W A T E R SO U RC E S a. Ge nera l . Dep end in g on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , o n e or m o r e wa t e r so ur ce s may be m o r e p re va le n t. W a t e r f o r tr oo p u s e may c o m e f r o m any of t h e fo llo win g s o urc e s: 1. S ur fa ce wa t e r (rivers, lakes, a n d str eams). (2).

G r o u n d wa t e r (springs a n d we ll s) . (3) S e a wa t e r . (4) R a i n , s n o w , a n d / o r ice. b. Types of W a t e r So urces. ( 1 ) B ecau se of its e a s y accessibility, s ur f ace w a t e r so urc es a r e u s u a l l y t h e m o s t readily available, predictable, a n d visible. S u rfa ce wa t e r c a n be f o u n d in large quantities a n d c a n s u p p l y many soldiers. T h i s wa t e r , as a r u l e , is l o w in mi n eral c o n t e n t , w h i c h m a k e s it r elatively palatable. H o w e v e r , s ur fa ce wa t e r s h a v e h i g h turbidity f r o m t h e particles of soil t h e y h a v e acquired d u r i n g r u n o f f . They a r e also p r ob ab ly co nta mi nated f o r t h e s a m e r ea so n. ( 2 ) G r o u n d wa t e r u s u a l l y h a s l o w turbidity b e ca u se it h a s b e e n percolated t h r o u g h t h e soil a n d u n d e r g o n e a filtration process. T h e r e a r e less c he mica l or biological c o n t a mi n a n t s in g r o u n d wa t e r t h a n sur face wa t e r ; h o w e v e r , min erals w h i c h gi v e o f f a b a d taste, a r e pr esent. Microorganisms, a l t h o u g h red uc ed by filtration, a r e al so p resent. T here fo r e, it is b e st to a l wa y s a s s u m e t h a t a l l wa t e r is co nta mi nated a n d tr eat it accordingly. Spr ings yielding a b o u t 20 gall o n s of wa t e r p e r m i n u t e s h o u l d be ad eq uate f o r field u n i t s . H o we v e r , g r o u n d wa t e r supplies a r e relatively inaccessible, requiring digging of we l l s or d e v e l o p me n t of springs, a n d a r e u s u a l l y of u n k n o w n q u a n t i t y. E v e n when t h e q u a n t i t y is sufficient, t h e d e p t h of t h e wa t e r tab le fr e q u e n t l y p r eclud es extracting t h e wa t e r w i t h t h e e q u i p me n t available. ( 3 ) S e a wa t e r is a s o u r c e t h a t , f o r a l l practical p ur p o ses, may be is regarded. The o n l y practical process y e t d evised to treat salt w a t e r is distiIlation/reverse osmo sis. H o w e v e r , progress is b eing m a d e w i t h t h e d e v e l o p me n t of new e q u i p me n t f o r u s e by t h e engineer u n i t s . The u s e of sea water as a s o u r c e of wa t e r s u p p l y s h o u l d be considered o n l y after an ad eq uat e s u p p l y of s ur fa ce a n d g r o u n d wa t e r a r e n o t present. ( 4 ) R a i n , s n o w , a n d ice a r e n o t considered reliable fo r military p urp o ses b eca u se of t h e unpredictability of t h e we a t h e r a n d t h e lack of suitable collection a n d storage facilities. It may be a l l r ight f o r s m a l l u n i t s to u s e f o r a s h o r t d uratio n. I c e s h o u l d be u s e d r a t h e r t h a n s n o w since it yield s m o r e wa t e r . R a i n , s n o w , or ice a r e theoretically a p u r e s o u r c e of distilled wa t e r ; by t h e ti me it p asses t h r o u g h t h e at mo sp here a n d collects ( t h e r eb y c o mi n g in co nt a ct w i t h sur faces w h i c h m a y o r may n o t be clea n), it b eco me s co nt a minated a n d n e e d s to be treated as sur face wa t e r w o u l d b e . c. Selection of a W a t e r So urce . Considering t h e ad va n ta ge s a n d disadvantages of e a c h possible so ur ce, t h e s ur fa ce wa t e r s o u r c e u s u a l l y b e s t m e e t s o u r r eq uirements b eca u s e of its q u a n t i t y a n d accessibiIity. A l t h o u g h t h e q ua li t y is g e n e r a l l y p oorer t h a n t h a t of a g r o u n d wa t e r so u r ce, we c a n m a k e t h e q ua l it y of wa t e r acceptable by treating it. The selection of a wa t e r s u p p l y s o u r c e fo r a miIitary u n i t d ep e nd s u p o n se ver al factors: ( 1 ) Site conditio ns. Drainage, secur it y, a n d a d eq u a c y of locatio n a r e i mp o r tant factors to consider when selecting a site. The area s h o u l d be ch ec k ed fo r d ead fi sh, fro gs, a n d o t h e r animals; t h e conditio n of vegetatio n a r o u n d t h e water's ed ge; a n d p revio us che mical or o t h e r a g e n t u s e . ( 2 ) Q u a n t i t y . B ecau se of t h e var iances in t h e b ed s of strea ms, rivers, a n d lakes, t h e d e p t h s h o u l d be che c ked in s e ver a l sp o ts to m a k e s u r e t h a t sufficient wa t e r is p r es e nt f o r t h e n u m b e r of militar y i n v o l v e d a n d t h e d uratio n of t h e operation. In co lder regions, c h e c k t h e d e p t h of wa t e r u n d e r t h e ice. ( 3 ) Accessibility. The wa t e r m u s t be accessible to p e r so n n e l a n d vehicles. A go o d ro ad n e t wo r k is n e e d ed a l o n g w i t h parking to wi t h s t a n d a l l we a t h e r conditions. The wa t e r s o u rc e s h o u l d n o t be on t h e m a i n s u p p l y r o u t e . ( 4 ) Q u a l it y. The selected s o u r c e of wa t e r s h o u l d be of a q ua li t y t h a t c a n be ap p ro ved a n d readily purified w i t h n o r m a l e q u i p me n t in a specified a m o u n t of ti me. The wa t e r s h o u l d be c hec k ed f o r turbidity, o d o r , taste, a n d co lor. ( 5 ) Ease of t r e a t me n t w i t h available facilities. The capabilities of t h e available wa t e r purification e q u i p me n t a n d facilities n e e d to be considered a n d may be a determining factor if m o r e t h a t o n e wa t e r s o u r ce is considered

CH ARACTERISTICS A N D S T A N D A R D S OF Q U A L I T Y W A T E R . As wa t e r p asses o v e r a n d t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h , it takes on v ario u s characteristics t h a t v a r y w i t h t h e mater ials e n c o u n t e r e d . The m o s t i mp o rtant wa t e r characteristics a r e turbidity, co lor, o do r , taste, pH v a l u e , te mp er ature, a n d dissolved ga seo u s a n d mi ner al s ub sta n ce s. E a c h of t h e s e characteristics h a s an effect on t h e wa t e r q ualit y. The Ar m y ' s wa t e r q ual it y sta nd ar d s a r e addressed, in g en era l t e r ms . a. Physical Qua lity . ( 1 ) T urb id ity. T u r b id wa t e r is m u d d y or u n c l e a r . T urb id ity is c a u s e d by s u s p e n d e d particles of s a n d , c l a y , silt, a n d organic material, incl ud ing d ec ayin g vegetatio n a n d a n i ma l was te s. The si ze of t h e particles carried d ep e nd s on t h e velo city of f l o w. When t h e f l o w of wa t e r sto p s, t h e lar ger particles settle o u t . G r o u n d wa t e r (see p ar a 1 -6 d ) is clearer t h a n s ur fac e wa t e r b ecau se of t h e n a t u r a l filtration p rocess it u n d e r g o e s in percolating t h r o u g h t h e soil. The A r m y stand ard is to r e m o v e t h e particles to w h i c h microo rganism may be attached by disinfect io n. ( 2 ) Colo r. Orga ni c s ub st an ce s in so lutio n s u c h as d ecayi ng vegetatio n, or inorganic s u b s t a n c e s u c h as m a n g a n e s e salts a n d iro n u s u a l l y c a u s e s t h e t r u e co lo r of wa t e r . F o r this r ea so n, w a t e r t a k e n f r o m s w a m p y so urc es is o f t e n h i g h l y colored. T r u e co lo r m u s t be distinguished f r o m t h e ap p ar ent co lo r c a u s ed by turbidity. The co lo r stand ard is to m a k e drinking wa t e r m o r e , appealing a n d palatable. ( 3 ) O d o r a n d taste . Algae ( m i n u t e wa t e r p lants), d eco mp o sing organic ma tt er, dissolved gases, industrial wa st es , a n d / o r certain mi nera l s ub s ta nc es m o s t c o m m o n l y c a u s e t h e odo r s a n d tastes f o u n d in wa t e r. Min eral tastes u s u a l l y c o m e f r o m g r o u n d wa t e r wh i l e o r ganic tastes a n d o d or s c o m e f r o m s ur fac e wa t e r . Co ld wa t e r h a s le ss ta ste a n d o d o r t h a n w a r m wa t e r . To m e e t palabiIity stand ard s, r e m o v e o d ors a n d tastes. PalabiIity d o e s n o t affect t h e potabiIity of wa t e r . ( 4 ) T e mp e r a t u r e. Co o l wa t e r h a s les s o d o r a n d taste t h a n d o es w a r m wa t e r a n d is m o r e palatable t h a n w a r m wa t e r , w h i c h tastes flat. The wa t e r te mp er at ure of d eep lakes a n d reservoirs is co lder at t h e b o t t o m in t h e s u m m e r . T h ere fo r e, if possible, d r a w relatively co o l wa t e r d u r i n g h o t we a t h e r by shifting t h e intake to l o w e r d ep ths . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , co o l wa t e r is m o r e vi sco u s (thicker) t h a n w a r m wa t e r a n d t h u s fiIters m o r e s l o wl y . Co o l wa t e r is al so m o r e difficult to co agulate a n d chlo rinate t h a n w a r m wa t e r b eca u se of s l o we r reactions. When t h e wa t e r te mp er at ur e d ro p s b e l o w 4 5 F, wa t e r t r e a t me n t rates s h o u l d be r ed uc ed . C o m m a n d decisions w i I I be m a d e b ased u p o n medical reco mme n d atio ns, if n e e d b e .

b. Che mica l Q ua l it y . (1) T o t a l dissolved solids . The T D S of wa t e r is co mp o sed of s ma l l a m o u n t s of inorganic a n d o rganic s ub sta n ce s or particles a n d mi nera l salts. The a m o u n t of e a c h s u b s t a n c e is proportional to t h e a m o u n t of ti me t h e wa t e r h a s b e e n in co nt ac t w i t h we a t h e r e d ro ck, mi ner als , a n d o t h e r solids. The i m p u r e wa t e r may co n ta i n s ulfate, m a g n e s i u m , chloride, ir on, ma n g a n e s e , a n d o t h e r io n s as s h o w n in T a b l e 1 - 2 . The T D S wa t e r q ualit y stand ar d is to p r e v e n t soldiers f r o m getting che mi ca ll y i nd uc ed diarrhea. ( 2 ) pH v a l u e . The pH v a l u e me a s u r e s t h e acidity or alkalinity of wa t e r . The pH v a l u e midpoint is s e v e n , w h i c h indicates a n e u t r a l so lutio n. If acid s ub st an ce s in t h e wa t e r p redo minate, t h e pH falls b e t we e n 0 a n d 7. If alkaline s ub s ta n ce s p redo minate, t h e pH is b e t we e n 7 a n d 1 4 . A v a l u e of s e v e n d o e s n o t necessarily m e a n t h a t t h e wa t e r is p u r e , since acids a n d bases in so l utio n ne u tral iz e o n e a no t h e r . The pH v a l u e of wa t e r h e l p s to d eter mi ne t h e corrosiveness of t h e wa t e r , t h e a m o u n t of che micals n e e d ed to disinfect t h e wa t e r , a n d t h e ability of t h e a n a l y s t to d etermi ne if c o nt a mi n a nt s a r e p resent. The var io u s impurities in wa t e r , s o m e of w h i c h a r e acids a n d s o m e of w h i c h a r e b ases, increase or decrease resp ectively, t h e h y d r o g e n i o n activity in t h e wa t e r . F o r a l o n g - t e r m (7 or m o r e d a y s ) wa t e r so ur ce, t h e pH stand ard of wa t e r is b e t we e n 5 . 0 to 9 . 2 u n i t s . (3) Dissolved impurities. ( a ) O x y g e n . R a i n wa t e r co ntains lar ge a m o u n t s of dissolved o x y g e n as d o es s ur fa ce wa t e r w h e r e fi s h a r e p lentiful. H o w e v e r , t h e a m o u n t s in s ur face wa t e r v a r y , as d o es its co ncentr atio n of dissolved o x y g e n . O x y g e n c a n , especially when c a r b o n dioxide is a l so p r esent, c a u s e many m e t a l s to corrode. T herefo re, u s e les s o x y g e n a t e d wa t e r f o r p ar ts s u c h as v e h i c u l a r radiators ( b ) C a r b o n dioxide. The a t mo sp h er e, d eco mp o sing vegetatio n, a n d u n d e r g r o u n d so urc es c a u s e c a r b o n dioxide ( C O 2) to e n t e r wa t e r . When th i s h a p p e n s ,

carbonic acid is fo r med . Carbonic acid aids in t h e fo r matio n of bicarbonates of cal ci u m a n d ma g n e s i u m . ( c ) H y d r o g e n sulfide. H y d r o g e n sulfid e (H2S) is pro d uced by t h e decomposition of organic ma t t e r a n d by t h e b r e a kd o wn of certain c o m p o u n d s co ntaining s u l p h u r . It giv es o f f an o d o r of r o t t e n eg g s a n d m o s t likely is co mp o sed of lar ge a m o u n t s of ind ustrial or a n i ma l wa s te s. T h i s g a s is corrosive to met al s. In s m a l l a m o u n t s , it is u n p l e a s a n t ; in lar ge a m o u n t , it is al so h a r m f u l . c. Radiological Q ua l it y . Radiatio n c a n c a u s e t h e b o d y's d efense s to we a k e n a n d s h o u l d be avoided. C u r r e n t wa t e r t r e a t me n t m e t h o d s a r e ab le to e n s u r e t h a t w a t e r is potable. The wa t e r q ual it y sta nd ar d is 1 0 0 0 p c/ L fo r gro ss b e ta activity a n d 10 p c/L f o r s tr o n t i u m 9 0 .

IM PURITIES SUSPENDED IM PURITIES Microscopic o rga nis ms S o m e c a u s e disease Al gae C a u s e taste, o d or, co lo r, turbidity A l l solids C a u s e mu r k i n e s s or turbidity DISSO LV ED IM PURITIES SALTS CALCIUM A N D MAGNESIUM Bicarbonate C a u s e s alkalinity, h a r d n e s s Car b o nate C a u s e s alkalinity, h a r d n e s s S ul f ate C a u s e s h a r d n e s s , evaporating scaling Chloride C a u s e s h a r d n e s s corrosive in boilers SODIUM Bicarbonate C a u s e s alkalinity Car b o nate C a u s e s alkalinity S ul f ate C a u s e s fo a mi n g in s t e a m boilers Fluoride C a u s e s mo t tled e n a m e l of d evelop ing t e e t h in child ren * Chloride C a u s e s s a l t y taste IRON C a u s e s taste, r e d wa t e r , incr ustatio ns on me t a l s MANGANESE C a u s e s b lack or b r o w n w a t e r VEGETABLE D Y E C a u s e s co lor, acidity GASES Oxygen C a u s e s corrosion of me t a l s C a r b o n dioxide C a u s e s acidity, corrosion of me t a l s H y d r o g e n sulfid e C a u s e s o d o r , acidity, corrosion of me t a l s Nitr o gen C a u s e s no effect * Fluoride, if e xcessi ve ( o v e r 1 mg / L) , may h a r m ch ild ren's t e e t h . In l o we r co ncentratio ns, it increases resistance to d e n t a l d ec a y

d. M icrobiological Qua li t y . T r ans mi t ted wa t erb o r ne diseases may be c a u s e d by bacteria, p ro to zo a, vir uses, or o t h e r h i g h e r o rganisms. They a r e n o t detected by t h e n a k e d e y e b u t c a n be microscopically detected or microbiologically tested to d etermine t h e ki nd a n d t re a t me n t required to m a k e t h e wa t e r potable. H o we v e r , t h e detection of many disease-causing microbes is difficult. T her e fo re, P re ve nt i ve Medicine Specialists wo r ki n g at Division, Co r ps, or T h e a t e r may c o n d u c t certain tests (fo r certain coliform or ganisms, s u c h as E. coli) to e n s u r e t h a t microbiological stand ard s a r e m e t

W A T E R TR E A TM EN T PRO CESSE S 1-9. GENERAL The p urp o s e of wa t e r t r eat me n t is to r e m o v e or d est ro y e n o u g h of t h e impurities

in r a w wa t e r to m a k e it potable a n d palatable. The a m o u n t a n d t y p e of t r e a t me n t required, in a garrison or field e n v i r o n m e n t , d ep e n d s u p o n t h e q ual it y of t h e r a w wa t e r , t h e a m o u n t of wa t e r required, a n d t h e stand ard s t h a t m u s t be m e t . A series of purification processes is g e n e r a l l y e mp l o ye d . Co mp lete wa t e r purification i nclud es t h e fo llo wi ng processes: co agulatio n, sedimentatio n, filtration, re v er se o smo sis ( w h e n required), a n d disinfection. In practice, t h e processes of co agulatio n a n d sedimentation a r e u s u a l l y co mb ined , so we w i I I discuss t h e s e processes to gether. R e v e r s e osmosis is required in t h e field when wa t e r is brackish or h a s sa lt ( t h e process may al so be u s e d f o r f r e s h wa t e r purification). Disinfection is co v er ed separately in Le s s o n 2. 1 - 10 . PRETREATM ENT W a t e r p retreatment is t h e partial clarification of w a t e r by coagulatio n a n d /o r sedimentatio n d o n e prior to filtration. P r etr eatmen t p r e v e n t s rapid clogging of filters a n d h e l p s to e n s u r e t h e pro d uctio n of filtered wa t e r w i t h u n i fo r m l y l o w turbidity. a. Pla in Sedimentat io n . P lain sedimentation is t h e n a t u r a l settling of solids t h a t a r e hea vi er t h a n wa t e r . T h i s sedimentation is c a u s e d by t h e fo rce of gravity. Solids he a vie r t h a n wa t e r a r e h e l d in s u sp e n s io n in m o v i n g wa t e r , b u t t h e y g r a d ua l l y settle to t h e b o t to m as t h e wa t e r velo city is r ed uced . The ti me req uired to clarify wa t e r by p lain sedimentatio n d ep e nd s u p o n t h e fo llo win g factors: ( 1 ) Size a n d specific gr a vi t y of t h e s u s p e n d e d particles. Large a n d h e a v y particles settle in a f e w m i n u t e s o n c e t h e wa t e r h a s b e co me s t i I I , wh e r e a s v e r y s m a l l particles, s u c h as c l a y a n d silt, may r e ma i n in s u sp en s io n f o r sev era l d a y s . ( 2 ) T u r b u l e n c e of t h e wa t e r . Particles s u s p e n d e d in a rapidly m o v i n g s t r e a m wi ll r e ma i n s u s p e n d e d much l o n g e r t h a n t h e o n e s in a la ke or a p o n d t h a t is r elatively q uiet. ( 3 ) T e mp e r a t u re of t h e wa t e r . The visco sity of wa t e r is affected by its te mp erature. The l o we r t h e wa ter 's te mp er at ure, t h e greater is t h e visco sity. ( R e m e m b e r viscosity is t h e p ro p er ty of a fluid t h a t resists internal fl o w. ) Consider 3 0 we i g h t m o t o r oil. M o t o r oil of t h i s we i g h t r ead ily f l o ws ( t h a t is, l o we r viscosity) at h i g h e r te mp eratures b u t difficult to p o u r ( t h a t is, h a s h i g h e r viscosity) at l o we r temp eratures. The viscosity of wa t e r at te mp er atur es a b o v e t h e freezing p o int is so slight a n d n o t noticeable to t h e t o u c h . The effect on sedimentatio n is al so slight. At te mp eratures b e l o w 4 5 F , h o we v e r , t h e increased viscosity of w a t e r is sufficient to retard t h e ra te of sedimentatio n of s u s p e n d e d solids. T h er e fo r e , sed imentatio n is m o r e efficient at h i g h e r wa t e r te mp eratures

b. U s e of Pla in Sediment at io n . P lain sed imentation is n o t ordinarily u s e d by t h e miIitar y as a separate st ep in wa t e r t r e a t me n t b eca u se t h e l o n g period required f o r co mp lete settling w o u l d cal l f o r an impractical n u m b e r of settling t a n k s . H o we v e r , in an e me r g e n c y , s u c h as t h e necessit y of taking wa t e r t h a t is h e a v i l y l a d e n w i t h silt f r o m a s wi f t l y flo wi n g str ea m, special sed imentatio n t a n k s may be s e t up as a first s tep . T h i s initial r e m o v a l of turbidity r ed uc es t h e lo ad on s u b s e q u e n t t r e a t me n t processes. U n d e r n o r m a l conditions, p lain sedimentatio n c a n be expected to r e m o v e a b o u t 55 p erce n t of t h e no nfiIterab le residue a n d a b o u t 25 p er cent of t h e bacteria. P lain sedimentation is a l wa y s fo llo wed by s u b s e q u e n t t r e a t me n t of s o m e fo r m . The t r e a t me n t may in cl ud e ch e mi cal l y assisted sed imentatio n a n d / o r filtration, b u t it a l wa y s i nclud es disinfection. In field wa t e r trea t me n t, p lain sedimentatio n a n d disinfection may be t h e o n l y t r e a t me n t g i v e n to wa t e r . In s u c h cases, t h e r a w wa t e r is allo we d to s t a n d in wa t e r c a n s , Ly s t e r b ags, or impro vised t a n k s u n t i l t h e turbidity is red uc ed by sedimentation. The clear wa t e r is t h e n d r a w n f r o m t h e t o p a n d disinfected before u s e . c. Chemica lly Assist ed Sediment at io n. Ch e mic al l y assisted sed imentatio n incorporates t h r e e separate t r e a t me n t processes: co agulatio n, flo cculatio n, a n d sedimentatio n. C h e mi cal l y assisted sed imentatio n c a n n o r m a l l y be exp ected to r e m o v e a b o u t 80 p ercen t of t h e no nfiI tr ab le residue, 50 p erce nt of t h e bacteria, 75 p erce n t of t h e color, a n d 25 p er cent of t h e taste. Co mp ar ed to p lain sedimentatio n, t hi s clarification takes p lace in a r elatively s h o r t ti me. O p t i m u m r es u lt s a r e u s u a l l y obtained in a b o u t 30 to 40 mi n u t e s . ( 1 ) Coagulatio n. Coagulatio n is t h e pro cess of adding che micals to wa t e r , rapidly mi x i n g t h e so luti o n, a n d cau si n g t h e particles to cl u ste r a n d settle o u t . The clustering of t h e s e particles c a u s e s t h e m to increase in we i g h t a n d settle to t h e b o tto m. Var io us chemicals, b u t m o s t n o t a b l y, ferric chlo ride a n d a l u m i n u m s ul fate, a r e u s e d a n d me n t i o n e d in p aragr ap h 1-1 1 . ( 2 ) Flo cculatio n. After co agulatio n, particles a r e assisted to c l us ter faster by t h e addition of che micals t h a t cr eate an insoluble, jelly-Iike s u b s ta n c e called flo c. The floc/sticky or gelatino us so lutio n e ntr ap s f i ne turbidity particles, w h i c h co n t ai n bacteria a n d o t h e r impurities, c a u s e s t h e m to stick to gether , a n d settle as h e a v y c l u m p s . Flo c

particles settle m o r e rapidly a n d ab sorb s co lor. T h i s p rocess is called flocculatio n. ( 3 ) Sedimentatio n. Sed imentatio n is t h e settling of t h e flo c by gra v it y after t h e m o v e m e n t of t h e wa t e r h a s b e e n retarded. It is essentially t h e s a m e as p l ain sedimentatio n, b u t much f aster. 1 - 11 . C H EM I C A L S US ED F O R C O A G U L A T I O N Se ver al different che mic als may be u s e d in co agulatio n, d ep end ing u p o n t h e characteristics of t h e wa t e r b eing treated. In s o m e wa t er s, co mb inatio ns of t w o or m o r e che micals p ro d u ce b etter r es u lt s t h a n any o n e chemical a l o n e . In o rd er to determi ne w h i c h che mical or co mb inatio n a n d how much of it s h o u l d be u s e d , it is u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y to p er fo r m co agulatio n tests in t h e laborato ry (see p ar a 5 -10). The pH of t h e

wa t e r a n d t h e miner als p r esent, w h i c h is co mb i ne w i t h t h e co ag u la n t, a r e t h e principal d eter mi nants as to w h i c h che mical is u s e d . The fo llo win g che micals a r e s o m e of t h e m o r e c o m m o n l y u s e d co ag u la n ts : a. A l u m i n u m Sulfate ( A l u m ) . A l u m i n u m s ul fate ( A I 2 ( S O 4) 3), c o m m o n l y k n o w n as a l u m or fiIter a l u m , is o n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d co a g u la n ts in military wa t e r tr ea t me n t. It is available c o mmer ciall y in solid f o r m or as a so lutio n called "Iiquid a l u m. " A l u m i n u m s u l fa te r eacts w i t h n a t u r a l l y o ccurrin g alkalinity in wa t e r to f o r m a l u m i n u m h yd r o x id e, a wh i t e precipitate t h a t f o r m s a flo c a n d settles readily. ( 1 ) Two che mical reactions s h o wi n g t h e u s e of a l u m i n u m s u l fa te as a c o a g u l a n t a r e g i v e n b e lo w. ( a ) A l u m i n u m s ul fa te ad d ed to wa t e r co ntaining calc i u m bicarbonate

AI2( S O 4)3 18 H2O + 3 M g ( H C O 3) 3 M g S O 4 + 2 Al2( O H ) 3 + 6 CO2 + 18 H2O A l u m i n u m s u l fa te M a g n e s i u m bicarbonate M a g n e s i u m s ul fat e A l u m i n u m h yd ro xid e C a r b o n dioxide wa t e r ( 2 ) A l u m i n u m s u l fat e h a s an o p t i m u m pH r a n g e of 4 . 0 to 7 .0 , w h i c h is slig htl y acid. When treating wa t e r wi t h i n t hi s pH r a n g e , t h e u s u a l practice is to a d d so d a a s h ( see c, b e l o w) to provide sufficient alkalinity f o r precipitation of a l l t h e a l u m i n u m as a l u m i n u m h yd ro xid e . A l u m i n u m s u l fa te is desirable in t h a t it is i nexp en siv e; it is e a s y to store, transp ort, a n d ap p ly; a n d it r ed u ce s t h e t e m p o r a r y (carbo nate) h ar d ne s s in t h e wa t e r . Disad vantages of a l u m i n u m s u l fa te a r e t h a t it p rod uces c a rb o n dioxide (carb o n dioxide is corrosive to pipes a n d o t h e r metals) a n d t h a t t h e calc i u m or m a g n e s i u m sul fate, w h i c h is, p r o d uced c a u s e s p e r m a n e n t h a r d n e s s . b. Ferric Chloride. Ferric chloride ( F e C I 3) is available in liquid, cr ystal, or a n h y d r o u s f o r m . O p t i m u m r es u lt s a r e obtained w i t h ferric chloride u n d e r b o t h acid ( p H 3 . 5 to 6 .5 ) a n d alkaline ( p H a b o v e 8 .5 ) conditions. The flo c fo r me d by ferric chloride is he a vie r t h a n t h a t fo r me d by a l u m ; ther efo re, it settles m o r e rapidly. It a lso s ettles m o r e r ap idly in co ld wa t e r t h a n d o es a l u m flo c. Ferric chloride is v e r y corrosive, b o t h