The Old Regime was the political, social and economic system that was found in many

parts of Europe up to the 18th century. This type of society was based on estates and
an agrarian economy, and was ruled by an absolute monarchy.

The society of estates

Society was divided into three estates: the nobility, the clergy and the commoners.
This society had main characteristics:
• Privilege. The clergy and the nobility were the privileged estates. They enjoyed major
advantages over commoners; for example, they were judged by special laws, and they
did not pay taxes.
• Lack of mobility. Except for the clergy, a person's estate was determined at birth. In
general, commoners did not move up.

The clergy was divided into high and low clergy;

• The high clergy, such as archbishops and bishops, were often the younger sons of
noble families.
• Members of the low clergy, like priests and monks, were from commoner families.

The nobility was also divided into high and low:

• The high nobility owned vast lands, received income from rents, and occupied all the
high positions in the government and the military.
• The low nobility had less money, and sometimes married into wealthy bourgeois
families.

The commoners, or third estate, made up the majority of the population. These were
the bourgeoisie and peasants.
• The bourgeoisie was made up of merchants, doctors or artisans. Some were wealthy,
but their political power was limited to city government. The bourgeoisie demanded
greater participation in national government and equality before the law, but the
privileged estates resisted these demands.
• The peasantry was the largest group, but had little social influence. Most worked on
the land of nobles or the Church as tenants. They paid rent to noble landowners, taxes
to the king, and a tithe (10% of their crops) to the Church. Serfs needed their lord's
permission to leave the property.
 The agrarian sector
Farming agriculture and livestock were the main economic activities in the 18th century.
In most of Europe, peasants practiced subsistence farming, and they mainly grew grains
using very basic tools. Farming depended on the climate, and they were lost in times of
drought or inundation. When this happened, prices went up, food became limited and
there was extended famine.

Most land was of the nobility and the clergy. A noble's land could not be divided
because the law required the land be inherited by the big son. Also, part of the clergy's
land was legally protected, and could not be sold. As a result, a lot of land was not
farmed productively.

Artisanal activity and trade

Guilds controlled most artisanal activity. These were associations of artisans who
worked in the same trade. Artisans worked in small workshops and used simple tools.
Guilds regulated production, and this was an obstacle to innovation.

The domestic system was a new system of production in the textile industry. A seller
provided cloth to peasants, who then made textile products in their own homes. The
merchant collected the finished products and sold them.

Royal factories belonged to the monarchy. They were very large workshops, where
weapons and luxury goods were made.

Exterior trade grew to increase exchange with America and Asia. Some companies, like
the English East India Company, were admitted trade monopolies in certain regions and
imported products like tea and cotton.

Triangular trade between Europe, Africa and America developed. The Europeans sailed
to Africa, where they traded items of little value for slaves. They took the slaves to
America and sold them there. With the profits they brought products such as cotton
and sugar to Europe.
 Absolutism
Absolutism was the system of government in many parts of 18th century Europe. Under
absolutism, the monarchs held full legislative, executive and judicial powers. They
governed, introduced and ratified laws, and named judges. According to kings, God was
the source of a monarch's power; and he was above the law.

To exercise their powers, the monarchs used numerous officers and powerful armies.
Some issues, such as new taxes, had to be approved by the Estates General in France or
the Cortes in Spain. These parliaments were composed of representatives of the three
estates. However, the monarch rarely called them.

The economic policies of the absolute monarchs were based on mercantilism. According
to this theory, there was only a fixed amount of trade in the world and a country's
wealth was based on the amount of gold and silver it accumulated. The monarchs
created the growth of national industries, promoted exports and restricted imports.

English parliamentarism

In the early 17th century, the Stuart kings attempted to rule Britain as absolute
monarchs.
But, they opposed Parliament, controlled by the bourgeoisie.

A series of conflicts between the king and Parliament culminated in the English Civil
War (1642-1651), when the kings were defeated and King Charles I was shot. Although
the monarchy was restored in 1660, they again tried to create an absolute monarchy
that led to the Glorious Revolution (1688), when King Jaime II was expelled.

Under the new system of parliamentary monarchy, the monarch was not above the law
and could not rule alone. The Rights of 1689 guaranteed certain rights and freedoms,
and established that the king could not pass laws, create new taxes or collect them
without the approval of Parliament. With the separation of powers, each branch of
government had its own powers and responsibilities.
 The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was a very influential movement that swept across Europe and
America. According to Enlightenment thought:

• Reasons must apply to all areas of life. Enlightenment thinkers rejected practices
that were not based on reason. And, they criticized some aspects of absolutism, the
privileges of the nobility and the clergy, and the rules of the guilds.

• Natural rights, such as individual freedom, belong to all human beings. The State could
not suppress these rights.

• Knowledge was the key to happiness, and people could acquire knowledge through the
use of reason. The Enlightenment placed great importance on education and the
experimental sciences, which were seen as vital to ongoing human progress.

• Tolerance was the basis of coexistence.

The ideas of the Enlightenment were disseminated through specialized academies of

arts or sciences, elite social gatherings, and through the press.
Although the Enlightenment was not a politically revolutionary movement, many of its
ideas questioned the foundations of the Old Regime.

Enlightenment thinkers
The ideas of the English philosopher John Locke had a great influence on the
Enlightenment. Locke argued that the state was the result of a social contract between
the government and the people. This contract could be broken if the government were
unfair.

Three of the greatest Enlightenment thinkers (philosophers) were Baron Charles

Montesquieu, François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
 Enlightened despotism

Enlightened despotism was a form of absolutism influenced by the ideas of the

Enlightenment. Several eighteenth-century monarchs, such as Joseph II of Austria and
Carlos III of Spain, modernized their kingdoms by introducing educational, legal, and
administrative reforms:

• Education. They founded new educational institutions, such as universities and

academies. They modified the curriculum to emphasize science.

• Government. They modernized their bureaucracies, strengthened the central

administration, created new legal codes, and forced the privileged classes to pay taxes.

• Land. To improve the economy, they took land from the Church or the nobility and sold
it. The goal was for the new owners to cultivate the land and make it more productive.
New land was cultivated, roads and irrigation systems were built.

Some rulers privately believed in Enlightenment ideas. Thus Frederick the Great invited
Voltaire to his court. However, these enlightened did not want to destroy the Old
Regime, which was the basis of their own power. In fact, many of his reforms were
designed to strengthen royal authority.
 The war of the spanish Succession (1701.1719)
King Charles of the Habsburgs died childless
in 1700, when there were two rival candidates for the Spanish throne. The candidate of
the Bourbon dynasty, Felipe, who had the support of France. Archduke Charles was the
Habsburg candidate and had the support of the Holy Roman Empire. Carlos Il named
Felipe as his successor, but Archduke Carlos did not accept it, and the War of the
Spanish Succession began in 1701.

This war was an international conflict. France and Spain opposed an alliance of European
powers, who were concerned about the possible supremacy of the Bourbons. However, it
was also a civil war: much of Castile supported Philip, while the Crown of Aragon
supported Archduke Carlos.

The war ended with a series of treaties in 1713 and

1714. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) recognizes the candidate Felipe, who becomes
Felipe V, King of Spain. In return, Austria received Spanish territory in Flanders and
Italy. Great Britain received Gibraltar and Menorca, and was also granted some
privileges in its trade with America. Within Spain, opposition to Philip V ended when
Barcelona was taken in 1714.

Early Bourbon rule

Felipe V centralized the administration in Spain, following the French model. As the
Crown of Aragon had opposed him in the war, he issued the decrees of Nueva Planta.

Felipe V imposed the Castilian institutions throughout the country. In government, he

did not use the old advice, but created a new figure: it was the Secretary of State or
Minister. Philip's successor, Ferdinand VI, continued these reforms and also
strengthened the navy.

In foreign policy, Felipe tried to recover the Italian territories lost in Utrecht. He
made alliances with the French Bourbons through 'Family Pacts', and participated in
several wars. Spain recovered Naples and Sicily, as well as several Italian duchies.
 The enlightened despotism of Carlos IlI
Carlos III initiated a broad program of reforms that made him the most enlightened in
Spain.
At the beginning of his reign, Carlos III appointed Italian ministers such as the
Marquis of Esquilache. The Marquis's reforms were unpopular at all levels of society,
and his attempt to modernize traditional Spanish dress led to the Esquilache riots
(1766).

After this uprising, Esquilache was deposed and Carlos appointed Spanish ministers
such as the counts Aranda, Floridablanca and Campomanes.
His reforms tried to modernize Spain:

• Church. Parts of the Church were seen as an obstacle to modernization. The Jesuits
were accused of causing riots in Esquilache and were expelled from Spain. The powers
of the Inquisition were reduced.

• Economic development. Spanish ports were allowed to develop free trade with
America. In agriculture new lands were cultivated and sheep pastures were
transformed into cultivated fields. Royal factories were created, such as the Porcelain
Factory.

• Education. New schools were built and primary education was expanded. The
secondary and university curricula were renewed.

• Economic Societies. These private associations of enlightened thinkers met to discuss

a variety of topics. Among other activities, they founded schools to train artisans and
farmers.

In foreign policy, Spain recovered Menorca, although the British continued to hold
Gibraltar. Spain supported the Americans when they fought Great Britain for their
independence in the American War of Independence (1775-1783).
 Carlos IV and the end of reform

Charles IV became king in 1788. A year later the French Revolution began, and Charles
was concerned that Enlightenment ideas would lead to a revolution in Spain. Enlightened
ministers lose prominence and are replaced by Manuel Godoy. Most of the reforms were
halted and increased censorship was introduced to prevent revolutionary ideas from
reaching Spain.

Spain joined other countries in a war against revolutionary France.

However, after some French military victories, Spain agreed to make peace with France
in 1795.

The following year, Spain and France signed a military alliance with each other. This led
to a naval conflict with Great Britain, which was still at war with France. In 1805, the
powerful British navy destroyed the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar.

Faced with internal and external difficulties, opposition to Carlos IV and his minister
Godoy grew.
 Unit 2; The age of revolution
1. American revolution

The origins of independence

The first English settlers arrived on the east coast of North America in the early 17th century. By the mid-18th century, they had formed
the Thirteen Colonies.

In the northern colonies, the economy was based on agriculture and trade. In the southern colonies, the main activity was the cultivation
of tobacco, and the work was done by black slaves on the plantations.

Britain wanted raw materials from its American colonies, but had no interest in developing industry there. They also had a monopoly on
trade, making trade between the Thirteen Colonies and other areas of the Americas difficult. The economy was, therefore, an important
source of conflict: the colonies saw the British Crown as an obstacle to their development.

There were also political tensions. The Thirteen Colonies were subject to the authority of the King of England, but they also had
considerable autonomy. The colonies had important powers, such as the collection of certain taxes. Britain taxed the colonists, but they
did not pay them. This was a sign of protest, as the colonists were not represented in the British Parliament. 'No taxes without
representation' became a slogan.

Between 1764 and 1766, King George III tried to impose new taxes on the colonies, but the colonies responded by refusing to buy British
goods.

In 1773, the British Parliament passed the Tea Act, which gave the English East India Company a monopoly on the sale of tea in the
colonies. This hurt American merchants, who responded by attacking British ships laden with tea in Boston Harbor.
This event is known as the Boston Tea Party and was followed by the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775.

There were important political changes. In 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which outlined the principles
of national sovereignty and the separation of powers.

On July 4, 1776, representatives from the Thirteen Colonies met at the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. There they signed the
Declaration of Independence of the United States of America.
The American revolutionary war

During the American Revolutionary War. The American colonies were supported by France and Spain. The colonies, led by General George
Washington, won decisive victories at Saratoga and Yorktown. Later, Great Britain recognized the United States as an independent nation in
the Treaty of Versailles (1783).
The United States Constitution was signed in 1787. It was the first constitution in history and established national sovereignty and the
separation of powers. Legislative power was in the hands of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Its members were chosen in
free elections, although only white males could vote.
The executive power was in the hands of a president, and the judiciary was in the hands of independent judges.

In 1789, George Washington became the first president of the United States.

2. The outbreak of the french revolution (1789-1792)

The failures of the old regime

● In France, the Old Regime had as its destination the French Revolution (1789-1799), which had its origin in the failures of the
system:
● Social unrest: The Third Estate, which paid taxes, resented the privileged classes that did not pay taxes. The tired bourgeoisie
was also frustrated by their lack of political power.
● The Economy: A fiscal crisis was caused by overspending in the American Revolutionary War, just as high spending on crop
failures caused prices to rise in the 1760s, leading to widespread famine and social unrest.
● The Enlightenment: The political thought of the Enlightenment encouraged to question the royal authority when it was
considered unfair and ineffective.
● Attempts at reform only made things worse. The commoners altered the reforms of Louis XVI while the privileged estates
worried about their way of life.

Opposition to the constitutional monarchy (1791-1792)

In October 1791 a Legislative Assembly was formed and France had a constitutional monarchy. However, this assembly lasted less than a
year. Within France:
There was fierce opposition from the nobility and the clergy, who did not want to give up their privileges. Many members of the former.
the privileged classes emigrated and conspired against the Revolution from abroad.
By contrast, other groups believed that the reforms did not go far enough. These radical revolutionaries were supported by the
sans-culottes.
Abroad, other European monarchs felt threatened by the ideas of the French Revolution. In 1792 Austria and Prussia declare war on France.
France suffered some early defeats in the war, and the king was widely blamed. In August 1792, the Tuileries Palace was attacked and the
royal family was taken prisoner.
 3. The first French Republic (1792-1799)

The birth of French Republic (1792-1783)

Following the revolution of August 1792, a National Convention ruled France from September 1792. This assembly was elected by adult
men. The Convention immediately removed the monarch and France became a republic. Initially, the moderate republicans controlled the
assembly.

The Convention tried and convicted Louis XVI of treason, and he was executed by guillotine in January 1793. This produced a reaction of
horror abroad and led to the formation of the First Agreement, in which Great Britain and the Dutch Republic joined the other countries
that were already fighting France. Within France, there was a royalist Catholic uprising.

The reign of terror (1793-1794)

Believing that the revolution was in danger, the radical revolutionaries used the support of the sans culottes to seize power from the
Girondins in June 1793. The Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre assumed all powers and established a dictatorship.

The danger of a foreign invasion and the internal threat from French opponents of the revolution led to the Reign of Terror, which was a
period of violent repression. A revolutionary street court, the Committee of Public Safety, was established. This court tried people who
they suspected were not opposed to the Republic, even if there were no protests against them they were sentenced to death by
guillotine, which became a famous symbol of the French Revolution, many people were executed, including the leaders of political groups,
nobles and clergy.

Robespierre tried to calm the economic crisis by setting maximum prices for basic items. However, he also capped the salaries, which
caused a conflict. A new calendar was adopted, in which the names of the months were related to the seasons.

Robespierre gradually lost support. In 1794, moderate revolutionaries arrested Robespierre and his followers, who were later executed by
guillotine.

The Dictory (1795-1799)

After the execution of the most radical revolutionaries, a new Constitution (1795) established a limited right based on property.

The new regime never had much support and faced challenges from all sides.

The radicals conspired against the government. The Conspiracy of Equals was a plot to overthrow the government and establish an equal
society.
The royalists also carried out revolts and counterrevolutionary activities with the aim of restoring the Bourbon dynasty.
In Europe, France won a series of victories against her enemies. The French general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered most of Italy between
1796 and 1799. However, in 1799 France's enemies, led by Great Britain, formed a Second Coalition that reconquered many of the regions
that France had occupied. In November 1799, Napoleon staged a coup. A Consulate was created, in which the authority was supposed to
be shared between three consuls; but in fact Napoleon was now the true ruler of France.
 4. Europe under Napoleon

Reform under Napoleon

Napoleon became First Consul in 1799, and a new constitution gave him the powers of a dictator.

Although Napoleon's coming to power marked the end of the French Revolution, some Napoleonic reforms consolidated changes from the
revolutionary period:

● The Napoleonic Code was a legal code that prohibited certain privileges, allowed freedom of religion, and simplified the range
of laws that existed before the Revolution.

● The Concordat of 1801 maintained state control over the Church, and confiscated church lands were not returned. However, the
clergy were allowed to resume religious worship.

The Napoleonic Empire

In 1804 Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French. Under his policy, France was constantly at war with other countries.

Although he was defeated by the British at sea at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), Napoleon conquered many parts of the European continent
in just a few years. He won notable victories against the Austrians at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) and against the Prussians at the Battle
of Jena (1806).

Britain was now France's main enemy, and the Continental Blockade was an attempt to stop British trade in Europe. The Portuguese did
not accept this, so Napoleon invaded Portugal. He too occupied Spain, which led to the Spanish War of Independence which began in 1808.

A turning point in the war came in 1812, when Napoleon's forces unsuccessfully invaded Russia, suffering terrible losses. A coalition of
Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria defeated him at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. He was defeated in Spain in the same year.

Napoleon returned to power for a hundred days, but was defeated at Waterloo (1815) and deported to the remote island of Saint Helena
where he died in 1821.

5. The Conservative Order

The conservative order
Starting in 1815, the European powers tried to create a new Conservative Order, based on the principles of tradition, order, and obedience
to authority. These were its main characteristics:
● monarchy. It was believed that peace was only possible if a legitimate monarch headed each country. The monarchs returned
to power as if the French Revolution had never happened.
● internationalism. The great powers could intervene in another country if a legitimate monarchy was in danger.
● Countesses Regular contact was seen between great powers

The congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The great European powers met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. The Austrian Foreign Minister was prominent in his attempts to
ensure a lasting peace and prevent further revolutions:
● France returned to the borders that it had before the Revolution.
● The estates were reinforced around France as a protective barrier against future French expansion: the new Kingdom of the
Netherlands acquired the region that is now Belgium.
● There were territorial gains for Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
The Holy Alliance of Prussia, Russia, and Austria was formed to combat liberalism and revolution. It was later joined by Great Britain and
France.

6. The liberal and National revolutions.

The challenge to the Conservative Order
A series of revolutions and wars carried out the conservative order in 1820; 1830 and 1848. They were strongly influenced by the following
factors:
● Liberalism. The French acquittal demonstrated how it is possible to put an end to allisolutism, and the spring was Liberty,
Equality and Fraternity pacts throughout Europe. According to the liberalism that respected the sovereignty of the peoples, and
guaranteed individual liberties.
● national movements. National identities are greening up in many parts of Europe in response to the Napoleonic invasion. After
1815, political borders generally did not reflect the language and culture of the people.

The revolutions of 1820 and 1830

● Spain. There was a period of liberal government in Spain (1820-1823) following a military uprising against the absolute
monarchy of Fernando VII.
 ● Greece The Greeks revolted successfully against the Ottoman Empire during the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829).

● France. In 1830, the absolutist monarch Charles X was deposed and replaced by Louis Philippe of Orleans, who was more
liberal.

● Belgium. An uprising in the Kingdom of the Netherlands led to the creation of the new state of Belgium (1830-1831).

● Poland. There was an uprising against the Russian Empire in 1831, but this was severely repressed.

Revolutions of 1848

There were many attempts at revolution in Europe in 1848. The bourgeoisie and workers in many countries supported liberal reforms and
democratic principles such as universal male suffrage and freedom of the press.

The following three countries were affected, although there were many other revolutions throughout Europe:

● Germany. Demonstrations in the cities called for German and liberal reforms that would guarantee individual liberties.
● The Habsburg Empire. There were many different nationalities, the territories ruled by the Austrian Habsburgs, and a national
movement in Hungary fought for independence.

In the end, the liberal and national revolutions failed. They did, however, achieve some important advances, such as universal male
suffrage in France and the abolition of feudalism in Prussia and Austria.

7. The unification of Italy

Nationalism

Nationalism developed in the 19th century, when people began to share culture, languages, and think of themselves as a nation. At the
same time, many nationalists wanted political borders to coincide with religious and linguistic borders. In this way, a nation would have
in a single country.
Nationalism greatly influenced the political history of Europe in two different ways:

● Disintegration of states. Some nations considered that they were under foreign rule within a great empire and fought for their
independence.

● Unification of states. Other nations, such as Italy and Germany, were divided into many states, but slowly discovered their
shared identity. The new nation states of Italy and Germany were established in the 19th century.
The unification of Italy

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Italian peninsula was divided into several states, some of which were under foreign control.
The Kingdom of Piedmont in northwestern Italy led the unification process under King Vittorio Emanuele II and his Prime Minister Cavour.
However, a revolutionary leader named Giuseppe Garibaldi also made a significant contribution:

● 1859: Cavour won French support for the Italian cause against the Austrians. In 1859, a French and Piedmontese army defeated
the Austrians, and the region of Lombardy became part of Piedmont.
● 1860-1861: Garibaldi's revolutionary forces (who were called the red shirts) took control of Naples and Sicily.
● In 1861, the first Italian parliament met in Turin and Vittorio Emanuele Il became King of Italy.
● 1866: Italy supported Prussia in its war with Austria; in exchange, it received Venice.
● 1870. The Piedmontese occupied Rome, which became the capital of Italy:
8. The unification of Italy
Germany before unification

In the early 19th century, German territory was in taed into 39 independent states Although these divide members of an associative mated
the German confederation, it did not have much influence.

The two dominant powers were Prussia and Austria, who were great rivals. In 1834, Prussia Organized a customs union of
German-speaking states but Austria was not a member.

In 1848 a parliament met in Frankfurt and offered the crown of Germany to the King of Prussia. However, the king refused because he was
hostile to the liberals.

After 1862, Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, and his prime minister, Bismarck, achieved the unification of Germany through military action.

The unification of Germany

German unification was achieved in just a few years under Prussian leadership:

● 1864. Following tensions in two Danish-ruled states, Prussia invaded and annexed these territories.

● 1866: Prussia fought its great rival Austria in the Austro-Prussian War and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Koniggrätz
(1866).

● 1870-1871: During the Franco-Prussian War, the Kingdom of Prussia and its German allies defeated France at the Battle of Sedan
(1870).

● In 1871, the French Emperor Napoleon surrendered and the Alsace and Lorraine regions became German. The southern German
states agreed to join the rest of Germany.

● In 1871, the Second German Empire, or Second Reich, was proclaimed, and Wilhelm I was crowned Emperor.

The new country, ruled by Chancellor Bismarck, experienced rapid economic growth and became a major military power. Germany was one
of the leading European nations in the years leading up to World War I.