Aerodynamics of Bird Flight

Aerodynamics meaning

Aero- means air. In Physics, the term dynamics customarily refers to the time evolution of
physical processes.

Aerodynamics therefore refers to the movement of air over a body in motion and how that
airflow will affect the body’s movement through the flow. Car aerodynamics make the car safer
and fuel efficient. Aerodynamics in birds therefore ensures safer movement of birds in the air
while making the whole process energy efficient.

Flight is a concept that has, until relatively recently in history, eluded humanity. However, birds
have been successfully flying for approximately 130 million years, proving themselves to be a
physical marvel of the natural world. And while our means of flight have historically been crude
in design and performance, nature provides an elegant, efficient solution to get creatures off of
the ground. Rüppell’s griffon vultures have been recorded flying as high as 37,000 ft, while some
species of shorebirds have been recorded flying as far as from Alaska to New Zealand over eight
days without stopping. But how exactly do birds seem to effortlessly overcome gravity so
effectively? 

Obviously, the exact aerodynamics and physical characteristics of birds will vary from species to
species, but there are still underlying similarities that enable birds to fly. A bird’s wing consists
of a shoulder, elbow, and wrist joint which establish the wing’s basic shape and allow a range of
motion. Covering the wing are structures
called primary, secondary, and coverts,
which are all groups of feathers that provide
lift and stabilize flight. Feathers consist of
flexible fibers attached to a center shaft,
called the rachis. Overtime, the rachis will
become damaged from fatigue and large
instances of stress. As a result, birds
will molt and regrow their feathers on a
regular basis. 

Picture of bird’s wing

Generally, a bird’s body will be adapted to either gliding flight, in which the wings flap very
infrequently, or active flight, in which the wings flap nearly constantly. For gliding birds, such as
the ocean dwelling albatross, the wings will extend far away from the body, and prioritize both
wing and feather surface area over flexibility. Additionally, these wings will have a thick leading
edge, and will be much straighter. However for fast, agile birds, such as falcons, the opposite is
true. Consequently, agility is sacrificed for energy efficiency. In both cases, the rachis
will change shape and rigidity, becoming larger and stiffer for gliding flight and smaller and
more flexible for agile flight. 

Aerodynamics

One of the most unique aerodynamic characteristics of birds is that nearly all of their lift and
thrust is exclusively generated by their wings, as opposed to aircraft that implement both wings
and engines. This provides, among other things, near instantaneous control of both flight
direction and speed. In other words, this gives birds an advantage when hunting, escaping from
predators, and maneuvering through a landscape. 

To aid in the generation of thrust and lift

during flight, birds will change their wing
shape through a process called active
morphing. During flight, the wing will be
bent inwards and twisted up during the
upstroke, and extended and straightened
during the down stroke. As a result, this
minimizes drag while maximizing thrust and,
consequently, energy efficiency. This can aid
in anything from traveling farther distances to
hunting prey.

Aerodynamic drag is the force opposite to the direction of motion, and hence the source of
energy loss in flight. The drag force can be separated into two portions, lift-induced drag, which
is the inherent cost of the wing producing lift (this energy ends up primarily in the wingtip
vortices), and parasitic drag, including skin friction drag from the friction of air and body
surfaces and form drag from the bird's frontal area. The streamlining of bird's body and wings
reduces these forces. Unlike aircraft, which have engines to produce thrust, birds flap their wings
with a given flapping amplitude and frequency to generate thrust.
In order to fly, birds must counter the forces of gravity, friction and turbulence. This is done by
creating lift and thrust. Lift is an upward force and is generated due to the way air moves over a
bird’s wings. By having a greater curve on the upper surface of their wings, similar to airplane
wings, lift is generated by the difference in the distance air must travel over a wing. In order for a
bird to fly it must produce enough lift to counter the effects of gravity, which produces a
downward force. Thrust is generated by the flapping of bird’s wings and is used to counter the
slowing forces of friction and turbulence.

The dominant aerodynamic forces that affect flight are lift and drag. The difference in the
pressure of air above and below a wing produces lift. When a bird holds its wing at a slight angle
to an air current, air flows faster over the upper surface than it does over the lower surface, thus
creating less pressure above the wing than below it and causing lift. At the same time, drag, or
resistance to the moving air, drags the wing backward. The combined effect of these two forces
lifts the wing and drags it backward.

If the front edge of the wing is tilted upward just a little bit and is placed in the air stream, the air
will strike the bottom surface more directly, thereby increasing the lifting force on the wing from

below.
 The more the wing is tilted upward, the more lift it will get, but only to a certain point: When
the angle of tilt approaches the vertical, the air pressure against the bottom surface begins to push
the wing backward rather than upward. If the wing is tilted too much, the lifting force eventually
vanishes and the drag is so great that it stops the bird's "buoyancy," or forward movement. This
results in what is commonly called a stall, and the bird must regain the proper wing angle and
flight speed or it will crash. 

Looking at flight from a physics point of view, there are four main forces that you have to worry
about.

Weight is a force is a force produced by

gravity in the downward direction, and
every flyer has produced by gravity in the
downward direction, and every flyer has
to produce to produce lift in order to
counteract weight. Anything moving in
order to counteract weight. Anything moving through air also experiences through air also
experiences drag, which slows it down, so there , which slows it down, so there must be a
forward-moving force, called must be a forward-moving force, called thrust, to oppose the force
, to oppose the force of drag. These two pairs of forces of drag. These two pairs of forces –
weight and lift, drag and thrust – have to be roughly balanced in order for a bird or plane to
fly. In this exhibit, we this exhibit, we’ll be primarily concerned with lift.

Birds use mainly three types of flight, distinguished by wing motion.

Gliding flight
When in gliding flight, the upward aerodynamic force is equal to the weight. In gliding flight, no
propulsion is used; the energy to counteract the energy loss due to aerodynamic drag is either
taken from the potential energy of the bird, resulting in a descending flight, or is replaced
by rising air currents ("thermals"), referred to as soaring flight. For specialist soaring birds
(obligate soarers), the decision to engage in flight are strongly related to atmospheric conditions
that allow individuals to maximise flight-efficiency and minimise energetic costs.
Flapping flight
The downstoke of the wings generates lift and the wings are folded in during upstoke.
When a bird flaps, as opposed to gliding, its wings continue to develop lift as before, but the lift
is rotated forward to provide thrust, which counteracts drag and increases its speed, which has
the effect of also increasing lift to counteract its weight, allowing it to maintain height or to
climb. Flapping involves two stages: the down-stroke, which provides the majority of the thrust,
and the up-stroke, which can also (depending on the bird's wings) provide some thrust. At each
up-stroke the wing is slightly folded inwards to reduce the energetic cost of flapping-wing flight.
Birds change the angle of attack continuously within a flap, as well as with speed.
Bounding flight
Small birds often fly long distances using a technique in which short bursts of flapping are
alternated with intervals in which the wings are folded against the body. This is a flight pattern
known as "bounding" or "flap-bounding" flight. When the bird's wings are folded, its trajectory
is primarily ballistic, with a small amount of body lift. The flight pattern is believed to decrease
the energy required by reducing the aerodynamic drag during the ballistic part of the trajectory,
and to increase the efficiency of muscle use.
Hovering
A hovering hummingbird traces out a figure 8 pattern (that resembles insect flight): The drag
produced in each stokes cancel out while the lift balances the weight.
Several bird species use hovering, with one family specialized for hovering – the hummingbirds.
True hovering occurs by generating lift through flapping alone, rather than by passage through
the air, requiring considerable energy expenditure. This usually confines the ability to smaller
birds, but some larger birds, such as a kite or osprey can hover for a short period of time.
Although not a true hover, some birds remain in a fixed position relative to the ground or water
by flying into a headwind. Hummingbirds, kestrels, terns and hawks use this wind hovering.
Most birds that hover have high aspect ratio wings that are suited to low speed flying.
Hummingbirds are a unique exception – the most accomplished hoverers of all birds.
Hummingbird flight is different from other bird flight in that the wing is extended throughout the
whole stroke, which is a symmetrical figure of eight, with the wing producing lift on both the up-
and down-stroke. Hummingbirds beat their wings at some 43 times per second, while others may
be as high as 80 times per second.
Take-off and landing
A male bufflehead runs atop the water while taking off.
Take-off is one of the most energetically demanding aspects of flight, as the bird must generate
enough airflow across the wing to create lift. Small birds do this with a simple upward jump.
However, this technique does not work for larger birds, such as albatrosses and swans, which
instead must take a running start to generate sufficient airflow. Large birds take off by facing
into the wind, or, if they can, by perching on a branch or cliff so they can just drop off into the
air.
Landing is also a problem for large birds with high wing loads. This problem is dealt with in
some species by aiming for a point below the intended landing area (such as a nest on a cliff)
then pulling up beforehand. If timed correctly, the airspeed once the target is reached is virtually
nil. Landing on water is simpler, and the larger waterfowl species prefer to do so whenever
possible, landing into wind and using their feet as skids. To lose height rapidly prior to landing,
some large birds such as geese indulge in a rapid alternating series of sideslips or even briefly
turning upside down in a maneuver termed whiffling.

Adaptation
Adaptation is the biological mechanism that allows a particular organism to adapt to changes in their
environment. This can drive evolutionary changes over time in which a species' genetics shift so that
they are better suited for an environment.
Adaptations are developed characteristics that make a creature more suited to its environment

1. D. R. Adhikari et al., “Effect of wing sweep on a perching maneuver,” Phys. Rev.

Fluids 7, 044702 (2022).