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RELIABILITY TEST OF A 1-kW PULSE TUBE CRYOCOOLER FOR

HTS CABLE APPLICATION

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RELIABILITY TEST OF A 1-kW PULSE TUBE
CRYOCOOLER FOR HTS CABLE APPLICATION

R.-L. Chen, G.W. Henzler, J.H. Royal, and J.F. Billingham

Praxair, Inc.
Tonawanda, NY, 14150, USA

ABSTRACT

The recent progress of a large Stirling-type pulse tube cryocooler is reported based on
24/7 operation since August 2008 in a high temperature superconducting (HTS) cable
application at American Electric Power’s (AEP) Bixby Road substation in Columbus, OH.
The 20-kW pressure wave generator (PWG) has been upgraded to a second generation
design. The in-line configured pulse tube coldhead, rated at 1 kW at 77 K, was developed
by Praxair.
The objective of the continued testing at the HTS cable demonstration facility is to
accumulate cryocooler operating hours and demonstrate system reliability. The cryocooler
uses a parallel flow from the main vacuum subcooling refrigerator then both flows are
supplied to the HTS cable inlet. The cryocooler operation has shown consistent results
with satisfactory cooling performance. The field demonstrated thermodynamic efficiency is
15 % of Carnot at 72 K.

KEY WORDS: HTS, pulse tube cryocooler, vacuum subcooler, PWG, VFD, liquid
nitrogen, regenerator, impedance, reliability.

INTRODUCTION

Praxair, Inc. partnered with Ultera, a joint venture of Southwire Company and NKT
Cables, to supply a refrigeration system for the Bixby Road HTS cable project. This
project was partially funded by the US Department of Energy. The refrigeration system
came on-line in August 2006 and incorporated an option to accommodate two 1-kW
pulse tube cryocoolers to share the refrigeration load. Two such pulse tube cryocoolers
based on a 20-kW PWG (model 2s362W-heavy) driver, manufactured by CFIC-Qdrive,
whichCREDIT LINEtwo
incorporate (BELOW) TO 10-kW
opposing BE INSERTED ON THE
linear motors FIRST
with PAGE
pistons wereOFsuccessfully
EACH
developed andPAPER EXCEPT
tested at the FOR ARTICLES
Praxair ON pp.
technology 18–25,
center [1].26–33, 68–75,
The cryocoolers were
121–127, 136–142, 207–214, 246–253, 355–362, 388–395, 499– 506, 507–514,
deployed at the Bixby site in December 2007 and January 2008, respectively. Both of the
609–614, 780–787, 796–803, 804–811, 905–912, 1291–1300, 1301–1308,
1369–1376, 1581–1592, 1593–1600, and 1647–1651

CP1218, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering: Transactions of the

Cryogenic Engineering Conference - CEC, Vol. 55, edited by J. G. Weisend II
© 2010 American Institute of Physics 0-7354-0761-9/10/$30.00

727
pulse tube cryocoolers suffered from electrical faults in the PWG around the middle of
January. Coincidentally, one regenerator was also mechanically damaged sometime
during normal operation. With the availability of the improved second generation PWG
model, Praxair assembled a complete pulse tube cryocooler, tested it, and deployed it at
Bixby in August 2008, two years after the vacuum-based subcooled system was first
energized. This unit has been running ever since without any major concerns and has
accrued over 7,000 sustained operating hours. This is greater than the mean time to
failure (MTTF) reported for a piston Stirling cryocooler of 4,000 hours, or half a year
[2].
The pulse tube cryocooler is integrated in a refrigeration system for HTS cable
cooling. The primary reliability concerns for the cryocooler are the PWG driver and the
regenerator. For the PWG driver, the objective is to sustain tens of thousand of hours in
continuous operation without failure, structural degradation, and scheduled maintenance.
For the regenerator, it is to maintain its structural integrity and consistent performance
over time. Contamination and streaming are also subjects to be investigated for the effect
on cooling performance in long-term service. The system provides a true platform for
testing the cooling capacity of the pulse tube cryocooler with realistic heat loads.
The contents of this study start with a description of the vacuum-based refrigeration
system and the pulse tube cryocooler, followed by results from reliability field tests and
performance characterization. The performance is gauged by cooling power and
efficiency at various liquid nitrogen (LN2) flows and power inputs. Discussions are
interspersed throughout the sections.

THE HYBRID CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

The current Praxair subcooled LN2 refrigeration system uses a combination of a

vacuum-based subcooler and a pulse tube cryocooler to continuously circulate
refrigerated LN2 at a specified flow rate, temperature, and pressure for HTS cable
cooling. A simplified schematic of the main LN2 circulation loop is shown in Figure 1,
ignoring other auxiliary open-loop components such as main and backup LN2 tanks and
feed separator.
The circulating separator acts as the “hub” in the system by communicating with
other main components and controlling system LN2 levels and pressure at a specified
range. LN2 departs from the circulating separator to the inlet of a cryopump. The flow is
split into two parallel paths: one through the vacuum subcooler and the other through the
pulse tube cryocooler. The two streams then join before supplying the HTS cable. The
LN2 flows through both the former and annulus in the same direction cooling the HTS
cable which carries up to 69 MVA of power at 13.2 kV. The LN2 streams in the vacuum-
subcooler loop and pulse tube loop are set with the majority of cooling provided by the
vacuum subcooler. As LN2 flows through the tube side of the vacuum subcooler heat
exchanger it is subcooled by the LN2 which is maintained at a low pressure on the shell
side at about 20.7 kPa. On the cryocooler side, LN2 flows through the shell side of the
shell-and-tube cold heat exchanger (CHX) and is subcooled by the tube-side helium
oscillating inside the coldhead. The cryocooler has a charge pressure of 3,068 ± 35 kPa
and an acoustic pressure ratio of above 10% before the aftercooler. The processing side
in the cryocooler carries LN2 at a fraction of the averaged total flow of 460 cm3/s at 621
and 572 kPa at the cable inlet and exit, respectively, with a temperature differential of ~2

728
 Vent

Circulating
200m HTS Cable
Separator

Process
Heater Vacuum Pump

HTS 1G tape

Vacuum
Separator/
Subcooler

Cryogenic
Pump Pulse Tube
Cryocooler

FIGURE 1. Main circulation loop of the vacuum/pulse-tube sub-cooling system schematic, showing the
major components. The inset shows a cutaway view of the HTS cable (photo courtesy of Southwire
Company) and its LN2 cryostat.

K (~71 K and 73 K) across the HTS cable. The nitrogen vapor generated on the cold side
of the vacuum subcooler is heated and vented out of the system upon providing
refrigeration. The current averaged LN2 consumption rate for the open-loop refrigeration
system is 63 cm3/s with the majority of which being boiled off to provide the needed
refrigeration load of 5 kW, with some for instrument gas and purging. The flow rate in
the cryocooler stream is controlled by a downstream valve and varies between 49 to 73
cm3/s with a hot-side temperature at about 82 K, three degrees higher than that going into
vacuum subcooler, due to a longer heat path.

THE PULSE TUBE CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATOR

Pulse tube cryocoolers are known for their high reliability, low cost, low
vibration, low noise and competitive thermodynamic efficiencies. The current installed
pulse tube cryocooler has an in-line configuration and consists of, from bottom to top
• a 20-kW PWG with a phase-shift anti-drift tube for piston drift control, a motor
cooling loop on both of the end bells, a transfer tube to bridge the impedance
between the PWG and coldhead, an aftercooler to remove heat at the
regenerator hot side
• a vacuum can containing a regenerator, a cold heat exchanger, and a pulse tube
• a warm heat exchanger
• a variable impedance network [3]. This acoustic network is equivalent to an
electric RLC circuit to adjust the phasing between acoustic pressure and
velocity for high performance.
The cryocooler skid shown in Figure 2 illustrates the components relationship.

729
 An Allen-Bradley industrial variable frequency drive (VFD) is used to provide
electric input to the PWG up to 20 kW. The electric-to-acoustic efficiency of the PWG
was calculated by measuring the acoustic power produced in the compression space,
knowing the piston-pressure phasing and electric input. The result compared fairly well
with that extracted from an energy-balance calculation, of 72−74%. The length of the
transfer tube, which is additional to the attached volume on the PWG, was determined in
DeltaEC [4] for a retrospective impedance match between the 2nd generation PWG and a
previously deployed coldhead, to maximize the electric input and cooling power within
nominal current limit of 40 amperes per side. The 5-meter long anti-drift tube creates
some out-of-phase acoustic pressure component to reduce piston drift. DeltaEC was also
used to anticipate the performance of the as-built cryocooler. Most parts in the pulse tube
cryocooler can be reasonably described in the model, including the shell-in-tube heat
exchangers. Exceptions include the valve control in the inertance tube and obtaining an
accurate temperature profile in some of the components, e.g., inertance tube and
compliance tank. The complex impedance resulting from the impedance valve is
determined by comparing the measured pressure phasing with that in DeltaEC model.
Figure 2 (bottom right) shows a measured acoustic pressure phasing at various valve
angle settings compared with DeltaEC. The real and imaginary parts of impedance in the
model were adjusted to match with that of the valve at a given angle. Five pressure
sensors were installed at locations as indicated to extract acoustic pressure amplitude and
phasing, also to estimate the effectiveness of the regenerator and pulse tube [5].

Front p2 Aftercooler Warm HX

Volume Pulse Tube

PWG

p3 p4 p5
p1 CHX Inertance
Transfer Compliance
Back Tube Tube Volume
Volume Regenerator

Th

Tc
θ - Acoustic Pressure

0
0
-50 15
25
-100 35
45
55
-150
DeltaE
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Pressure Sensor Location

FIGURE 2. (Left) The pulse-tube cryocooler on a skid fully instrumented for in-lab measurements. (Top
right) Schematic of the in-line pulse tube cryocooler with five pressure sensors; and temperature profile in the
coldhead. (Bottom right) Measured and modeled phase angles of acoustic pressure in the system relative to
location #3.

730
 As a part of the open-loop refrigeration system, the cryocooler exhibits some time-
dependent fluctuations in performance as a result of variations in input. These include
variations in conditions of the inlet LN2, the input power to the PWG, and the inlet
temperature in the chiller coolant, a mixture of 50/50 water and ethylene glycol. The
presented results are therefore averaged data from measurements of several hours
duration minimum. The fluctuation in input power also depends on the internal
conditions within the cryocooler, such as helium temperature, charge pressure, and
coldhead activities.

RELIABILITY TEST

Since August 2008 the pulse tube cryocooler unit has been on-line and providing
partial cooling for Bixby substation HTS cable. As aforementioned, the emphasis of the
reliability tests is on the critical components: PWG and regenerator. The conditions of the
PWG driver are monitored through its internal motor temperatures, vibration level, piston
drift, and input current and power. The system has several built-in protections to prevent
catastrophic failure, for example, fault current, over-vibration, and over-temperature
shutdown at certain set limits. The mechanical integrity of the regenerator is relevant in the
context of reliability as it is expected to sustain performance throughout continuous
operation. The regenerator shell was fitted with eight E-type thermocouples to monitor the
regenerator performance. In conjunction with the temperatures on the pulse tube and the
internal acoustic pressures, these allow the estimation of the effectiveness of the pulse tube
and regenerator in producing cooling i.e., the figure of merit (FOM) of the pulse tube and
losses in both components in additional to predictable heat losses, a subject for further
investigation in the future.
To date, we have not encountered any major problems with the pulse-tube cryocooler
system except for a malfunctioning VFD which caused an electrical fault and had to be
replaced. There were several shutdowns related to system protections, including erroneous
Temperature, K Temperature, K

June 21-24 2009 CHX Temperatures

90
80
70
60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time, hours
∆T across CHX
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time, hours

FIGURE 3. The hot-side and cold-side temperatures in the CHX (top); and ∆T across CHX (bottom). The
3
averaged ∆T excluding the fluctuations is 8.9 K. With a flow rate of 54 cm /s at 72 K, the cooling power is
calculated as 840 W±5%. The input power was running at 90%, or 18.0 kW.

731
thermocouple readings, loss of helium charge pressure due to leaking pressure relief valves,
a loose electrical wire, and a faulty vibration sensor that triggered shutdowns. These minor
problems were identified during the first few months and were readily resolved and
manageable on transition to a commercial system. Degradation in cooling performance was
once observed due mostly to contamination of possibly condensable gases, given the
somewhat cyclic nature in the cold-side temperature, and internal streamings. The
contamination issue can mostly be reversed by purging the system though it requires
shutdown and purging. The contamination could come from trapped air during the periodic
refills from a leaking pressure relief valve, vacuum oil vapor, or PWG particulates, e.g.,
piston polymer seal dusts. It is unclear the extent of any non-reversible contamination or
degradation in the regenerator but the cooling performance has been somewhat consistent
within system fluctuations. Figure 3 shows a typical result from a 100-hour run at a 90%
power input. The LN2 enters the CHX at a temperature of about 81 to 82 K and is cooled to
70−72 K with a temperature differential of greater than 10 K and input power below 19.5
kW. The cold-side temperature is on par with that in the vacuum subcooler.
It is apparent from Figure 3 that there are periodic temperature fluctuations in the
inlet nitrogen temperature. It is also noticed that the temperature fluctuation is partially
absorbed by the cryocooler CHX. This is an indication that the cryocooler is capable to
cool a greater heat load at a higher cold-side temperature. The fluctuation derives from the
subcooled LN2 in the circulating separator receiving warmer make-up LN2 from the supply
tank when the flow control valve is opened. The temperature fluctuations diminish to a
negligible level in the partially filled vacuum subcooler before entering HTS cable.
The temperature profiles on the outside shells of the pulse tube and regenerator serve
to the purpose to find likely link between cold-side temperature and streamings in the pulse
tube and regenerator. It is noticed that whenever the cold-side temperature does not follow
this trend on the hot side, streaming(s) may have occurred in the regenerator and pulse
tube. The temperature histogram in the pulse tube and regenerator can cross one another
when that happens. The extent of the streaming can be minor or severe, depending on its
causes and drive ratio (Pmax/Pmin). In the case of a severe contamination the cold-side
temperature can reach as high as hot-side temperature and produces zero net cooling. For
smaller power inputs (<18 kW) the cold-side, hot-side, regenerator, and pulse tube
temperatures all remain rather constant, except for the fluctuation in inlet temperature. So
far the cooling of the cryocooler has been consistent even in the presence with temperature
fluctuations below 19.0 kW, losing up to 10-15 % cooling to additional streaming. This is
the order of magnitude that jet-induced, Rayleigh, and/or regenerator streaming can easily
cause.

PERFORMANCE

The performance of the cryocooler was characterized by cooling power and

thermodynamic efficiency as functions of input electric power and varied LN2 flow rates.
Due to the unavailability of a flow meter in the LN2 pass, a Rosemount differential pressure
gauge was used instead to monitor the pressure drop across the LN2 cold heat exchanger.
The LN2 flow rate is calculated using similitude with water measurements in a replicated
experimental setup in the lab to obtain a dimensionless empirical formula for flow rates,
ln(∆p / ρu 2 ) = 0.063834 * ln(Re D ) 2 − 1.3709 * ln(Re D ) + 10.470 (1)
where ∆p is the pressure drop across CHX; ρ is LN2 density; u is velocity; and ReD is
Reynolds number. Equation (1) holds for both water and LN2. The flow speed of LN2 is
obtained by solving the transcendental equation given LN2 properties and ∆p. The result

732
TABLE 1. Measured LN2 ∆p drop across CHX and calculated flow rate using empirical result in Eq. (1).

LN2 flow throttling valve 40 45 50 55 60

opening, %
LN2 ∆p, kPa ± 3 % 4.3 5.5 6.6 7.8 8.9
3 45 51 56 61 66
Calculated flow rate, cm /s ± 3 %
Reynold’s Number 25,060 28,360 30,990 33,860 36,220

compares to within a 10% with that using pressure drop formulations for a circular tube [6].
The comparison is valid as the pressure drop across the system is dominated by a ½”
vacuum jacketed circular tubing transporting the LN2 used as the characteristic dimension
for Reynolds numbers. The cooling power is then computed based on the averaged flow
rate, heat capacity, and temperature differential across LN2 inlet and outlet. The accuracy
of calculated cooling power therefore relies on the validity of the empirical curve. The
correlation between pressure drop and flow rate used in calculating the cooling power are
shown in Table 1. The accuracy of the measurements also depend on the power readings
from a Hioki power analyzer, monitoring input voltage, current, power factor, and power.
The direct readings of current and power factor from the VFD fluctuate within a broad
range irregularly, making it difficult to obtain a meaningful average. The power input in
our cooling calculation uses the readings from the Hioki power analyzer.
Prior to the field tests, several cooling measurements in lab were made in the lab. In
these tests, LN2 was transferred through the coldhead between two LN2 dewars. Flow was
driven by differing pressures in the headspace of the dewars and measured through
monitoring the rate of change of weight of each dewar. Two 100-ohm, 4-wire RTDs were
placed on either side of the CHX and used to take the LN2 in-flow temperature. The two
RTDs were calibrated in ice water and LN2 under atmospheric condition, showing within
0.05 K to LN2 saturation temperature with an offset of 0.3 K between the two. The same
two RTDs were used for field tests. It is noted that the cooling measurements using dewars
driven by pressure were susceptible to two-phase issues and thus difficult to reproduce
consistent results. This compares to the field tests where the LN2 was several degrees
subcooled through the entire system.
In Figure 4 (left) cooling performance measured in both the field and lab tests is
plotted as input power per watt cooling versus cold-side temperature. Symbols with the
same shape denote the same power input but at a different flow rate, the higher the flow
rate the higher the cooling power and cold side temperature. Above a certain power input
heat transfer in the CHX is limited by the processing side. The combination of using the
improved 2x10 2nd-generation PWG model with a sintered mesh regenerator delivered
better performance than previously published data using 2x10 1st-generation PWG model.
The PWG efficiency alone can contribute to a 12 % improvement in the overall efficiency
(~65 % in the 1st-generation model). As the input power increases and drive ratio becomes
greater, the thermodynamic efficiency goes down. At the current highest input of 19.5 kW
(Hioki reading) the efficiency relative to Carnot is about 15 % at 71−72 K. The efficiency
of the cryocooler is calculated based on cooling power and electric input to the PWG. The
hot-side temperature is defined by the coolant inlet and cold side by the RTD temperature
of the cold heat exchanger outlet on the processing side. The corresponding cooling power
varies between 800 W and 950 W, depending on LN2 flow rate and input power. The
acoustic drive ratio squared versus input power to the PWG deviates from a straight line
and indicates that at high acoustic amplitudes there are more losses associated with both the

733
 Input Power Per Watt Cooling Efficiency

Efficiency rel. to Carnot

0.2

Power/Cooling, W/W
14.1 kW
20 15.3 kW
0.18
16.6 kW
18.5 kW
15 0.16
14.1 kW
15.3 kW
16.6 kW 0.14
10
18.5 kW
0.12
69 70 71 72 73 1.28 1.3 1.32 1.34 1.36 1.38
Tc, K Drive Ratio

FIGURE 4. Performance of the pulse-tube cryocooler at various input power and flows. Figure on left shows
power required to produce per watt cooling, with respective cold side temperature. Right figure shows the
corresponding thermodynamic efficiency relative to Carnot. Symbols with same shape operate at same power
but with different flow rates.

PWG and coldhead, as have been observed in both blank testing the PWG and in
comparison with that in the fully instrumented coldhead during operation. In the present
implementation at input power greater than 20 kW streaming can become apparent and
self-reinforced which is manifested by the temperatures on the pulse tube and regenerator
shells as temperatures at different angles go up and down with time and cross one another.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

A cryogenic refrigeration system designed for cooling a fully energized HTS utility
cable, integrated with a pulse-tube cryocooler was successfully demonstrated and has
currently run for over ten straight months without any major issues. The two most critical
components − the PWG and regenerator have been reliable in the continuous operation to
date. The vacuum-based subcooler system, which has been operating for almost three
years, has also yielded reliable, consistent results. Although the current system is
intrinsically embedded with temperature and pressure fluctuations associated with process
control, the major fluctuations can be minimized when upgraded to a modular, closed-loop
pulse-tube refrigeration system. Future efforts include further improving the pulse tube
cryocooler performance with optimized components and system targeted at specific cooling
power and temperature. Further identified performance enhancements of the cryocooler
include reducing thermal conduction loss, streaming losses in the coldhead, thermal losses
in the inertance network, more efficient heat exchangers, and having an optimized
impedance match with PWG. The efficiency of the pulse-tube cryocooler stands
somewhere between ideal Stirling cycle of Tc/(Th-Tc) and that of a purely resistive orifice
pulse-tube, of Tc/Th, where Th and Tc are hot-side and cold-side temperatures in the CHX.
An alternative method typical for measuring cooling power is install a heater right
downstream of the CHX and control the heater power until inlet temperature reads the
same as that of the heater outlet [5]. The heater approach may have a better accuracy
compared to our current method since it does not involve flow measurements and the
significant change in viscosity in the operating range.

734
 The challenges associated with the adoption of HTS cables include the need for
cryogenic refrigeration systems with low maintenance, high reliability, small footprint, and
low costs. So far, the Praxair LN2 cryogenic refrigeration system for HTS cable cooling has
proven its reliability over the last 2.8 years of operation. More understanding has been
gained towards system integration, process control, and heat losses which will help ensure
better designs going forward. The implementation of pulse tube cryocoolers brings the
system closer to the ideal platform of a closed-loop refrigeration system.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully thank the following persons for their support and helpful
discussions: Tim Abbott, Steven Czechowski, Yi Jia, Mike Johnson, Jason McConnell and
Seth Potratz, of Praxair, Inc. and Dr. Phil Spoor of CFIC-Qdrive on PWG discussions.
Special thanks go to Barry Minbiole for his help in many ways.

REFERENCES

1. Potratz, S.A., Abbott, T.D., Johnson, M.C., and Albaugh, K.B., “Stirling-Type Pulse Tube Cryocooler
with 1kW of refrigeration at 77K,” in Advances in Cryogenic Engineering 53A, edited by J.G. Weisend
II, Plenum, New York, 2008, pp. 42-48.
2. Radebaugh, R., “Development of the Pulse Tube Refrigerator as an Efficient and Reliable Cryocooler”,
Proc. Institute of Refrigeration (London) 1999-2000.
3. Swift, G.W., US Patent No. 6,021,643, Pulse tube refrigerator with variable phase shift (2000).
4. Ward, W.C, and Swift, G.W., J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 95, pp. 3671-3672 (1994). Software available from
Los Alamos web site at http://www.lanl.gov/thermoacoustics/.
5. Swift, G.W., Thermoacoustics: A unifying perspective for some engines and refrigerators, AIP (2002)
6. Incropera, F.P. and DeWitt, D.P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th ed., Publisher, Wiley,
1996.

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