SHIP CONSTRUCTION

Prepared by : Vijay S. Chavan

Approved by : M. Subramanain
Ques. 1)Draw elevation of general cargo ship showing holds, engine room,
peak tanks, double bottom tanks, hatch ways and position of bulkheads.
Ans. 1)

Ques. 2)a) What is meant by hogging and sagging? Distinguish between

them.
b) Describe the loading conditions which give rise to hogging and
sagging.
c) Describe water pressure load on ship hull.
Ans. 2)a)Sagging:A vessel sags when the middle of its structure sinks below the bow
and stern. Typically in this situation the bow and stern experience more buoyancy force
as compared to her amidships .A loaded tank vessel tends to sag due to the weight of the
cargo in the tank section. It is most noticeable at amidship. Sagging may cause excess
stress if the weight is concentrated in the midship cargo tank section.
Hogging: A vessel hogs when the bow and stern are lower than the midship
section. In this situation midship section experiences more buoyancy as compared to the
extremities. An empty vessel tends to hog because the bow and stern sections weigh more
than the midship. Hogging causes the center of the vessel to carry most of the stress.
Hogging can be avoided with proper loading and ballasting.

b)When a vessel is loaded more at its midship section i.e.at the cargo tank as
compared to the aft and forward ends, then a ship is likely to sag under such
condition.When a ship is loaded more at the aft and forward ends as compared to the
midship section, then the ship is likely to hog. A ship is most vulnerable towards hogging
when she is sailing empty.

c)Water pressure loads create static stresses on the ship’s hull. Since the vessel
displaces the water she is floating in, the water pressure supporting her acts on the entire
underwater portion of the ship’s plating. Pressure increases with depth and so the bottom
parts of the ship must be strengthened to counteract this stress. This pressure causes the
plating to cave inwards.

Ques. 3) a) Describe qualitative stresses set up by liquid slashing in partly

filled tank.
b) What is meant by pounding or slamming?
c) Describe racking stresses and its causes.
Ans. 3)a)When liquid is slashing in a partly filled tank, the center of gravity shifts
upwards towards the metacenter .This gives rise to free surface effect. This in turn results
in a virtual loss of stability. If there is some dynamic force that makes a ship tilt to one
side, the liquid in the tank finds its own level and tends to shift more towards the tilting
side.The center of gravity of the liquid in the tank will also shift. If the ship has enough
buoyancy, it is able to right itself.
However, if the tilt is too big, the shift in the center of gravity of the liquid may become
too big. Instead of righting the ship, the buoyancy force on the ship may even turn the
ship in the same direction of tilt, and the ship rotates and overturns.
To minimize the free surface effect, the ship is fitted with compartments so that there are
several tanks instead of one big tank. Even though the same quantity of liquid is carried,
the center of gravity of individual liquid tanks will also shift, but the summation of all the
centers of gravities does not shift the center of gravity of the ship that significantly as
before.
Another way to minimize the free surface effect is to fill the tanks nearly full. In this case
there is less room for the liquid to move about freely. The shape of the tanks can also be
built to ensure stability, but in most cases, ships are built for maximum storage capacity
and the rectangular cross sectional shape is most feasible.

b)Slamming:Itis the banging of the sea surface by the ship's forward bottom during
pitching. Additional stiffening must be provided in pounding region to reduce the
possibility of damage to structure. The areas of the ship which get affected the most are
the ship’s bow, forecastle, and forepeak and associated tanks.
c) Racking:When a ship is rolling heavily, the deck tends to move laterally relative to
the bottom structure and the shell on one side to move vertically relative to the other side.
This type of deformation is referred to as “racking”. This stress tends to change the
transverse shape of ship.Often it may occur that the vessel is moving through a cross sea,
that is which is crossing from port to starboard or vice versa. In these cases the wave
crests will also encounter the vessel first on one side and then on the other. The ship side
structure will tend to get deformed away from the wave crest, towards the trough.

Ques. 4) Write short notes on:

a) G.A, F.F.A, Shell expansion plan, capacity plan, pumping and piping
arrangement plan and docking plan.
b) Define: frame, floor, transverse beam, deck beam, knees and
brackets.
c) Define: bilges, sounding pipes, manifold, save oil tray, air pipes and
P-V breaker.
Ans. 4)a)General Arrangement:This drawing is made to scale (e.g. 1:300) & is also
displayed prominently in an accommodation alleyway. It has plan & profile view of the
ship showing the arrangement of tanks, holds & important structures on board. Principal
particulars of the ship like LOA, LBP, summer draft, Depth, beam, DWT, etc. are given.
On the plan views of all accommodation and engine room decks, their detailed
arrangement is shown.

Shell Expansion Plan: In this drawing, the arrangement of the shell plating
taken from the three dimensional model is represented in two dimensions. Thus the
drawing shows both the side and bottom plating as a continuous whole. The plates are
numbered and strakes are lettered.
 Fire-fighting Appliances Plan: This drawing gives type, number and
location of fixed (e.g. CO2 fire extinguishing system) and portable (e.g. fire
extinguishers, hoses) fire-fighting appliances. Location of fire doors, dampers and
emergency exits are marked. New regulations require use of colored symbols & a key is
provided explaining the meaning of the symbol. In addition to the display in
accommodation alleyway, copies of the FFA plan are provided at the gangways and
accommodation entrances with the latest crew list.

Capacity Plan:This drawing gives volumetric capacities of all cargo spaces,

ballast tanks, fuel & fresh water tanks. It shows load line details & has a deadweight
scale. This plan is also displayed prominently in an accommodation alleyway.

Pumping & Piping Arrangements:These consist of two main parts, Engine

room arrangements and Hull arrangements including accommodation & cargo. These set
of drawings cover all systems on board like ballast system, cargo system, fresh water,
fuel oil, lubricating oil, sanitary system, etc. The arrangement of various pumps, valves,
suctions, outlets, etc. is shown with the help of symbols. The capacities & types of
pumps, diameter of pipes, and types of valves are some of the details to be found in these
drawings.

Docking Plan:This plan is used by the dry dock to prepare & position blocks
prior arrival of the ship for docking. A body plan provides the ‘form’ of the hull.
Positions of the bottom plugs, sea chests, transducers of navigational aids are marked.
Details of the docking girder & docking bracket are given.

b) Frame:Frames run vertically from the tank margin to the upper deck and support the
side shell. They are in form of bulb plates and are numbered from aft to forward.
Floor:The lower portion of a transverse frame, usually a vertical plate extending from
center line to bilge, and from inner to outer bottom.
Transverse frames:Ribs forming the skeleton of a ship. They could be continuous,
combining side frames and floors. They are located inside a ship, above and
connecting to margin plate or floor plates. Frame spacing is the fore and aft distance
between adjacent frames. A web frame is a heavy side or continuous frame, made with
web plate for extra stiffness.

Knees:Gusset-like members used to connect a beam to a frame. It is a

strengthening member.
Brackets:A triangular plate used to connect rigidly two or more parts, such as a
deck beam to a frame, a frame to a margin plate, etc. for extra strengthening.
 Beam:Beams run transversely and support decks by transmitting the loads to
girders and frames. They are bracketed to the frames by the means of beam knees.
 c) Bilge: It is arrangement to collect and pump out the water & other drained
liquids from holds, engine room or cargo pump room. Water may get collected in the
bilges in cases like:

 Carriage of bulk cargo with water content.

 Ship or cargo sweat.
 Water used for fire extinguishing.
 Bilging after collision, grounding or hull failure.
 Sounding Pipe: It is fitted to every tank, bilge and compartment which is not
readily accessible so that the depth of liquid contained in the space can be checked by
means of sounding tape, rod, etc. It consists of a small dia. pipe extending to the bottom
of the space. At the lower end of the pipe or on the bottom plating, a striker plate is
fitted to prevent wear down of plating where the sounding rod repeatedly strikes
throughout the ship’s life. The upper end of the sounding pipe has a cover or a plug.
 Manifold:It is a series of pipes that have several lateral outlets to or from other
pipes. There could be bunker manifolds found on all ships besides the larger, more
complicated cargo manifolds on different types of tankers.
 Save oil tray:Anything which saves fragments, or prevents waste or loss. It is in
the form of a trough with a drainage point that can be secured. Another name for it is drip
tray. Only difference is it is bigger in size than save oil tray.

Air Pipe:Air pipes are the means by which air can flow in & out of a tank when
it is being filled, pumped out or when vessel is in motion. They are fitted at corners of the
tank, at the opposite end from the filling pipe & at the highest point of the tank. They
must be capable of being closed which is achieved by float type arrangements or
gasketflaps.
PV Breaker:Every inert gas system is required to be fitted with one or more
pressure/vacuum breakers or other approved devices. These are designed to protect the
cargo tanks against excessive pressure or vacuum and must therefore be kept in good
working order by regular maintenance in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. When these breakers are liquid filled, it is important to ensure that the
correct fluid is used and the correct level is maintained. The level can normally only be
checked when there is no pressure in the inert gas main line. Evaporation, condensation
and possible ingress of sea water should be taken into consideration when checking the
liquid condition and level.

Ques. 5) a) Draw and write notes on longitudinal, transverse and combined

frame system.
b) Compare single bottom and double bottom structure of oil tankers
c) Describe stress concentration in the deck round hatch opening and how
are they compensated.
Ans. 5)a)Longitudinal Framing System
The longitudinal framing system consists of many small, closely spaced
longitudinals supporting the plating directly and being supported in turn by a few large,
widely spaced longitudinals.Longitudinal stiffeners spaced about 24 to 36 inches apart
give direct support to the plating of the deck, sides, bottom, and bulkheads. They
also contribute to the longitudinal strength of the ship, making the longitudinal framing
system more structurally efficient than the transverse system. The bottom longitudinal on
the centerline, or center girder, is extra large and heavy, principally to carry the loads
imposed by keelblocks during drydocking. Very deep, heavy transverse structures called
transverse webs or web frames are constructed at intervals of about 10 to 16 feet to
provide transverse strength and to support the longitudinals. These heavy transverse webs
consist of deck, side, and bottom transverses plus a vertical web on each longitudinal
bulkhead.

Transverse Framing System

This framing system consists of many small, closely spaced transverse stiffeners and
fewer larger, widely spaced longitudinal stiffeners. The transverse stiffeners are arranged
so as to form structural rings that are closely spaced (from about 24 to 40 inches)
throughout the length of the ship. Tracing the ring around the girth of the ship shown in
the figure, we see that it consists of a deck beam under each deck, side frames supporting
the side shell plating, and a deep floor plate supporting both the bottom plating and tank
top (or inner bottom) plating. At each "corner" of the ring, brackets connect the members-
beam knees at the deck beam to side frame connection, and margin brackets (also called
hold frame brackets) connecting side frames to the floors. These frame rings with their
brackets provide transverse strength to the structure, helping to maintain the cross-
sectional shape of the hull, but they do not contribute anything to the ship's longitudinal
strength.

Longitudinal strength in a transversely framed ship is provided by the shell plating and
inner bottom plating, by the deck plating outboard of hatch and machinery casing
openings, and by anumber of large, widely spaced longitudinal members. Longitudinal
deck girders support the deck beams. Deck girders adjacent to the hatches are called
hatch side girders. In addition to providing longitudinal strength, deck girders reduce the
span (length between supports) of deck beams so that the beams will not have to be very
deep. The longitudinals in the double bottom are the center girder or center vertical keel,
and the side girders, located so as to be directly beneath the deck girders to provide a
rigid foundation for pillars as necessary to support the deck girders. Additional deck
girders and side girders in the double bottom are provided in ships with a large beam, the
typical spacing between girders being about 15 feet.

Combined Frame System

In combined framing system both longitudinal and transverse framing system are used in
combination. It is also known as “Composite framing system”.

b)Double Bottom Structure :A double bottomis a ship hull design and

construction method where the bottom of the ship has two complete layers of
watertight hull surface: one outer layer forming the normal hull of the ship, and a
second inner hull which is somewhat higher in the ship, perhaps a few feet, which
forms a redundant barrier to seawater in case the outer hull is damaged and
leaks.A double bottom also conveniently forms a stiff and strong girder or beam
structure with the two hull plating layers as upper and lower plates for a composite
beam. This greatly strengthens the hull in secondary hull bending and
strength, and to some degree in primary hull bending and strength.
Double Bottom is a construction method used in the construction of a ship. The
double bottom space is formed by fitting of additional plating above the bottom
plating, extending from side to side and over most of the length of the vessel. The
inner bottom plating is called the Tank Top is constructed to provide a watertight
space below it. This watertight space is called a double bottom tank. Most dry
cargo ships and bulk carriers are fitted with double bottoms. Many tankers are also
being constructed with thesestructural arrangements. Double bottom may be
framed longitudinally or transversely but where the ship’s length exceeds 120m, it
is considered desirable to adopt longitudinal framing. Typically, double bottom
depths vary from 1-1.5m.
 Single Bottom Structure:In smaller ships having single bottom the vertical
plate open floors are fitted at every frame space and are stiffened at their upper
edge. A centerline girder is fitted and one side girder is fitted on each side of the
centerline where the beam is less than 10m. Where the beam is between 10 and
17cm, two side girders are fitted and if any bottom shell panel has a width to
length ratio greater than 4 then four additional continuous or intercostal stiffeners
are fitted. The continuous center and intercostal side girders are stiffened at their
upper edge and extend as far forward and aft as possible.

A double bottom structure is preferred over a single bottom structure due to its
more compliance to MARPOL and SOLAS regulations.
c) Often it may occur that a high density load may be placed in only one hold of the
ship. This will cause the force of gravity exceed the force of buoyancy in that local
region. The bottom structure will tend to sag outwards.
Although various Stress calculation machines with different makers are available, the
basic inputs and outputs stay generally similar. The general inputs include: Lightship,
Weight of cargo in different cargo compartments, the weight of liquids in tanks, the
weights of stores and unpumpable liquids, the ship’s constant and any other defined
weights and the density of the water that the vessel is floating in .

The general outputs include: the calculated drafts, the calculated metacentric height, the
calculated free surface effects, the values of shearing forces and bending moments at the
various frames and the stability parameters for the given condition.

The Ship Structural Monitoring System (SMS) is a computer based system for
monitoring the structural behavior of ships during all phases of operations. This system
displays reports of stresses and ship motions in real time as well as providing warnings
when values approach levels that require corrective action. Even the most experienced
Captain can at times find it difficult to interpret the complex motions of today's large
vessels. The SMS extends the bridge officer's ability to feel what is happening
structurally with the vessel and gives it a quantitative value. The outputs indicate the real
time bending moments on the ships structure at various frames.
In some modern day stress monitoring systems , a Wave Max Calculator
estimates the wave height, wave period, and wave direction relative to the ship's
heading, along with the loading condition and ship speed, based on data collected by the
SMS sensors over the last 20-minute period. Secondly, it predicts the ship motions and
probability of bow emersion and slamming over the next 20-minute period

Ques.6) a) Draw and describe construction of stern frame of single screw

ship.
b) Draw and describe construction of Transom stern and Cruiser
stern.
Ans.6)a) Single Screw Ship:
Stern frame is one of the most important structures found beneath the stern of the
ship and in the way of the propeller. The stern frame supports the propeller shaft and the
propeller and rudder. The bottom portion of the stern frame extends out aft to form the
sole piece which supports the bottom bearing of the rudder. The upper end of the stern
frame supports the upper bearing of the rudder. The stern frames may be cast at a
foundry on order from the shipyard. This is usually done in pieces and assembled at the
yard, the joints being called SCARPHS. However, in modern day shipyards, it is a
common practice to fabricate the stern frame at the yard itself as this is cheaper and
quicker.

b) Transom Stern:
The transom stern, with its straight line form, lends itself well to
current manufacturing techniques. It also provides a greater deck area aft and is
currently much used for a variety of ship types.
Deep solid-plate floors are also a feature of the transom stern construction,
together with a centerline girder. The flat plate of the transom stern construction,
however, allows use of vertical stiffeners around the shell plating.The vertical
stiffeners is bracketed to the floor and to the deck beams which run transversely
across the stern. A deep horizontal stringer can provide addition stiffening to the shell
plating if required. A deep centre girder runs beneath each of the decks at the stern
and is bracketed to the deep web at the centerline of the after shell plating. This web is
likewise bracketed to the various floors in the stern and finally to the solid-plate floor
construction below.
Cruiser Stern:
The cruiser stern is rarely used in modem construction but it is still to be
seen in a large proportion of the ships at sea.
The construction of the cruiser stern ensures adequate resistance to any pounding
stresses which may occur. Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space and a
heavy centerline girder is fitted below each of the decks in the stern. A centerline web
as a continuation of the centerline girder is fitted at the after end shell plate and runs
down to the centerline girder in the flooring region.
Ques. 7) a) Sketch and describe the construction of bulbous bow.
b) Write down the advantages of bulbous bow over conventional bow.
Ans. 7) a)Bulbous Bow:
It consists of a vertical plate web which stiffens the free edge of the breast hooks
fitted right forward in the bulb. Deepframes with panting beams are fitted at every
frame space with a wash bulkhead on the centerline. The panting stringers consist of
perforated plates running the full width and length of the bulb. Another vertical plate
web joins the bulb to the fore end structure. A small stem casting connects the top of
the bulb to the plate stem above the load waterline. The numerous manholes cut into
the structure permit access to all parts of the bulb. The anchor and cable arrangements
must ensure that the bulb is not fouled during any part of the operation. A Bulbous
bow is characterized by a protruding bulb at the bow (or front) of the ship below the
waterline. Due to this, a bulbous bow is usually only visible when a ship is in dry
dock.
 b)Advantages of Bulbous bow over conventional bow:
A bow designed with a bulb under the water creates another wave that has a phase
difference of 180 degrees against the ships original wave.
The presence of this bulb modifies how water flows around the hull, thereby reducing
drag and affording an increase in speed, range, and fuel efficiency.
In ships that have had bulbous bows fitted, gains in fuel efficiency of between 12-
15% are standard.

Ques. 8) a) Describe:
i) Chain Lock Arrangement
ii) Spurling Pipe
iii) Hawse Pipe
iv) Bitter End
b) Explain anchor securing arrangement before sailing .
Ans. 8) a) i) Chain Lock arrangement:The chain locker is normally fitted forward
of the collision bulkhead. It is of dimensions adequate to house all the anchor cable and
still leave a considerable empty space above. Two lockers or a centrally divided single
locker will be fitted for x port and starboard anchor cables. The chain locker should be as
low as practicable to reduce the height of the centre of gravity of the considerable mass of
the cables. A perforated false floor or grating is fitted at the bottom to provide drainage
well and keep the cable out of mud and water.The chain locker consists of a plate
structure with vertical stiffeners around the outside. Plate webs which form part of the
ship’s internal structure are also utilized for stiffening. A raised perforated false floor is
fitted and supported by solid floors. The well thus formed is connected to the bilge
system and should be emptied every time the anchor is raised.

ii) Spurling pipe:The spurling pipe is manufactured of heavy plate

with a solid round bar as a chaffing ring on the lower edge. Brackets
radiate from the spurling pipe to the chain locker sides to strengthen
the forecastle deck and the Spurling pipe. A U-section plate welded
to the side with footholes cut in provides access to the bottom of the
chain locker from a watertight door at the upper deck. Provision is
also made for securing the final link of the anchor cable.
iii) Hawse Pipe:The hawse pipe is fitted to enable a smooth run of the
anchor cable to the windlass and to maintain the watertight integrity
of the forecastle. It should be of ample size to pass the cable without
snagging when raising or lowering the anchor. Construction is
usually of thick plating which is attached to a doubling plate at the
forecastle deck and a reinforced strake of plating at the side shell. A
rubbing or chaffing ring is also fitted at the outside shell. A sliding
plate cover is shaped to fit over the cable and close the opening
when the ship is at sea.

iv) Bitter End:The last link of the anchor cable which is termed as the
Bitter End. It is attached to the structure of the chain locker and
should have a mechanism of being released in an emergency.
b) The following steps are to be followed to secure anchors for sea:

 Anchor should be stowed right up in the hawse pipe

 Disengage the gear and tighten the brake on the windlass
 Secure the Bow Stopper
 The anchor cable is further to be secured to the Devil’s Claws on main deck
by means of a wire and turnbuckle arrangement
 The Hawse pipe covers must be secured in place
 The spurling pipe covers must be put in place and cemented as required.
 Anchor lashings are to be regularly checked at sea and adjusted as required.
Ques. 9) a) Draw and describe cargo bilge arrangement.
b) Sketch and describe tank vent and sounding pipe arrangement.
Ans. 9)a)Bilge arrangements are provided in all dry cargo ships and bulk carriers to
drain out holds when these spaces are hosed down or when water accumulates in these
spaces. Modern ships have the tank top extending to the ships side and the bilge is
situated in the aft part of the hold in the form of a Bilge well on either sides.The bilge
suction is fitted in the well itself with a suitable strainer fitted to eliminate larger debris
like dunnage or remains of cargo. The bilges are pumped out either by using pumps or
eductors in some cases.
 b)Vent:Vent (also known as Air pipes) are means by which air can flow into and
out of the tank when it is being filled in or pumped out. They are fitted at the outboard
corners of the tank at opposite ends from the filling pipes at the highest point of the tank
usually forward. Closing arrangements may be by the way of gasket flaps with butterfly
nuts or by float type arrangements. The latter type is used normally for ballast tanks and
fuel tanks and is capable of sustaining high inflow/outflow rates. Spark arrestors are fitted
when the air pipe serves a fuel oil tank or any other space containing flammable liquid.
 Sounding Pipe:
Sounding pipes are fitted in tanks, bilge and compartment not readily
accessible so that the depth of accumulated liquid can be checked. They usually consist
of vertically erect pipes with as few bends as possible extending from the upper deck to
the bottom of the compartment. At the bottom end of the sounding pipe is a striker plate
to prevent wear down of the bottom material. The upper end of the sounding pipe is
secured by a cover.
Ques. 10) Distinguish:
a) LBP and LOA
b) Molded beam and Extreme beam
c) Draught and Freeboard
d) Shaft tunnel and duct keel
Ans. 10)a) LBP:The length between the forward and aft perpendiculars measured
along the summer load line.

LOA:Length of vessel taken over all extremities.

 b) Molded Beam:Measured at the midship section is the maximum molded
breadth of the ship.

Extreme Beam:The maximum beam taken over all extremities.

c) Draught:Measured from the base line to the summer load line at the midship
section.

Freeboard:The vertical distance measured at the ship’s side between the

summer load line (orservice draft) and the freeboard deck. The freeboard deck is
normally the uppermost completedeckexposed to weather and sea which has
permanent means of closing all openings,andbelowwhichall openings in the ship’s
side have watertight closings.

d) Shaft Tunnel:An internal passage which runs from the main engine to the
aft part of the ship through which the main engine shaft passes and extends out
to the propeller.
Duct Keel:Some double bottoms have a duct keel fitted along the centerline.
This is an internal passage of watertight construction running some distance along
the length of the ship,often from the forepeak to the forward machinery space
bulkhead. Use is made of this passage to carry the pipework along the length of
the ship to the various holds or tanks. An entrance is usually provided at the
forward end of the machinery space via a watertight manhole. No duct keel is
necessary in the machinery space or aft of it, since pipe work will run above the
engine room double bottom and along the shaft tunnel, where one is fitted.
Ques. 11) a) Explain the various types of hatch covers and their opening
arrangements.
b) What do you understand by hatch coaming and tween deck?
Ans. 11) a) Various types of hatch covers and their opening arrangements
are as follows:
i) Single Pull:Single pull covers may be opened or closed by built in electric
motors in the leading cover panel (first out of stowage) which drive chain wheels,
one on each outboard side of the panel. Each panel wheel is permanently engaged
on a fixed chain located along each hatch side coaming. In operation the leading
panel pushes the others into stowage and pulls them into the closed position.
Alternatively single pull covers are opened or closed by hydraulic or electric
motors situated on the hatch end coaming at the ships centre line driving endless
chains running along the full length of the hatch side coaming port and starboard
and connected to the leading panel.

ii) Folding:Folding covers may be of direct pull type where suitable lifting gear is
carried onboard or can be opened or closed by externally mounted hydraulic cylinders
actuating the leading panels.

iii) Piggy Back:Piggy back covers permit horizontal stowage of panels avoiding
fouling of lifting devices particularly in way of very large openings such as on bulk
carriers and container ships where the hatch need only be partially open for working.The
covers consist of a dumb panel which is raised by high lift cylinders and a motorized
panel which is rolled underneath the dumb panel. Both panels can then be moved ‘piggy
back’ style to the fully opened hatch position port or starboard or partially opened
position fore and aft.

iv) Pontoon:Pontoon covers are commonly used on container ships being lifted by the
ships or shore cranes with the container spreader. They are closed weathertight in a
similar manner to the other patent covers.

v) Side rolling:Side rolling is very common on large bulk carriers and can operate on
similar principles to the single pull cover except that they remain in the horizontal stowed
position when the hatch is open.
 b) Hatch Coaming:The edges of all hatch openings are framed by hatch
coamings. On the weather deck the coamings must be at a minimum height of 600 mm
according to the load line regulations. This is to reduce the risk of water entry to the
holds.Coaming is any vertical surface on a ship designed to deflect or prevent entry of
water. It usually refers to raised section of deck plating around an opening, such as a
hatch. Coamings also provide a frame onto which to fit a hatch cover.
 Tween Deck:Tween decker is general cargo ships with two or sometimes three
deck. The upper deck is called the main deck or weather deck, and the lower deck is
tween deck. Beneath the tween deck is the hold space used for general cargo.
Ques. 12) a) Explain the concepts of single skin and double skin
construction.
b) What is Plimsoll line? Explain with suitable settings.
c) What do you understand by pounding?
Ans. 12)a)In single skin construction of ships there is only one water tight hull,
which is forming the hull of the ship. This type of hull construction was generally
used in older days. This type of construction used to leave the ship vulnerable
during the grounding or even in the low energy collisions. In order to overcome
the drawbacks of the single skin hull, the ships with double hull constructions
were introduced. These ships were provided with one extra complete watertight
skin along with the outside skin. This construction prevents the flooding beyond
the penetrated compartment. Double hull structure is most prominently used in the
tanker ships, so as to avoid any spillage of oil or any other hazardous fluid into
the sea in case of grounding or rupture of the outside hull in case of the collision.
Overall, the double hull construction provides the added safety to the ship as
compared to the single hull type construction.
 b) Plimsoll Line:
Plimsoll line also known as “Load line marking” are the markings on the
ship’s side along the mid-length position on port and starboard side. The marks indicate
the maximum depth to which the ship can be submerged in different seasonal zones and
density of water.Themaximum summer draught is indicated by a load line mark. This
consists of a ring of 300 mm outside diameter and 25 mm wide, intersected by a
horizontal line 450 mm long and 25 mm wide. The upper edge of this line passes
through the centre of the ring. The ring is positioned at midship and at a distance below
the upper edge of the deck line which corresponds to the assigned minimum summer
freeboard. This value may not be less than 50 mm.
 c) Pounding:
Pounding or Slamming is the banging of the sea surface by the ship's
forward bottom during pitching. The areas of the ship which get affected the
most are the ships bow, forecastle, forepeak and associated tanks.

Ques. 13) a) Explain degrees of freedom with reference to various

movements and motions that a ship undergoes during sailing.
b) What are the various stresses undergone by a ship structure
due to static loading and dynamic loading?
Ans. 13) a)Ship undergoes 6 degrees of freedom during sailing which is as follows:
a) Surge: Fore or Forward and Aft or Backward movement is termed as
surge.
b) Sway: Transverse movement or moving left and right is termed as
sway.
c)Heave: Vertical movement or moving up and down.
d) Roll: Movement about fore and aft axis or tilting side to side is termed
as roll.
e) Pitch: Movement about transverse axis or tilting forward and backward
is termed as pitch.
f) Yaw: Movement about a vertical axis or turning left and right is termed
as yaw.
 b)A ship is said to be under static loading when it is floating in a still water,
whereas dynamic loading comes into picture when a ship is sailing in moving water or
waves. Various types of stresses which a ship undergoes due to these loadings are :

i) Longitudinal stresses

ii) Transverse stresses

iii) Localized stress

Ques. 14) Explain the arrangement provided to prevent water ingress

through the propeller shaft?
Ans. 14)Different sealing arrangements are used to prevent water ingress and oil
leakage, they are as follows:

i) Stuffing boxes consisting of packing materials

ii) Lip seals in contact with the shaft to prevent passage of oil or water along
the shaft.
iii) Radial face seals supported with springs fitted radially around the shaft, aft
bulkheads and after end of the stern tube.

Out of these, the lip seal arrangement is most popularly used.

Ques. 15) Sketch and Describe:
a) Tumblehome
b) Camber
c) Bilge radius
d) Rise of floor
e) Flat Keel

Ans. 15)a) Tumblehome:The inward curvature of the side shell above the
summer load line.

b) Camber:Curvature of decks in the transverse direction. Measured as the

height of deck atcenter above the height of deck at side.
 c) Bilge Radius:Curvature of bilge strake at the bottom side of the ship running
along the length. There are two motives for keeping the bilge radius small which are
as follows:

i) The greater resistance to rolling provided by a “square bilge”.

ii) The easier cargo stowage (room in which things are stored) of a squarer
hold.

d) Rise of floor:The rise of the bottom shell plating line above the base line.
This rise is measured at the line of molded beam.

e) Flat Keel:The keel runs along the bottom, connecting the stem and stern, and
to it are attached the frames of the ship. It may contain various piping systems, valves,
sounding points and other equipment. It normally has two accesses at each end which
can be sealed watertight.
Ques. 16) Define load displacement, light displacement, displacement,
dead weight, total dead weight.
Ans. 16) Load Displacement:The mass of the hull and everything aboard when
floating at the summer waterline.
Light Displacement or lightship:The mass of the vessel with no cargo, crew stores,
fuel etc.Includes water in boilers to working levels and hydraulic fluid.
Displacement (D):Any value between lightship and load.
Deadweight (DWT):The difference between lightship and the displacement.
Total Deadweight:The difference between lightship and the load displacement.

Ques. 17) What is the importance of classification societies during the

lifetime of the ship?
Ans. 17)Classification societies are organizations that establish and apply technical
standards in relation to the design, construction and survey of marine related facilities
including ships and offshore structures. The vast majority of ships are built and surveyed
to the standards laid down by classification societies. These standards are issued by the
classification society as published rules. A vessel that has been designed and built to the
appropriate rules of a society may apply for a certificate of classification from that
society. The society issues this certificate upon completion of relevant classification
surveys.Class is assigned to a ship upon the completion of satisfactory surveys,
undertaken in order to check compliance with the rules of the society, at the time of new
building. Classed ships are subject to surveys to continue in class. These surveys include
the class renewal (also called “special survey”), intermediate survey, annual survey, and
bottom/docking surveys of the hull. They also include tail shaft survey, boiler survey,
machinery surveys and, where applicable, surveys of items associated with the
maintenance of additional class notations. The surveys are to be carried out in accordance
with the relevant class requirements in order to confirm that the condition of the hull,
machinery, equipment and appliances is in compliance with the applicable rules.
Ques. 18) Write short note on:
a) Windlass
b) Winches.
Ans. 18)Windlass:The windlass is the lifting device for the anchor cables or chains
and is also used for mooring and winching duties. Various drums or barrels can be
‘clutched in’ to perform the different duties. For raising the anchor, the cable lifting drum
is engaged. This is a barrel with specially shaped ‘snugs’ which the cable links fit into
and pass round before dropping into the chain locker via the Spurling pipe. The anchor
cable is allowed to lower under its own weight with the lifting drum declutched, while
the brake band around it is used to control the speed of descent.

Winches:A mooring winch is used during mooring operations to hold a ship

in place. Such winches may also be able to control anchors for mooring when port
facilities are not available. It has the ropes with which the ship is secured at the
port to avoid any motion of ship.
Ques. 19) What are the various types of bulkhead employed in ship
construction.
Ans. 19)There are mainly three types of bulkheads employed in ship construction
namely:
i) Water tight bulkhead: The transverse watertight bulkheads subdivide
the ship into a number of watertight compartments and their number is
dictated by classification society regulations. They can be of corrugated
shape in order to provide extra strength.
ii) Oil tight bulkheads:Oil tight bulkheads form the boundaries of tanks
used for the carriage of liquid cargoes or fuels.
iii) Non water tight bulkheads:Non-watertight bulkheads are any other
bulkheads such the engine casing, accommodation partitions or stores
compartments.
 Ques. 20) What are the types of rudder? Describe with diagrams.
Ans. 20) The shape of a rudder plays an important part in its efficiency. The area of the
rudder is approximately 2% of the product of the length of the ship and the designed
draught. Since the vertical dimensions of the rudder are somewhat restricted due to the
area constraint as mentioned above, the fore and aft dimensions are increased. Again due
to this increased dimensions the torque necessary to turn this rudder is overcome by
fitting balanced or semi balanced rudders. Such a rudder has about 1/3rd of the rudder
area forward of the turning axis.
An ideal rudder is one where the centre of pressure and the turning axis coincide for all
angles of the helm. An unbalanced rudder consists of a number of pintles and gudgeons,
the top pintle being the locking pintle which prevents any vertical movement in the
rudder and the pintle And gudgeon taking the weight of the rudder.
 Ques. 21)Explain Dry docking ?
Ans. 21) A drydock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a vessel
floated in, then drained to allow that vessel to rest on a dry platform. Drydocks are
used for the maintenance and repair of ships and other watercraft. Preparation for dry
dock begins after the ship sails from the last docking. A dry-dock list of new items is
created with specification sheets describing individual jobs. These sheets are
compiled into a dry dock file and from this document the Ship Manager will develop
a full docking specification which will be sent to various repair yards for costing. The
jobs are priced individually and as a whole. This allows the ship managers to
streamline the jobs to provide maximum value for money.

 Types of Drydocks
 Graving dock
  Floating drydock

 Some Important facts about dry docking:

1. It is financially expensive.

2. Technically necessary.

3. Physically taxing.

4. Hazardous operation.

5. Mandatory requirement
 Instructions prior to Dry Docking:
The following items are to be carried out by Chief
Engineer Officer in conjunction with the Chief Officer prior to
docking of the Ship:
1. The international shore connection is in good condition and all
bolts and flanges are available.

2. Ship/shore electrical breaker is in good condition and all Officers

know how to operate this breaker. The Chief Engineer Officer is
to record the reading of the power meter with the shore
contractors, when the power is connected.

3. The Ship enters dock at an even keel or no more than 0.5 meters
by the stern.
4. A set of main engine deflections are taken before the Ship
touches the blocks.

5. All tanks are sounded and recorded

6. The bilges in the pump room and engine room are empty, clean
and dry.

7. All waste oil tanks are empty and dry.

8. All valves which are to be overhauled are clearly tagged and

numbered. Please note, the only valves to be overhauled are the valves
listed in the specification for dry dock.

9. All work items as per dry dock specification are clearly marked and
numbered.

10. Piping is ready for the connection of cooling water for domestic
services and air conditioning and that all engineering Officers can
operate this system.

11. The emergency lighting system works correctly.

12. The emergency alternator is operating correctly.

13. The sewage plant has been flushed through with salt water for a
period of about one week prior to docking.

14. Main engine sump tank is to be pumped up to the renovation tank

on finished with engines whilst docking.

15. The tail shaft wear down gauge is onboard and operating correctly.

16. All tools are available which are necessary for the removal of
the propeller.