian tongue?” (PH 38). Kambili wonders at her father’s statement
and finds it difficult to believe how a tongue can be Christian. Her continuous confusions about
her religion are distinct as she wonders during her confirmation when Papa Eugene tell her that
she is now a Christ’s bride, when actually Church is called Christ’s bride. But her confusions are
buried inside her as she does not want to ask her father questions and earn her father’s hatred.
“Some of the girls looked like brides, and I remembered my own confirmation, how Papa had
said I was a bride, Christ’s bride, and I had been surprised because I thought the Church was
Christ’s bride” (PH 144).
Kambili remains scared of her father as he expects obedience. He always expects his
children to score the first mark and pushes them beyond their capability which creates pressure
both physically and mentally for them. When they fail to meet his expectations, he inflicts
punishment on them. He quotes his own success even though raised up by a pagan father
Kambili brings home a painting of Papa- Nunkwu given to her by her cousin Amaka
when she comes back home from Nsukka, knowing that their father will strongly object to the
painting of a heathen in his house. As anticipated Kambili’s father discovers the painting and
snatches it from her hands. He tears up the picture and Kambili stoops down and tries to pick up
the pieces. To her the picture symbolizes Nigerian culture which is now fragmented and will
never be in the same again. The violence inflicted upon her by her father mercilessly parallels to
the Britisher who were stubborn in erasing the native culture using violence.
Simultaneously Kambili begins her retaliation in trying to protect her roots. Kambili
shows her retaliation by trying to salvage the bits of paper that held the drawing of her
grandfather. Achebe writes in his book the Arrow of God the man who has never submitted to
anything will soon submit to the burial mat (Achebe 11) similarly Papa Eugene who is an
absolutist and a patriarchal in his outlook, earns hatred of his family which ultimately leads to his
death.
She gets violently stamped almost to death by her father for protecting her grandfather’s
painting. This mirrors the colonial influence on Nigeria. The colonized were stubborn and
irrational in thinking and Papa is no exception, his Catholicism fanaticism has no limits.
Ritualized abuse and violence are the ultimate result when the children want to run back to their
roots. The Priests are aware of the violent happenings in the Achikes household and yet choose
to remain silent and fails to check Papa Eugene’s actions as they are in need of Eugene’s
financial support.
A deceased Igbo is buried with expensive and elaborate Igbo rites. When an Igbo fails to
receive a proper funeral, it is believed that the dead reincarnates and dies as an infant as it can
never be happy on earth or life in the beyond. And it also said that the dead will torment his/her
family until proper funeral rites are performed. Any relative can sponsor funeral rites on the Igbo
land. In Things Fall Apart, Achebe outlines the belief of the infant’s reincarnation through
Okonkwo’s second wife.
The funeral ceremony is a solemn one which later turns almost like a festive celebration.
Cows are slaughtered (the number of cows bought depends on the Social Status of the deceased)
drinks are served, Kola nuts are broken and exchanged. Masquerade and dancers are invited for
traditional performances. Coco- yams, yams and other traditional food are cooked. Papa Eugene
detests all the Igbo funeral rituals as he is a catholic, he in fact refers to the rituals as ‘pagan
funerals’ and goes on to say how expensive they are. “The pagan funerals are expensive’ (PH
198). Papa Eugene sponsors the entire funeral ritual of his father Papa- Nnukwu but stays away
from it. A cow, goat and a god of stone and more are bought for the funeral. It is so visible that
only he keeps cribbing about the funeral while the family watch him silently. Papa Eugene has
forgotten his roots or rather the alien religion has squashed the Igbo culture and victory over the
natives detesting their own kith and kin. “The death of a person is just an excuse for heathens to
feast” (PH 198).
The novel Half of a Yellow Sun set against religious civil war background rings out the
religious clashes between the Muslim in the North and the Christian Igbos and the Yoruba in the
south. This external conflict causes a vast damage destroying numerous lives. The killing of
converted Igbos by the Muslims was bloody and horrible. Innocent children became victims of
the war. They were kidnapped and killed and in the case of women and girls they were raped and
killed.
The Muslims in the process of undoing the colonial impact on the Nigerians involve
themselves in violence. The split in Olanna and the Hausa Prince Mohammad’s relationship
develops from this ethnic difference. Mohammad’s mother is keen on Olanna not marrying her
son. Thus, when the relationship breaks Mohammad’s mother is at peace. Olanna leaves
Mohammad for her revolutionary lover and not on the account of religion. Mohammad’s love for
Olanna remains unaltered which is evident from his actions at Kano.
When religious riots break out at Kano it is Mohammad who saves Olanna from being
killed by the Muslims. He protects her from the religious strife in which the Igbos were
slaughtered mercilessly. Not everyone is cruel but in the name of religion people were killed and
thus the land loses its harmony. Since Olanna is his ex-girl -friend, he saves her but does not
extend his helping hand to rest of people who are killed brutally by the Muslims.
Olanna watches the ghastly killings and becomes paralyzed temporarily unable to
overcome the deadly scenes that she witnesses during her return from Kano. The entire train is
filled with injured people and blood is smeared all over the railings. She pictures her uncle and
aunt killed in the religious riots. Most importantly she is unable to overcome her pregnant cousin
Arize who is raped and murdered by the enemies. Family and friends visit Olanna to check on
her and discuss the evil doings of the Muslim Hausas who instigates hatred and violence and
massacre Christians. “when friends and relatives came by to say ndo —sorry—and to shake their
heads and mutter about the evils of those Muslim Hausa people, those black-as-he-goats
Northerners, those dirty cattle rearers with jigger-infested feet” (HYS 114).
Starvation and air raids make the civilians live a miserable life. People and children die of
starvation. Air- raids are terrible and people are unsure of their lives. The other countries remain
silent including the British who were the root cause for the Nigerians miseries. The Caritas who
are basically Christians come in to aid the Nigerians and supply food at the relief centres. Mrs.
Mokelu urges Olanna to wear the Rosary as the Caritas were Christians and therefore might
show more consideration towards her. Catholicism takes deep roots in Nigeria and most of the
Igbos were converted into Catholicism. During the Biafran war The Red Cross offered help to
the helpless Nigerians.
The novel Half of a Yellow Sun begins with Olanna attending Vincent de Paul Society to
please her revolutionary lover. She becomes the Secretary of Vincent de Paul Society and thus
dedicates her time and visits villages to donate food and clothes. Catholicism flourished as
Nigeria was in a mess with Political upheaval. Thus, Catholicism took advantage of the poverty
that prevailed in Nigeria and it was easy to convert them as they needed food and clothes more
than the religion to which they belonged.
There is an upsurge in Muslim – Christian hate violence as the Muslims in north are
threatened by the Christians. Adichie captures the rawness of the horrifying killing in the airport
which is witnessed by Richard where the Igbos are shot dead by the soldiers. The soldiers
demand the passengers to recite “Allahu Akkabar” and those who have an Igbo accent or failed
to recite are immediately shot dead. Richard’s companion Nnaemeka an Igbo picks up a
conversation with Richard at the airport is killed brutally by the soldiers as he refuses to say
“Allahu Akkabar” as his accent might give him away. “the rifle went off and Nnaemeka’s chest
blew open, a splattering red mass” (HYS 111).
Through the character Olanna the author draws out the dissatisfaction and unhappiness
which has been brought in by the alien religion. Odenigbo’s relationship with Amala infuriates
Olanna and she is unable to get over the feeling of betrayal. Therefore, she goes to meet Father
Damien for consolation but gets nothing in return. He makes her feel guilty and accuses her for
not attending the Sunday Mass. Father Damien represents the European Colonial rulers as the
colonial rule made the natives feel inferior like Nugugi writes in his Decolonising the Mind.
Father Damien is fully aware that Olanna is not at fault but the priest turns the entire situation
against her and motivates her to pray more and visit the church often. Olanna in her anger stares
at the crucifix hanging on the wall and walks away. The inefficiency of Olanna to do anything
about the situation is parallel to the Nigerians whose lives remains distorted after colonialism.
The catholic priest Father Marcel indulges in the most disgraceful act of harassing young
children sexually. Every young girl who comes begging for food is left impregnated by Father
Marcel. Father Marcel who is in a respectable position, is supposed to protect girls but he is
antithetical in his deeds. Catholicism teaches priests to be honest and to give up worldly
pleasures. Whereas in the novel Purple Hibiscus, Papa Eugene teaches his family to look up on
the priest with dignity and honour as they are the representatives of God. Papa Eugene physically
abuses his wife so badly that her baby gets aborted, for refusing to get down from the car and
greet the priest. The converted Igbos trust and believe in Catholicism and its teaching. They
believe so blindly that they never question the actions of the priests. It can be argued that this
blind faith is being debated by the native Igbos.
In missiology the term inculturation means catholic teachings influence the non-
Christians culture and practices. The Christian teachings share the concept of breaking the Kola
nut and palm wine as it acts as an auxiliary to host and wine for sanctification during Eucharistic
ceremony. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s novel Half of a Yellow Sun, also features the phrase:
“He who brings the Kola nut brings life” (HYS 164), Richard is welcomed with the Kola nut by
the deceased boy Nneaemeka’s family in the village. The boy’s father instructs Richard as he
leaves the house to carry one half of the Kola Nut as it would protect him while traveling. Kola
nut is a powerful cultural symbol especially among the Igbos. During festive occasions the Kola
nut is broken by the eldest in the clan and is offered to the other members of the group. The
Christian influence interfering in the traditional practice is much evident from Nneaemeka’s
father breaking the Kola nut by asking Jesus to bless the Kola nut.
The author does not fail to integrate the traditional symbol the tortoise which is a
recurring symbol in Nigeria. Kainene receives a Tortoise as a gift for one Christmas from her
friend Madu. The younger generation lacks the concept of the traditional symbol and hence
Kainene finds the tortoise as the strangest present that one can receive. The author indicates that
the folklore is no more in use and it is much visible that the death of folklore and the fading away
of culture is inevitable. Kainene does not much care for the tortoise as a gift nor can she
understand the that the Nigerian Culture is fading away.
Traditional Nigerian beliefs such as witch craft, warding off evil spirits, Magic, Witch
hunting, local spirits and sorcery have existed from the time humans have come to live on earth.
Adichie incorporates a few traditional beliefs in her novels. Igbos dread birth of twins as they are
considered to be an ill omen and believes that they have powers to destroy the land. Olanna and
Kainene are twins brought up in an elite family with good education. Olanna is detested by
Odenigbo’s mother who calls her witch and an abnormal woman as she traces back, the Igbo
belief where twins are not welcomed. Therefore, she refutes marriage between Odenigbo and
Olanna. Odenigbo mother says to Ugwu “She has used her witchcraft to hold him” (HYS 71)
Toyin Falola indicates “the modernization in education, medicine, and social structure
has undermined many aspects of Indigenous religions” (207). Dibia or the medicine man is
featured in Adichie’s novels which is an age-old practice of making medicines and to heal the
sick they also practice healing witchcraft. The Dibia protects people from diseases and they are
also considered as spiritual healers. As the Missionaries stepped in to Nigeria, they set up
hospitals which is readily accepted by the converted Igbos. Thus, a friction arose between the
Dibias and the Christian Missionaries as the Missionary hospitals were favoured by the
Nigerians.
Odenigbo’s mother swears to visit a Dibia as she believes that Olanna made use of a spell
to capture her son. In order to undo the spell, she needs to visit a dibia and informs Ugwu that
she will definitely visit the dibia. “I will not let this witch control him. She will not succeed. I
will consult the dibia Nwafor Agbada when I return home; the man’s medicine is famous in our
parts” (HYS 98).
Ugwu is frightened of Odenigbo’s mother who with the help of the dibia might tie up
Olanna’s stomach and she might not bear child. He strongly believes in this age-old concept as
put forth by his ancestors and family have also believed in this superstitious idea.
Ugwu stopped. He knew many stories of people who had used medicine from the
dibia: the childless first wife who tied up the second wife’s womb, the woman
who made a neighbour’s prosperous son go mad, the man who killed his brother
because of a land quarrel. Perhaps Master’s mother would tie up Olanna’s womb
or cripple her or, most frightening of all, kill her. (HYS 72)
Odenigbo’s mother banishes Olanna from the house and sends Amala to sleep with her
son. Ugwu is able to sense her craftiness and is sure that she has visited the dibia who has given
her a bad medicine and even sees which he considers to be a black cat cross. be a bad omen. He
informs Olanna about the dibia as he believes that his master has been tricked by his mother’s
craftiness. Meanwhile Olanna does not have faith in dibia and witch craft as her western
education has taught her not to believe in such superstitious ideas.
The negative impact of Colonialism is conspicuous with Harrison rejecting his own
Dibias. When Richard is in Nigeria, he is in need of medical assistance therefore he seeks
Harrison’s advice but Harrison discourages him asking him to visit a Medical Centre. He further
degrades his own culture by calling the dibia a witch doctor and says that they are devilish.
Richard regrets for asking Harrison who is dead against his own culture and shows extreme love
for the things that are not Nigerian. Harrison is an example of a Nigerian who unconsciously lost
his own cultural identity.
Richard, Ugwu and Harrison once visit a village to check on the Masquerades. Harrison
and Ugwu are reluctant to answer Richard’s questions pertaining to this native festival. Richard
being a white exhibits a lot of curiosity in Nigerian culture while the natives like Ugwu and
Harrison detest their own culture and are not interested in preserving it. Harrison is one of the
Nigerians who has become a victim of colonization. The colonizers have altered the Nigerian’s
thinking pattern to believe that their own culture is inferior.
The traditional roped pot captures the attention of Richard the white journalist. Richard
wants to write about the roped pot and therefore he visits Igbo- Ukwu and asks Emeka Anozie
about the bronze metal found in the soil. Anozie takes a lot of pride in explaining the discovery
of the bronze metal by the villagers who preserved the treasures which they had found. They
built a well and life went on smoothly until the Europeans invaded and found out the value of the
metal. The British wanted them to evacuate the land on which the well and the goat house stood.
After a long discussion they cleared the goat house and started digging and found valuable
things: shells, snake images, many ornaments used by women to decorate themselves and
calabashes and even a burial chamber. The intrusion of the British helped to expose the culture
of ancient Igbo and its complexity and beauty that existed at the time of Alfred the great.
Anozie explains that the Igbo people do not have Kings but only gods and goddesses.
Anozie enlightens Richard that the Igbos are an ancient republican tribe that has existed for more
than thousand years. Richard plans to write a novel in which the protagonist is to portray as an
archaeologist digging for bronze and will be transcended into the past. The Igbo culture is an
exquisite culture that attracts people from all over the world and is also the reason why Richard
chooses Nigeria’s culture as the subject of his novel.
Sacrificing animals or chu anu na mmuo as the Igbos call it is practiced widely in
Nigeria. This ritual sacrifice slowly started to lose its essence with the western influence and
education. Special Julius a converted Igbo witnesses the villagers sacrifice a whole goat for their
god as they believe that the God will protect them from the vandals. Special Julius resembles the
character Eugene from the novel Purple Hibiscus who takes pleasure in degrading their own
culture and failed to support their native religious practices.
Adichie’s novel Americanah begins with the protagonist seated in a braiding Saloon
waiting for her hair to be braided. Traditional Nigerian hair styles are attractive because of their
powerful emotional content and beautiful, abstract design principles. Their bare essentials of
line, shape, texture and pattern can be considered an aspect of industrial art or design. Hundreds
of distinct cultures in Nigeria create over one thousand different hair styles according to their
environmental and cultural heritage. Faturoti a sculptor points out that in some of our industrial
arts; graphic, textile, and ceramic designs; and carvings in museums and shrines, designers and
artists paid more attention to the head than any part of the body (Faturoti 1990, 127-30).
Nigerian women traditionally braid their hair which is practiced from childhood. The
practice of braiding hair is an ancient one and there are more than thousands of hair styles.
Nigerian women take pride in braiding their hair and above all hairdressing as a vocation holds
respect in the society. In Nigerian culture women who have long hair are considered more
attractive than women who have short hair. Braiding of hair is an extensive process which takes
a long duration, sometimes even up to six hours to be completed. Hair styles vary according to
the events and festivals in Nigeria. Hair has been important part of identity for Africans and
especially for the African immigrants in America. Most of the Nigerian writers employ braiding
of hair as a recurrent symbol of culture in their novels. In Nigeria, hair styling is an art form that
begins from birth. Nigerian hair styles use principles of art and design, including curves, zigzags,
horizontals, perpendiculars and straight lines (Oladumiye, Adiji, and Olabiyi 2013, 96-98).
As an American immigrant the protagonist of the novel, Ifemelu faces a lot of challenges
and it is demanded of her to conform to the American standard of beauty. Culture of braiding
hair is also seen in America. Ifemelu wants to take up a job, and hence to look professional she
visits a saloon and applies relaxers to straighten her hair. Although Ifemelu despises the new
look she is happy that she is able to get a job. The burning smell of her syringing hair at the
saloon while straightening her hair symbolically represents burning of her cultural identity and
her independence. This act is similar to her mother who cuts her hair and burns it for the sake of
religion. “She left the salon almost mournfully; while the hair-dresser had flat-ironed the ends,
the smell of burning, of something organic dying which should not have died, had made her feel
a sense of loss” (AM 251).
Self- hate is predominant in America as the American Cultural standards have pushed the
Africans to hate themselves. For three days Ifemelu does not attend work as she is in the process
of reviving her hair which suffered chemical damage. When she returns her co-workers tell her
that she looks different and she is not sure of her new look. In the cafeteria Miss Margret, the
woman presiding over the counter, an African American is stunned at her new look asks her if
she has cut her hair because she is a lesbian. African – American women are the descendants of
the Africans who were brought to America as slaves and hence they are born and brought up in
America. Therefore, they believe themselves to be Americans and imitate the whites whereas
Ifemelu is an American – African who has immigrated to America and undergoes a temporary
attraction to imitating the whites but later she realizes that it is a mirage and takes pride in her
origin.
In the novel Americanah Ifemelu’s blog “HappilyKinkyNappy.com” gains a lot of black
women followers who are very proud of their natural hair. She is once insulted when a black man
asks her whether she has ever reflected why a white man Curt is attracted to her with her jungle
hair. She is unable to understand that men of her own black community insult black women’s
hair. HappilyKinkyNappy.com helps Ifemelu to fall in love with her hair as she is able to
converse with other black women who shared similar feelings.
Ifemelu is reminded of Jamilah’s post where she states that she liked the straight waves
of “will never (put) horse hair on my head again” (Am 213). Her words made her remember that
there is nothing more gorgeous than what God has given her. “Jamilah’s words made me
remember that there is nothing more beautifully than what God gave me” (Am213).
Straightening hair has been a fashion on and off back in Nigeria for Ifemelu where Aunty
Uju would heat the comb red and would pull her hair. Ifemelu proudly shows her keloid, a tiny
enlarged swelling behind her ear and all this was done for the prospect of straight swingy hair.
In Americanah the protagonist, Ifemelu experiences culture shock combined with racism
and sexism. Her decision to pursue her higher studies in America displays her readiness in
wanting to explore life in America. During her stay in America, she encounters a lot of issues
that makes her question her own identity. Ifemelu is stuck in limbo where she is conscious of her
assimilating into the new culture while still holding on to her roots- Nigeria. On many occasions
Ifemelu imitates the new culture. Ifemelu begins putting up an American accent when she speaks
in English that she had imbibed from her friends. She imitates them and starts to put on a fake
accent when she speaks to the Americans and the African- Americans. When she speaks over the
phone to an American who tells her “Wow, Cool. You totally sound American” (AM 175) like if
otherwise he would have hung up. Ifemelu feels bad for being crafty in getting out those words
from his mouth. Her inner conflict rises inside her from wanting to break the American accent
that she keeps unconsciously using and her compulsion from wanting to stop faking accent.
Similarly, she tries to straighten her hair which becomes a complete disaster leading her
to dislike her own hair. Raine, one of the participants in Banks’s study, agrees with this position,
and explains how ideas about “good hair” and “bad hair” articulate with ideas about skin color:
Blacks are judged by their hair. I think basically the long, straight hair people are more
favorable. Hair discrimination is discussed by Adichie in Americanah. “The verve was gone. She
did not recognize herself. She left the salon almost mournfully; while the hairdresser had flat-
ironed the ends, the smell of burning, of something organic dying which should not have died,
had made her feel a sense of loss.” (AM 203). Ifemelu posts her blog “A Michelle Obama Shout-
Out Plus Hair as Race Metaphor,” writing the following statement: “Some black women […]
would rather run naked in the street than come out in public with their natural hair. Because, you
see, it’s not professional, sophisticated, whatever, it’s just not damn normal” (AM 297).
When Ifemelu goes to America, Kimberly explains how they do not use Frankenfood and
even if there is less food, they use only organic food. The term Frankenfood is a negative slang
for genetically modified food. Ifemelu also tries American food —the McDonald’s hamburgers
with the brief tart crunch of pickles, a new taste that she liked on one day and disliked the
next…” (Adichie HYS113).
While polygamy is still a common practice in Nigeria, monogamous marriage is also
customary, particularly among Christians and the educated elite. Ifemelu wanting Obinze back
even though raised up in Christian religion does not mind stealing him from his wife which
shows that the Igbos are basically in conflict with their own culture and religion. They practice
polygamy like their ancestors while rooting themselves in Christianity forgetting the teachings of
their religion. The Nigerians completely muddle Religion and Culture thus leading to an inner
moral conflict. On the contrary in Purple Hibiscus Papa Eugene prefers monogamy even though
he is advised to take another wife as Beatrice is unable to conceive again.
Religion and Hair plays a huge significant role in Americanah. Ifemelu does not have
keen interest in religion. She knows deep inside that she can bank on her mother’s prayers. Her
mother’s deep-rooted faith in Catholicism takes an alteration as the Pentecostal churches
mushroom. One of Mama’s friends Mrs. Ojo introduces her to the Bible- Believing Church. The
church ministers them to throw away their faith in Catholicism and its rituals and believe only in
the Word of God and also has an impinge upon Ifemelu’s mother.
When Ifemelu’s mother is made to believe that the Bible is the only way to reach God
she renounces the materialistic world. She chops of her long, thick black hair and stuffs it in a
bag. She removes all the religious relics and symbols of Catholicism and burns everything in the
fire. It can be rightly analysed that the Europeans have totally left the land destroyed. The
Nigeria at no time can go back to the happy Pre- colonial years where people lived in harmony.
The Nigerians thus remain in a constant state of confusion with their identity.
Adichie traces the fragile religious beliefs of the Nigerians. It is easy for anyone to brain
wash the Nigerian’s and very simple to convert them into another religious sects. The Europeans
did need much effort to convert the Nigerians as they easily fell prey to the Europeans’ trap. In
the novel Things Fall Apart, the staunch Traditionalists Okonkwo’s son converts into
Christianity as he does not like his father’s violence. His family is left in shambles especially
Okonkwo who gets devasted by his son’s behaviour is similar to Papa Eugene. In comparison,
Okonkwo fights to preserve the native culture while Papa Eugene is trying to save Christianity in
Africa. The alien religion destroyed the land completely and left the converted natives wavering
and confused. Ifemelu’s mother is an example of this concept of jumping from one church to
another.
Ifemelu’s mother is found wavering in her faith leaving herself confused and unhappy.
She also leaves her family unattended as she is occupied with the scriptures. Most of the days she
fasts and prays particularly for her husband to convert to her belief. She gets visions and turns
hyper and commands everyone to pray although she is aware of the fact that neither her husband
nor Ifemelu seemed to be interested. She verbally abuses those who ask her to stop fasting as
devils. The similar effect is felt while reading the novel Under the Udala Trees by Chinelo
Okparanta. The protagonist Ijeoma’s mother forces her daughter to read the Bible every day
which she secretly detests. Ijeoma is awestruck by her mother’s blind faith in the new alien
religion. Ijeoma, Ifeoma and Kambili share almost similar feelings of the new alien religion but
out of fear never confronted their parents’ faith openly.
Ifemelu’s mother witnesses a lot of visions and in each vision, she gets a revelation of the
crimes indulged by the pastors in the church that she practiced her faith. Therefore, she keeps
moving from one church to another dissatisfied by the behaviour of the pastors. The visions
actually prove that the pastors are stealing money in the name of Jesus. Ifemelu accompanies her
mother once to her church where she is able to sense the priest’s craftiness. The pastors in the
church instigate the emotions of the people and ask them to make their God rich. Ironically
nowhere does the Bible speak of making God rich. In fact, Jesus himself was born in a manger
devoid of luxury and riches.
The priests make the Bible flexible according to their needs and wants. While the
common people remain aloof of this unethical business being organized under Jesus’s name.
They carefully loot the people’s money taking advantage of their emotional weaknesses. Papa
Eugene also writes an exorbitant cheque to build the priest’s quarters. Papa Eugene is annoyed
that at one Sunday Mass. the entire sermon is dedicated for raising funds for the quarters to be
built for the parish priest. The priest ignores the holy scriptures and is more focused on his
personal needs. Papa Eugene believes that the Africans unlike the whites were keener on making
money rather being spiritual. Papa Eugene ironically trusts the whites and believe that they are
more spiritual but fails to recall the fact that the whites exploited their land.
Papa wrote a check and handed it to the usher, telling her he did not want to make
a speech. When the M.C. announced the amount, the priest got up and started to
dance, jerking his behind this way and that, and the crowd rose up and cheered so
loudly it was like the rumblings (PH 50).
It happens that there is discrimination inside the church which is evident in the novel
Purple Hibiscus. People who contribute more donations are allotted the first bench in the church,
while the poor have to sit behind. Even Papa Eugene takes pride that his assigned the first row in
the Church. He feels that he is seated next to God and that his violent domestic behaviour
justified.
On the contrary, Father Amadi is a dedicated priest who shows concern for everyone
without partiality. He participates in the Mass with power packed sermons and Igbo singing thus
accommodates everyone and makes everyone feel comfortable. Kambili feels drawn close to him
for his caring nature. His positive attitude thus makes her fall in love with him. His action
teaches Kambili that Catholicism is being misused by many priests for the sake of money.
The never-ending religious intolerance in Nigeria has resulted in relentless violence.
There is a spike in the conflict between the Muslims and Christians from the day Nigeria gained
Independence. The persistent conflict between the two religions leads to the indelible Nigerian
Civil War. The Christian communities especially the Igbo Catholics, Catholics in the north and
the Yoruba have become regular targets of the Muslims.