Semiconductors p-type & n-type

LECTURE 1
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Jayant Nagda
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Electronic devices Electronic devices are important part of our
daily lives and they are utilized in various fields like
telecommunication, entertainment, computers and
many more.

All such electronic devices require a controlled flow

of electrons in them, such devices make the basic
building blocks of all the electronic circuits.
Electronics Electronics comprises the physics, engineering,
technology and applications that deal with the
emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum
and matter.

The identification of the electron in 1897,

along with the subsequent invention of the
vacuum tube which could amplify and rectify
small electrical signals, is an every evolving process.
Vacuum Tubes In these the electrons can flow only from the
cathode to the anode (i.e., only in one direction).
Therefore, such devices are generally referred to
as valves.

These vacuum tube devices are bulky, consume

high power, operate generally at high voltages
(~100 V) and have limited life and low reliability.
Semiconductors

Semiconductor devices are

● small in size,
● consumes less power,
● have long life times
● more efficient than vacuum tubes
● but also are of low cost.

Since the discovery of transistor in 1948,

rapid advancement in electronics which we see today
are due to the valuable contributions of semiconductor
devices.
Semiconductors

Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Energy Levels In an atom, electrons revolve in different
orbit around nucleus.

In isolated atom the valence electrons

can exist only in one of the allowed orbitals
each of a sharply defined energy called energy levels.

But when two atoms are brought nearer to each other,

there are alterations in energy levels and they spread in
the form of bands.
Energy Bands However, an atom in a solid is in the influence of
neighboring atoms.

In a crystal of N-atoms each energy level is in influence

of all the atoms and so splits into N close sub levels.
 Energy Bands

Inside the crystal

each electron has a
unique position and
no two electrons
see exactly the same
pattern of surrounding charges.

Because of this,
each electron will have
a different energy level.

These different energy

levels with continuous
energy variation form what are
called energy bands.
 Types of Energy Bands

The energy band formed by a series of energy levels containing

valence electrons is called Valence Band.

The higher energy level band to valence band is called Conduction Band.
Types of Energy Bands
1. Valence Band
The highest energy band containing electrons is called Valence Band.

● This band is always fulfill by electron.

● This is the band of maximum energy.
● Electrons are not capable of gaining
energy from external electric field.
● No flow of current due to such electrons.
● The highest energy level which can be
occupied by an electron in valence band
at 0 K is called fermi level.
Types of Energy Bands

2. Conduction Band
The higher energy level band is called the conduction band.

● It is also called empty band of minimum energy.

● This band is partially filled by the electrons.
● In this band the electrons can gain energy
from external electric field.
● The electrons in the conduction band
are called the free electrons. They are able to
move anywhere within the volume of the solid.
● Current flows due to such electrons.
Types of Energy Bands
3. Forbidden Energy Gap (ΔEg)
Energy gap between conduction band and valence band

ΔEg= (C.B.)min - (V.B.)max

a. No free electron present in forbidden

energy gap.

a. Width of forbidden energy gap depends

upon the nature of substance.
Types of Solids

max.

min.

max.

min.
 On the basis of band structure of crystals,
Types of Solids solids are divided in three categories

Properties Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

Energy gap Zero or very Very large; for Ge Eg = 0.7 eV

small diamond 6 eV
for Si Eg = 1.1 eV

Condition of V.B. and C.B. V.B. – V.B. –somewhat empty

are completely completely filled
Valance Band filled or
(V.B.) and C.B. –
Condcution Band C.B. is completely C.B. – somewhat filled
(C.B.) somewhat unfilled
empty
at ordinary
temperature
Example Carbon, Silicon and Germanium have four valence
electrons each. At room temperature which one of the
following statements is most appropriate?
[AIEEE 2007]

A. The number of free electrons for conduction is

significant only in Si and Ge but small in C.

The number of free electrons is significant in C

B. but small in Si and Ge.

The number of free conduction electrons is

C.
negligibly small in all the three.

The number of free electrons for conduction is

D. significant in all the three.
 Properties Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

Current carrier Free electrons –– Free electrons and

holes

Electron density 1029/m3 — Ge ~ 1019 /m3

Si ~ 1016 /m3

Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Na, Wood, plastic, Ge, Si, Ga, As etc.
Pt, Hg etc. mica, diamond,
glass etc.
 Properties Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

Electrical Conductivity 102 to 108 Ʊ/m 10-11 to 10-19 Ʊ/m 105 to 10-6 Ʊ/m

Resistivity 10–2 to 10–8 Ω-m 1011 to 1019 Ω-m 10-5 to 106 Ω-m
(negligible)

Temperature coefficient of resistance Positive Zero Negative

(α)

Effect of temperature on resistance Increases — Decreases

Effect of temperature on conductivity Decreases — Increases

Example Temperature of a semiconductor is changed from
room temperature to 273 K. Then which statement is
correct for that semiconductor -

A. Conductance increases
B. Resistance decreases
C. Conductance decreases
D. None
Example
A strip of copper and another of germanium are
cooled from room temperature to 80K.
The resistance of [AIEEE 2003]

A. Each of these decreases

B. Copper strip increases and that of germanium
decreases
C. Copper strip decreases and that of germanium
increases
D. Each of these increases
 Example
Choose only false statement from the following -
A. In conductors the valence and conduction band overlap
B. Substance with energy gap of the order of 10 eV
are insulators.
C. The resistivity of a semiconductor increase with
increase in temperature.
D. The conductivity of semiconductor increase with
increase in temperature

Ans: C
Holes At absolute zero temperature (0 K)
Conduction band of semiconductor is completely
empty and the semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
 Example
At absolute zero, Si acts as
[AIEEE 2002]

A. Non -metal B. Metal

C. Insulator D. None of these

Ans: C
Holes

When temperature increases the valence electrons acquires

thermal energy to jump to the conduction band (Due to the
breaking of covalent bond). If they jumps to C.B. they leave
behind the deficiency of electrons in the valence band.
This deficiency of electron is known as hole or cotter.
 Holes

A hole is considered as a seat of

positive charge, having magnitude of
charge equal to that of an electron.
Holes 1. Holes acts as virtual positive charge,
although there is no physical charge on it.
2. Effective mass of hole is more than electron.
3. Mobility of hole is less than electron.
4. holes are usually slower because they stay in
the valence energy band while electrons can be
in the conduction bands.
5. The drift velocity of
electrons (ve) is
greater than that
of holes (vh)
Example

The mobility of free electrons is greater than that

of free holes because

A. they carry negative charge.

B. mutual collision in them is less.
C. they require low energy to continue their motion
D. none of these
Types of Semiconductors
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
A Pure Semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor.
It has thermally generated current carriers.

1. They have four electrons in the outermost orbit of

atom and atoms are held together by covalent bond
2. Free electrons and holes both are charge carriers and
ne(in C.B.) = nh(in V.B.)
Types of Semiconductors
1. Intrinsic semiconductor

3. In pure semiconductor, impurity must be less than 1 in 108 parts.

4. Because of less number of charge carriers at room temperature,

intrinsic semiconductors have low conductivity so they have no practical use.

5. For them fermi energy level lies

at the centre of the C.B. and V.B.
Net Current and Conductivity
When some potential difference is applied across a
piece of intrinsic semiconductor current flows in it
due to both electron and holes

where ve = drift velocity of electron,

vh = drift velocity of holes,

Hence conductivity of semiconductor

Example If the ratio of the concentration of electrons to that of holes
in a semiconductor is 7/5 and the ratio of currents is 7/4,
then what is the ratio of their drift velocities?
[AIEEE 2006]
A. 5/8 B. 4/5

C. 5/4 D. 4/7
Extrinsic Semiconductor

1. It is also called impure semiconductor.

2. The process of adding impurity is called Doping.
Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pentavalent Impurity

The elements whose atom has five valence

electrons are called Pentavalent impurities

e.g. As, P, Sb etc.

These are also called donor impurities.

They donates extra free electron.

Also called N-type Semiconductors

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Trivalent Impurity

The elements whose each atom has

three valence electrons are called
trivalent impurities

e.g. In, Ga, Al, B, etc.

These impurities are also called

acceptor impurities as they accept
electron.

Also called P-type Semiconductors

 N-type Semiconductors P-type Semiconductors

Majority charge carriers – electrons Majority charge carriers – holes

Minority charge carriers – Minority charge carriers –

holes electrons

ne >> nh ; ie >> ih nh >> ne ; ih >> ie

Conductivity σ ≈ neμee Conductivity σ ≈ nhμhe

Example A semiconductor is known to have an
electron concentration of 8 × 1013 per cm3 and
hole concentration of 5 × 1012 per cm3.
The semiconductor is -

A. n-type B. p-type

C. intrinsic D. none of these

 Example
If ne and nh are the number of electrons and holes in a
semiconductor heavily doped with phosphorus, then -

A. ne >> nh B. ne ≤ nh
C. ne << nh D. none

Ans: A
Net Current and Conductivity

In intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh
and in extrinsic semiconductors;

n-type, ne >> nh
and p-type, ne << nh

If n is the charge density of either type of

charge carrier (in intrinsic semiconductor),
then

ni2 = nenh
Example The number density of electrons and holes in pure silicon at
27oC are equal and its value is 2.0 x 1016 m-3. On doping with
indium the hole density increases to 4.5 x 1022 m-3, the
electron density in doped silicon is -

A. 10 x 109 m-3 B. 8.89 x 109 m-3

C. 11 x 109 m-3 D. 16.78 x 109 m-3
Example
An n-type semiconductor is -
A. negatively charged
B. positively charged
C. neutral
D. negatively or positively charged
depending upon the amount of impurity
Example If n-type semiconductor is heated then -

A. the number of electrons increases and the

number of holes decrease.
B. the number of holes increases and the number
of electrons decreases.
C. the number of electrons and holes both remain
Equal.
D. the number of both electrons and holes increases
Example The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases
when electromagnetic radiation of wavelength shorter
than 2480 nm is incident on it. The band gap in (eV) for
the semiconductor is
[AIEEE 2005]

A. 2.5 eV B. 1.1 eV

C. 0.7 eV D. 0.5 eV
 Example In a p–type semiconductor the acceptor level is situated
57 meV above the valence band. The maximum wavelength
of light required to produce a hole will be –

A. 57 Å B. 57 × 10–3 Å

C. 217100 Å D. 11.61 × 10–33 m

Ans: C
 Example A small impurity is added to germanium to get a
p-type semiconductor. This impurity is a -

A. trivalent substance
B. pentavalent substance
C. bivalent substance
D. monovalent substance

Ans: A
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