5 PRESENT ECOLOGICAL ISSUES AND CONCERNS

1. Genetically modified organisms

Genetically modified apple

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has

been altered using genetic engineering techniques. Genetic engineering essentially
involves incorporation of gene(s) from an different species - even across Kingdom - into
the host genome. Thus, genes from animals and bacteria may be inserted into a plant
genome, to create a novel transgenic plant. Transgenic breeding is thus different from
the traditional selective breeding, and therefore novel gene products (like proteins) from
the GMO may have some unexpected environmental effects.

Several antibodies and medicines have already been commercially produced by using
genetic engineering. For example, mammalian insulin is being produced by recombinant
DNA in bacteria. This make the hormone much cheaper than natural insulin derived
from conventional biosynthesis. However, when genetic engineering is applied in
agriculture for production of crops, there are many uncertainties and risks.

Unlike insulin or other GM drugs and hormones manufactured in the laboratory, GM

crops cannot be controlled or revoked, once they are released in nature. [1] In addition to
the possible harmful effects on ecosystems (including agro-ecosystems), introduction of
the GMOs into the human food chain poses an unprecedented risk to public health.
2. Habitat loss

Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process

by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The
organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby reducing
biodiversity and species abundance. Habitat destruction is the leading cause of
biodiversity loss. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most
important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of
endangered species.

Activities such as harvesting natural resources, industrial production and urbanization

are human contributions to habitat destruction. Pressure from agriculture is the principal
human cause. Some others include mining, logging, trawling, and urban sprawl. Habitat
destruction is currently considered the primary cause of species extinction worldwide.
Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological
processes, climate change, introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient
depletion, water and noise pollution are some examples. Loss of habitat can be
preceded by an initial habitat fragmentation.

Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments

embodied by Sustainable Development Goal 15 "Life on Land" and Sustainable
Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water". However, the United Nations Environment
Programme report on "Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of
these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals.
3. Ozone depletion

2009 Antarctic Ozone Hole

Ozone depletion describes two distinct, but related observations:

 a slow, steady decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total amount of ozone
in Earth's stratosphere since around 1980; and
 a much larger, but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar
regions during the same period.

Ozone layer thinning is mainly caused by the CFC family, (Chlorofluorocarbons),

commonly known as freons. These compounds are transported into the stratosphere
after being emitted at the surface. Both ozone depletion mechanisms strengthened as
emissions of CFC's and halons increased.

When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the stratosphere,
they destroy ozone molecules. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone
molecules before it is removed from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed more
quickly than it is naturally created.

Some compounds release chlorine or bromine when they are exposed to intense UV
light in the stratosphere. These compounds contribute to ozone depletion, and are
called ozone-depleting substances (ODS). ODS that release chlorine
include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), carbon
tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform. ODS that release bromine
include halons and methyl bromide. Although ODS are emitted at the Earth’s surface,
they are eventually carried into the stratosphere in a process that can take as long as
two to five years.
4. Ocean acidification 

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH value of the Earth's oceans,
caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Modern ocean
acidification is caused by the burning of fossil fuels. As the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere increases, the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the ocean also
increases. This leads to a series of chemical reactions in the seawater which has a
negative spillover on the ocean and species living below water. When carbon dioxide
dissolves into seawater, it forms carbonic acid (H 2CO3). Some of the carbonic acid
molecules dissociate into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion, thus increasing ocean
acidity (H+ ion concentration). Between 1751 and 1996, the pH value of the ocean
surface is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14, representing
an increase of almost 30% in H+ ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale is
logarithmic, so a change of one in pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold change in H + ion
concentration). The ocean's pH value as of 2020 was 8.1, meaning it is currently lightly
basic (the pH being higher than 7). Ocean acidification will result in a shift towards a
lower pH value, meaning the water will become less basic and therefore more acidic.
Ocean acidification can lead to decreased production of the shells of shellfish and other
aquatic life with calcium carbonate shells, as well as some other physiological
challenges for marine organisms. The calcium carbonate-shelled organisms cannot
reproduce under high saturated acidotic waters.
5. Invasive species

An invasive species is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and

harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial
with respect to other species, invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions,
causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be
used for native species that become harmful to their native environment after human
alterations to its food web – for example the purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus
purpuratus) which has decimated kelp forests along the northern California coast due to
overharvesting of its natural predator, the California sea otter (Enhydra lutris). Since the
20th century, invasive species have become a serious economic, social, and
environmental threat.

Invasion of long-established ecosystems by organisms is a natural phenomenon, but

human-facilitated introductions have greatly increased the rate, scale, and geographic
range of invasion. For millennia, humans have served as both accidental and deliberate
dispersal agents, beginning with their earliest migrations, accelerating in the age of
discovery, and accelerating again with international trade. Notable examples of invasive
plant species include the kudzu vine, Andean pampas grass, English ivy, Japanese
knotweed, and yellow starthistle. Examples of invasive animals include the New
Zealand mud snail, feral pig, European rabbit, grey squirrel, domestic cat, carp, and
ferret.
6 TYPES OF FOREST IN THE PHILIPPINES