Tensile test

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing,[1] is a

fundamental materials .science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a
controlled tension until

failure. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile
strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area.[2] From these

measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's

modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics . Uniaxial

tensile testing is the most commonly used for obtaining the mechanical characteristics

of isotropic materials. Some materials use biaxial tensile testing. The main difference

between these testing machines being how load is applied on the materials.

Purposes of tensile testing :-

Tensile testing might have a variety of purposes, such as:

 Select a material or item for an application

 Predict how a material will perform in use: normal and extreme forces.

 Determine if, or verify that, the requirements of a specification, regulation,

or contract are met

 Decide if a new product development program is on track

 Demonstrate proof of concept

 Demonstrate the utility of a proposed patent

 Provide standard data for other scientific, engineering, and quality

assurance functions

 Provide a basis for Technical communication

 Provide a technical means of comparison of several options

 Provide evidence in legal proceedings

 Tensile specimen:-

The preparation of test specimens depends on the

purposes of testing and on the governing test method
or specification. A tensile specimen usually has a
standardized sample cross-section. It has two shoulders and a gauge (section) in between.
The shoulders and grip section are generally larger than the gauge section by 33% so they
can be easily gripped. The gauge section's smaller diameter also allows the deformation
and failure to occur in this area

The shoulders of the test specimen can be manufactured in various ways to mate to
various grips in the testing machine (see the image below). Each system has advantages
and disadvantages; for example, shoulders designed for serrated grips are easy and cheap
to manufacture, but the alignment of the specimen is dependent on the skill of the
technician. On the other hand, a pinned grip assures good alignment. Threaded shoulders
and grips also assure good alignment, but the technician must know to thread each
shoulder into the grip at least one diameter's length, otherwise the threads can strip
before the specimen fractures

In large castings and forgings it is common to add extra material, which is designed to be
removed from the casting so that test specimens can be made from it. These specimens
may not be exact representation of the whole workpiece because the grain structure may
be different throughout. In smaller workpieces or when critical parts of the casting must
be tested, a workpiece may be sacrificed to make the test specimensFor workpieces that
are machined from bar stock, the test specimen can be made from the same piece as the
bar stock.

For soft and porous materials, like electrospun nonwovens made of nanofibers, the
specimen is usually a sample strip supported by a paper frame to favour its mounting on
the machine and to avoid membrane damaging
 Tensile specimens made from an aluminum
alloy. The left two specimens have a round cross-section and threaded shoulders. The
.right two are flat specimens designed to be used with serrated grips

An aluminium alloy tensile specimen,

after testing. It has broken, and the surface
.where it broke can be inspected

Equipment:-

Tensile testing is most often carried out at a material testing laboratory. The ASTM D638 is
among the most common tensile testing protocols. The ASTM D638 measures plastics
tensile properties including ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and
Poisson's ratio.

The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal testing machine.
This type of machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted for the length of the specimen and
the other is driven to apply tension to the test specimen. There are two types: hydraulic
powered and electromagnetically powered machines

The electromechanical machine uses an electric motor, gear reduction system and one, two
or four screws to move the crosshead up or down. A range of crosshead speeds can be
achieved by changing the speed of the motor. The speed of the crosshead, and
consequently the load rate, can be controlled by a microprocessor in the closed-loop servo
controller. A hydraulic testing machine uses either a single- or dual-acting piston to move
the crosshead up or down. Manually operated testing systems are also available. Manual
configurations require the operator to adjust a needle valve in order to control the load
rate. A general comparison shows that the electromechanical machine is capable of a wide
range of test speeds and long crosshead displacements, whereas the hydraulic machine is a
cost-effective solution for generating high forces

The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test specimen being tested. There are
four main parameters: force capacity, speed, precision and accuracy. Force capacity refers
to the fact that the machine must be able to generate enough force to fracture the
specimen. The machine must be able to apply the force quickly or slowly enough to properly
mimic the actual application. Finally, the machine must be able to accurately and precisely
measure the gauge length and forces applied; for instance, a large machine that is designed
to measure long elongations may not work with a brittle material that experiences short
elongations prior to fracturing

Alignment of the test specimen in the testing machine is critical, because if the specimen is
misaligned, either at an angle or offset to one side, the machine will exert a bending force
on the specimen. This is especially bad for brittle materials, because it will dramatically skew
the results. This situation can be minimized by using spherical seats or U-joints between the
grips and the test machine. If the initial portion of the stress–strain curve is curved and not
linear, it indicates the specimen is misaligned in the testing machine.
The strain measurements are most commonly measured with an extensometer, but strain
gauges are also frequently used on small test specimen or when Poisson's ratio is being
measuredNewer test machines have digital time, force, and elongation measurement
systems consisting of electronic sensors connected to a data collection device (often a
computer) and software to manipulate and output the data. However, analog machines
continue to meet and exceed ASTM, NIST, and ASM metal tensile testing accuracy
requirements, continuing to be used today.[citation needed]…………………………………………

Process:-

The test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and slowly
extending it until it fractures. During this process, the elongation of the gauge section is
recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated so that it is not specific to the
geometry of the test sample. The elongation measurement is used to calculate
the engineering strain, ε, using the following equation……… where ΔL is the change in
gauge length, L0 is the initial gauge length, and L is the final length. The force
measurement is used to calculate the engineering stress, σ, using the following equation:
where F is the tensile force and A is the nominal cross-section of the specimen. The
machine does these calculations as the force increases, so that the data points can be
graphed into a stress–strain curve.
When dealing with porous and soft materials, as electrospun nanofibrous membranes,
the application of the above stress formula is problematic. The membrane thickness,
indeed, is dependent on the pressure applied during its measurement, leading to
variable thicknesses value. As a consequence, the obtained stress-strain curves show
high variability. In this case, the normalization of load with respect to the specimen
mass instead of the cross-section area (A) is recommended to obtain reliable tensile
results.

Tensile testing creep:-

Tensile testing can be used to test creep in materials, a slow plastic deformation of the
material from constant applied stresses over extended periods of time. Creep is generally
aided by diffusion and dislocation movement. While there are many ways to test creep,
tensile testing is useful for materials such as concrete and ceramics that behave differently in
tension and compression, and thus possess different tensile and compressive creep rates. As
such, understanding the tensile creep is important in the design of concrete for structures that
experience tension, such as water holding containers, or for general structural integrity.
Tensile testing of creep generally follows the same testing process as standard testing albeit
generally at lower stresses to remain in the creep domain rather than plastic deformation.
Additionally, specialized tensile creep testing equipment may include incorporated high
temperature furnace components to aid diffusionThe sample is held at constant temperature
and tension, and strain on the material is measured using strain gauges or laser gauges. The
measured strain can be fitted with equations governing different mechanisms of creep, such
as power law creep or diffusion creep (see creep for more information). Further analysis can
be obtained from examining the sample post fracture. Understanding the creep mechanism
and rate be able to aid materials selection and design.

It is important to note that sample alignment is important for tensile testing creep. Off
centered loading will result in a bending stress being applied to the sample. Bending can be
measured by tracking strain on all sides of the sample.

Percent bending should be under 1% on the wider face of loaded samples, and under 2% on
the thinner face. Bending can caused by misalignment on the loading clamp and asymmetric
machining of samples.

References

1. Czichos, Horst (2006). Springer Handbook of Materials Measurement Methods. Berlin: Springer.
pp. 303–304. ISBN 978-3-540-20785-6.
2. Davis, Joseph R. (2004). Tensile testing (2nd ed.). ASM International. ISBN 978-0-87170-806-9.
3. Davis 2004, p. 33.
4. Common Material Tests. The Engineering Archive. (n.d.).
https://theengineeringarchive.com/material-science/page-common-material-tests.html