LATERAL LOADING – Tensile and Shear

Strength
The walls of a house should be designed to
supports:
 The vertical loads from the roof and floors,
Masonry is also subject to the pressure of the
wind against the outside walls and must,
therefore be designed to resist:
 The resulting tensile bending stresses and
shear stresses
 Flexural TENSILE STRESS
When a wall supports a lateral loading:
The stress at any particular cross-section may
vary from being compressive at one face to
being tensile at the other face.
 As the resulting tensile stress is due to flexure
of the wall, it is termed the flexural tensile
stress
Flexural TENSILE STRESS
 TENSILE STRESSES
If the tensile stresses which develop exceed the
tensile resistance of the wall
the section will crack.
Cracking will also occur where no tensile
resistance can be developed due, for instance,
to the inclusion of a damp proof course (dpc)
 GOVERN THE DESIGN OF WALL
• An external wall in the lower storey of a multi-
storey building where the vertical loading due
to the roof, floors and walls is large, and the
bending moment due to the wind pressure is
comparatively small.
 the compressive strength of the wall will
govern the design
 GOVERN THE DESIGN OF WALL
An external wall in an upper storey of a multi-
storey building where the vertical loading
from the roof is small and the wind pressure is
at its maximum.
The tensile stress governs the design in this
situation.
 GOVERN THE DESIGN OF WALL
External walls of lightly loaded structures, and
all laterally loaded members which include a
damp proof membranes are incapable of
transferring tensile stresses across the joint.
Thus in this case, the compressive stress
governs the design.
 THE DESIGN OF LATERALLY LOADED
WALLS
This requires an understanding of the
following factors below:
i. characteristic flexural strength
ii. orthogonal ratio
iii. support conditions
iv. limiting dimensions
v. basis of design
CHARACTERISTIC FLEXURAL STRENGTH
OF MASONRY (fkx)
Masonry is a brittle material and its resistance
to flexural tension depends:
On the type of masonry unit,
The mortar grade and,
Most importantly, the bond between the
mortar and the unit.
 CLAY BRICKS
It has been found that, when clay bricks are being
used, the strength of the bond between masonry
units and mortar varies according to their water
absorption properties.
Thus for clay bricks, BS 5628 provides
characteristic flexural strength values for various
ranges of water absorption
Nevertheless, achieving a good bond between
bricks and mortar still depends to a large extent
on the degree of skill and care taken during
construction.
Clay Bricks & Concrete blocks
 supports
• Masonry is not isotropic, i.e. it does not have
similar properties in all directions.
• For example, a square wall panel of masonry
with only vertical supports on each side will
provide a greater resistance to bending due to
lateral loading than if only horizontal supports
were provided at the top and bottom
 SPANNING
 Thus masonry subject to little or no
vertical loading tends to be stronger when
spanning horizontally than when spanning
vertically.
 On the other hand, walls which are subject
to large vertical loading tend to be stronger
when spanning vertically than when spanning
horizontally.
SPANNING
 ORTHOGONAL RATIO (µ)
The ratio of the resistance to bending when
spanning vertically and horizontally is defined as
the orthogonal ratio, µ.
It is used primarily for the calculation of bending
moments in panel wall design.
Where:
fkx/par =characteristic flexural strength parallel to
bed joints
fkx/perp=characteristic flexural strength
perpendicular to bed joints.
 Example
Example : Determine the orthogonal ratio, µ,
for clay bricks having a water absorption of
9%, laid in mortar designation (ii), when no
significant vertical load exists within the panel.
EFFECT OF ANY VERTICAL LOADING
• The effect of any vertical loading in the
member will tend to increase its resistance to
bending when spanning vertically, thus must
be taken into account when determining the
orthogonal ratio.
 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR
• The Code recommends that the design vertical
load should be modified by multiplying the
partial safety factor on materials (γm)
• It should be noted that the value of γf used in
calculating the design vertical load (i.e. γfGk)
should be 0.9, since the vertical load is
beneficial in terms of flexural strength.
 Design moment of resistance
At sections where flexural tension can develop,
that is:
 uncracked sections and
 those where continuity is not broken by the
inclusion of a dpc unable to transfer tensile
stresses
The design moment of resistance is given for:
o members spanning horizontally
o member spanning verticall
Uncracked sections
 Moments of Resistance: Cracked
Sections
Where flexural tension cannot be developed:
i) section is already cracked, or
ii) where a dpc unable to transmit tensile
stresses is provided,
Design moment of resistance to lateral
loading is provided solely by the self-weight
of the member
 Free-standing Walls
Free-standing walls may be:
1. external boundary walls,
2. parapet walls or
3. internal walls where no restraint is provided
to the top or sides of the wall.
They are designed as vertical cantilevers,
allowance being made for the stability
moment due to the self-weight of the wall
 Free-standing Walls
The walls are designed to cantilever, either
from the top of the foundations or from the
point of horizontal lateral restraint
• When stiffer elements, such as piers, are
introduced into a free-standing wall, the
sections of wall between the piers may be
designed as panel walls supported on three
sides, or spanning horizontally
 Code recommends
• The Code recommends that the mortar used
for freestanding walls should:
Not be weaker than designation (iii).
In addition, it recommends limiting the height
of a freestanding wall to twelve times its
effective thickness
 Design Bending Moments
 The design bending moment on a wall is
assessed by taking moments about a particular
point.
The design moment of resistance must be
assessed on the basis of either an uncracked or a
cracked section
Retaining walls are generally considered to be
free-standing walls retaining earth, liquid or
stored material, on one side. The design
procedure is similar to that for free-standing wall
Free-standing Walls
 Panel wall
A non-load-bearing wall which is supported on
a number of sides is usually referred to as a
panel wall.
Mainly used to clad framed buildings. These
walls are primarily designed to resist lateral
loading from the wind.
 SUPPORT CONDITIONS

In order to assess the lateral resistance of

masonry panels it is necessary to take into
account the support conditions at the edges.
Three edge conditions are possible:
(a) a free edge (b) a simply supported edge (c) a
restrained edge.
The bending moments and shear forces capable
of being resisted by panel walls vary with the
edge support conditions
 SUPPORT CONDITIONS
1. A simple support where a panel is
adequately tied to the supporting structure
with metal wall ties, or similar. ‘Tied’, in this
context, means a connection capable of
resisting the tensile or compressive load,
2. Continuity where masonry is provided with
return ends, or is continuous past and tied
to a column or beam
SUPPORT CONDITIONS
 SUPPORT CONDITIONS
Supports are generally formed vertically by:
1) piers,
2) intersecting or return walls, or
3) steel or
4) concrete columns.
Lateral supports are provided by: roofs, floors
and foundations.
 Limiting dimensions
BS 5628 recommends various limiting
dimensions to ensure that panel walls are not
too slender. The recommended heights and
lengths vary according to the support
conditions at the panel edges.
 Limiting dimensions
Panel supported on three edges
(a) two or more sides continuous:
height × length equal to 1500t2ef or less
(b) all other cases:
height × length equal to 1350t2ef or less.
Panel supported on four edges
(a) three or more sides continuous:
height × length equal to 2250t2ef or less;
(b) all other cases: height × length equal to 2025t2ef or less.
Panel simply supported at top and bottom
Height equal to 40 tef or less.
 Design Bending Moment
The design bending moments vary with:
1) design load,
2) vertical and horizontal spans,
3) orthogonal ratio, µ,
4) relevant design bending moment coefficient,
α.
The bending moment coefficient, α, depends on
the edge support conditions
support conditions
 Design Bending Moment
The design bending moment per unit height of a
panel in:
 the horizontal direction:
MA =αWkγfL2
when the plane of bending is perpendicular to the
bed joints,
where α=bending moment coefficient from table
γf=partial safety factor for loads
L=length of the panel between supports
Wk=characteristic wind load per unit area.
 Design Bending Moment
The applied design moment:
Vertical direction: When the plane of bending is
parallel to the bed joints
MA=µαWkγfL2
 Design Moments of Resistance
Design moments of resistance:
Mk perp = fkx perp Z/ γm
Mk par = f kx par Z/γm
fkx perp : characteristic flexural strength perpendicular to
the plane of bending
fkx par : characteristic flexural strength parallel to the
plane of bending
Z: section modulus;
γm : partial safety factor for materials