Module 1
Research
systematic process based on the scientific
method that facilitates the identification of
relationships and determination of differences
to answer a question.
Scientific Method
a process that uses an organized structure to
formulate questions and determine answers
Scientific Research
provides the means of refining and widening
scientific knowledge
follows particular guidelines and procedures to
ensure the quality of research results
intents to create scientific knowledge in a
particular field through the process of
systematic scientific inquiry, the research
process
must be public, replicable, unprejudiced, and
independent and it must advance the state of
the art
KEY STEPS
Generate a hypothesis or ask a question
Conduct an observation or data collection
Test the hypothesis through data analysis
Formulate conclusions and recommendations
(Compare the results to previously established
theory)
STEP-BY-STEP PROCESS (I.L.A.A.D.)
Identify-Locate-Assess-Analyze-Develop
1. Identify the problem
2. RRL
3. Research Setting, Questions,
Objectives, and Hypotheses
4. Study Design
5. Sample Design
6. Data Collection
7. Process and Analyze the Data
8. Write the Report
Basic Activities in the Research Process
1. Statement of the Problem (specify and
justify)
2. Hypothesis or Formulate Research
Question
3. RRL
4. Measurements (operationalization of
concepts)
5. Sample Selection (study participants)
6. Data Analysis (Stats)
Statement of the Problem
Pinpoints the topic of interest (from
broad/vague idea to narrow or refined idea)
Review studies relevant to the topic to further
illuminate the problem and refine research
question
A strong problem statement is supported by a
thorough review of relevant and up-to-date
study results and a strong rationale/justification
for the conduct of the study
Should answer – “How will this study advance
the field of interest?”
Generating Hypothesis/Research Question
Hypothesis & Research Question
precise statements or questions of the research
problems
Hypothesis
prediction of what is expected to occur, or of a
relationship between concepts of interest
typically tested with some observation
analysis/experiment
not all studies test the hypothesis – some
generate a hypothesis (may only ask general
questions about the problem of interest and are
largely descriptive)
Review of Literature/Relevant Studies
A thorough search of literature is important
component of research process
involves the collection and summary of prior
studies that are relevant to the hypothesis or
research question
assess what is already known about the
problem and refines research questions for
extending knowledge in the field
Determination of what this (current) study of
interest will add to what is already known
Can provide ideas of what methods and
instruments can be used to collect the data
Measurements of Variables
Variable – the logical grouping of attributes that
can be observed and measured, andisexpected
to vary from person to person in a population.
Exhaustive - comprehensive list of attributes
that make up the variable
Mutually exclusive - individual score can be in
only one response category and others.
Levels of Measurement - Qualitative
(Categorical) and Quantitative (Numerical)
Variables
Study Sample
Sample – a group of people that represents a
target population (to whom the results are to be
generalized)
Human sample – primary data collection
Data sets – secondary data
Types of research bias or systematic errors can
be avoided with precise definitions of the target
population and rigorous sampling strategies
(probability/non-probability designs)
Instrumentation
Research Instruments – tools that collect and
measure data
The selection of the tool depends on the focus
and type of research study being conducted
Each tool that will be used should be as precise
(reliable) as possible and measure the intended
concept (validity) -- validated for reliability and
relevance of content
Data Analysis
Involves the use of statistical techniques to
summarize and interpret relevant research
results
Basic descriptive statistics - (i.e., a measure of
incidence and prevalence, central tendency, and
dispersion) are part of a quantitative research
study
Inferential statistics - used in studies that test
hypotheses
Main objective - to answer the research
question or test the hypothesis.
Based on analysis results, conclusions are drawn
and interpreted in the context of previous
studies.
Writing the Introduction of Research
Goal: capture your reader’s attention and
interest them in what the study is about
1. establish your territory (say what the
research is about)
2. establish a niche (show why is there a
need for further research on your topic
- research problem)
3. introduce the current research (state
the research questions; make
hypotheses; and plans (write the
research objective) in addressing the
problem)
Research topic
•Brief description of the proposed area of
study.
• Include at least two sentences.
Research Problem
•This is an area of conflict, concern, or
controversy. (gap between what is wanted and
what is observed)
• Include the most relevant reference that
supports the claim.
Background (Justification)
•The evidence and relevance from the literature
and published archival data showing the
problem exists.
• Should also have a theoretical basis for the
study.
• Must include relevant studies as reference
Deficiencies (Gap) in the Evidences
• Include a brief discussion that details the area
of need(in relation to the problem) and the
deficiency or lack of evidence in the literature.
Audience
•Discuss who is affected and who benefits.
• Who will profit/benefit from the study (i.e.,
Other researchers, Practitioners, Policy makers,
Specific populations)
Purpose of the Study
Clearly identify and define the central concepts
or ideas of the study
How to Determine Problem Research ability Research Hypothesis

• Can you study the problem? This is a statement of expectation or prediction

• Do you have access to the research
site?
• Do you have the time, resources, and
skills to carry out the research?
• Should you study the problem?
• Does it advance knowledge?
• Does it contribute to practice?
that will be tested by research.
Note: Before formulating your research
hypothesis, read about the topic of interest to
you to enable you to narrow or limit it and
express it as a research question. The research
question, when stated as one sentence, is your
Research Hypothesis.
Predicts the relationship between variables

• Will your study fill a gap or void in the existing
literature?
• Will your study replicate a past study but
examine different participants and different
research sites?
• Will your study extend past research or
examine the topic more thoroughly?
• Will your study give voice to people not heard,
silenced, or rejected in society?
• Will your study inform practice?
Other terms: thesis statement
Other terms for hypothesized: posited,
theorized, proposed
Research Objectives
• Describe concisely what the research is trying
to achieve.
• Summarize the accomplishments a researcher
wishes to achieve through the project and
provides direction to the study

FLOW OF IDEAS Research Aim vs. Research Objectives

Research Aim Research Objectives
Topic-Problem-Justification-Deficiencies- Broad – what is Specific – how the
Relevance to Audience intended to achieve aim will be achieved

Research Question

•This is/are the ‘question/s that a research

project sets out to answer’

• an answerable inquiry into a specific concern

or issue. It is the initial step in a research

• Choosing a research question is an essential

element of both quantitative and qualitative
research
Methodology vs. Methods vs. Design conducting
research.
•Methodology - is the philosophy or general Types The analysis Conducting
principle which guides research; used of various experiments,
scientifically for solving the research problem. techniques testing
used for different
•Methods - are then applied by the researcher performance, factors,
to undertake research; tools you use to gather testing, and carrying out
your data / a strategy used to implement that study surveys, etc
plan. management.
Feature Helps with Contributes
• Design - a research question; that determines
the correct to finding
how you will collect and analyze your data. application of solutions and
Basis of Methodology Methods the then
Distinction procedure to implementing
Definition theoretical define the get the them.
and primary goal solution
systematic and helps to
analysis of identify the Methods vs Design
the ways topic or issue
Methods Design
employed to with deeper
Procedures that will Overall structure of
the fixed understandin
be used to collect the research
topic g through
and analyze data
discussed qualitative
Focus on what type Focuses on what
within the and
of methods are more type of study is
program quantitative
suitable to collect planned and what
research
and analyze the kind of results are
processes.
evidence needed expected from the
Requiremen The final way uses to carry
search
t of solving a on their
Depend on the Based on the
problem and research
research design research question or
efficiently irrespective
problem
completing of the results
all steps
required.
Benefit The science Acts as a kind
of managing of instrument
and the used to
understandin monitor the
g of the behavior and
problem. his selection
of processes
along with
their
construction
for
 OBSERVATIONAL EXPERIMENTAL CLUSTER JUDGEMENTAL
Descriptive Analytic Random QUASI- /PURPOSIVE
Controlled
Trial • Divide entire • formed by the
• CASE •CROSS- •FACTORIAL •NON- population into discretion of the
REPORT SECTIONAL TRIAL EQUIVALENT
• CASE SERIES ANALYTIC • PARALLEL GROUPS
sections researcher
• CROSS- (i.e., TRIAL • PRE-TEST • Demographic • consider the
SECTIONAL association) • CROSS /POST-TEST
DESCRIPTIVE • CASE- -OVER TRIAL • INTERRUPTED
parameters purpose of the
(survey, CONTROL TIME SERIES • Simple for study, along with
correlation) • COHORT
(longitudinal
survey for the understanding
– effective of target audience
retrospectiv
e
inference from
/prospective feedback
)
SYSTEMATIC SNOWBALL
• Choose in • when the subjects
Sampling Methods regular intervals are difficult to
• Selection of trace
Sampling – selecting a representative from the starting point • topic is highly
population under study • Predefined sensitive and not
range openly discussed
Target population – total group of individuals • Least time • can contact people
from which the sample might be drawn. consuming they might know
or volunteers
Generalizability – extent to which we can apply
associated with
the findings of our research to the target the cause to get in
population we are interested in. touch with the
Uses of non-probability sampling victims and collect
information
1. create hypothesis STRATIFIED QUOTA
2. exploratory research RANDOM
3. budget and time constraints • divided the • based on a pre-set
population into standard
smaller groups
that don’t
PROBABILITY NON-PROBABILITY overlap but
SIMPLE RANDOM CONVENIENCE represent the
• Save time and • no authority to entire
resources select the sample population
• Reliable elements • groups can be
• = chance • dependent on the organized and
ease of access to then draw a
subjects sample from
• purely done based each group
on proximity and separately
not
representativeness
• resource
limitations
Ethics in Human Research • Adequate provisions for monitoring data
collection to ensure safety of the study
•Respect for persons participants
• Participant privacy and confidentiality is
•Beneficence
protected
•Justice

4 Principles of Ethics DOCUMENTS TO OBTAIN

• Available safety information,
1. Autonomy (Respect for persons) • Information about payments and
2. Beneficence (Do Good) compensation available to subjects, the
3. Non-Malfeasance (Do No Harm) investigator's current curriculum vitae and/or
4. Justice other documentation evidencing
qualifications,
Institutional Review Board (IRB) • Any other documents that the IRB/IEC may
need to fulfill its responsibilities.
aka Independent Ethics Committee (IEC) or
Ethical Review Board (ERB)

committee that approve, monitor, and review

biomedical and behavioral research involving
humans with the aim to protect the rights and
welfare of the research subjects.

must have at least five members.

The members must have enough experience,

expertise, and diversity

If the IRB works with studies that include

vulnerable populations, the IRB should have
members who are familiar with these groups.

must include at least one person who is not

affiliated with the institution or in the
immediate family of a person affiliated with the
institution. These are commonly called
"Community Members.

Responsibilities of IRB
• Risks to study participants are minimized
• Risks are reasonable in relation to
anticipated benefits
• Selection of study participants is equitable
• Informed consent is obtained and
appropriately documented for each
participant
Concept of Validity
measuring what it is supposed to.
based upon the logical link between questions
and objectives of the study.
ADVANTAGE: Easy to apply
PROBLEM: subjective logic
question reflect the objectives of a study may
differ.
Types of Validity in Quantitative
1. Construct
ascertaining the contribution of each
construct to the total variance observed in a
phenomenon.
Based upon the statistical procedure
The greater the variance attributable to the
construct, the higher the validity of the
instrument
2. Face and Content
Face - establishment of logical link between
questions and objectives of study
Content - assessment if items and questions
covers the full range of the issue being
measured.
3. Concurrent and Predictive
Concurrent (criterion) - how well an
instrument compares with a second
assessment concurrently done.
Predictive - how well an instrument can
forecast an outcome
The Concept of Reliability
Reliability is the degree of accuracy or
precision in the measurements made by a
research instrument.
Tool is consistent and stable hence predictable
and accurate
the greater the degree of consistency and
stability in a research instrument, the greater
the reliability.
The lower the degree of ‘error’ in an
instrument, the higher the reliability
A scale or test is reliable to the extent that
repeat measurements made by it under
constant conditions will give
Factors Affecting Reliability
1. Wording of Questions
2. Physical Setting
3. Respondent’s/Interviewer Mode
4. Regression Effect
5. Nature of Interaction
Methods Determining Reliability
1. Internal Consistency Procedures
- items or questions measuring the
same phenomenon, should produce
similar results irrespective of their
number in an instrument
• The split-half technique
- To correlate half of the items
with the other half in a research
instruments
- Questions are divided in half in
such way that any two
questions intended to measure
the same aspect fall into
different halves.
- The scores obtained by
administering the two halves
are correlated.
- Reliability is calculated using
product moment correlation
between scores
2. External Consistency Procedures Validity & Reliability in QUALITATIVE
- compare findings from two
Traditional Criteria ALT Criteria for
independent process of data
for Judging QAUNTI Judging QUALI
collection with each other as a
INTERNAL VALIDITY CREDIBILITY
means of verifying the reliability of
EXTERNAL VALIDITY TRANSFERABILITY
the measure
RELIABILITY DEPENDABILITY
• Test/retest OBJECTIVITY CONFIRMABILITY
- An instrument is administered
once, and then again, under the
same or similar conditions. INCLUSION/EXCLUSION CRITERIA
- The ratio between test and
participants is a standard, required practice
retest score is an indication of
the reliability of the instrument NOT ONLY DEFINE, BUT ALSO EVALUATE THE
- The greater the value of the DECISION THAT WILL IMPACT EXTERNAL
ratio, the higher the reliability VALIDITY OF RESULTS
of the instrument
- Advantage - it permits the INCLUSION EXCLUSION
Key features of the Meet the inclusion
instrument to be compared
target population criteria but present
with itself.
with + characteristics
- Disadvantage – a respondent that could interfere
may recall the responses that with the success of
they gave in the first round the study
Overcome by increasing the • demographic • eligible
time span between two tests • clinical individuals that
• geographic make them
• Parallel form of the same test characteristics highly likely to be
- Two instruments intended to lost to follow-up
measure the same population is • miss scheduled
appointments to
constructed and administered
collect data,
to two similar population.
• provide
- The results obtained from one
inaccurate data,
test is compared with another • have
If similar, the instrument is comorbidities
reliable. that could bias
- Advantage – does not suffer the results of the
from the problem of recall and study
time lapse between two tests • increase their
not required. risk for adverse
- Disadvantage – need to events (most
construct two instruments relevant in
instead of one. studies testing
interventions)
 Common Errors
Using the same variable
Not related to answer the research question
Not describing key variables
DATA COLLECTION
process of gathering and measuring information
on variables of interest, in an established
systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes.
common to all fields of study including physical
and social sciences, humanities, business, etc
methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on
ensuring accurate and honest collection
remains the same.
IMPORTANCE
Essential to maintain the integrity of research
Reduce likelihood of errors occurring
CONSEQUENCES (Improper Data Collection)
•inability to answer research questions
accurately
• inability to repeat and validate the study
• distorted findings resulting in wasted
resources
• misleading other researchers to pursue
fruitless avenues of investigation
• compromising decisions for public policy
• causing harm to human participants and
animal subjects
Potential cause to harm when results are
used to support public policy recomm
Issues related to maintaining integrity of data
collection:
primary rationale for preserving data integrity is
to support the detection of errors in the data
collection process, whether they are made
intentionally (deliberate falsifications) or not
(systematic or random errors)
2 Approaches that can preserve data
integrity
QUALITY ASSURANCE – before data
collection begins
QUALITY CONTROL – during and after data
collection
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Main focus is PREVENTION (most-cost
effective activity)
➔ ensure the integrity of data collection
standardization of protocol
developing a rigorous and detailed
recruitment and training plan.
Implicit in training is the need to effectively
communicate the value of accurate data
collection to trainees
Importance:
to address the potential problem of staff who
may unintentionally deviate from the original
protocol.
‘drift’ , should be corrected with additional
training, a provision that should be specified
in the procedures manual.
Poorly written manuals/protocols increase
the risk of failing to identify problems and
errors early in the research endeavor
Failures resulting from poorly written
protocols may be demonstrated in a number
of ways:
- Uncertainty about the timing, methods,
and identify of person(s) responsible for
reviewing data
- Partial listing of items to be collected
- Vague description of data collection
instruments to be used in lieu of rigorous
step-by-step instructions on
administering tests
- Failure to identify specific content and
strategies for training or retraining staff
members responsible for data collection
- Obscure instructions for using, making
adjustments to, and calibrating data
collection equipment (if appropriate)
- No identified mechanism to document
changes in procedures that may evolve
over the course of the investigation
 QUALITY CONTROL
(detection/monitoring and action) occur
during and after data collection, the details
should be carefully documented in the
procedures manual
➔ Identifies the required responses or
actions necessary to correct faulty
data collection practices
➔ Minimize future occurrences
These actions are less likely to occur if data
collection procedures are vaguely written and
the necessary steps to minimize recurrence
are not implemented through feedback and
education
Examples of data collection problems that
require prompt action include:
• errors in individual data items
• systematic errors
• violation of protocol
• problems with individual staff or site
performance
• fraud or scientific misconduct
CLOSE-ENDED QUESTIONS (survey
questionnaires)
• the coding scheme is often incorporated
directly into the questionnaire and data is
entered numerically.
• Answers can also be coded on paper
questionnaires when coders record codes in a
designed spot of the questionnaire before they
are digitalized.
• If the numerical codes are not incorporated
in your questionnaire set up a detailed
procedure of how to code the different
alternatives.
This is useful during data entry, particularly
when more than one person is involved in the
data entry process and helps ensure accurate
tabulation of the results
You need to write a coding table, detailing how
you intend to deal with the results.

DATA CODING

• the process of driving codes from the

observed data

• the process of categorising the collected non-

numerical information into groups and

assigning the numerical codes to these groups

→ Numeric coding is shared by all

statistical software and it facilitates data

conversion and measurement comparisons

• Purpose - to bring out the essence and

meaning of the data that

respondents have provided.

• Data coder - extract preliminary codes from

the observed data, the preliminary codes are
further filtered and refined to obtain more
accurate precise and concise codes.
Variables NUMERICAL CATEGORICAL
QUANTI QUALI
“good” variable? DISCRETE – countable NOMINAL – no
(counting variable) order
• the qualities that make a good measure
CONTINOUS – ORDINAL - in order
of a scientific concept are high meaningful value
reliability, absence of bias, low cost, Measurable amounts
practicality, objectivity, high (age in years, weight,
acceptance, and high concept validity. temp)
1. INTERVAL
• Reliability is essentially the inverse of
2. RATIO
the statistical concept of variance, and a
rough equivalent is “consistency”.
Statisticians also use the word
“precision”.

Bias refers to the difference between the

measure and some “true” value. A difference
between an individual measurement and the
true value is called an “error” DICHOTOMOUS, OR BINARY VARIABLE

average difference over many measurements. • is a categorical variable that has only 2
Ideally the bias of a measurement process levels or categories.
should be zero.
• Many dichotomous variables represent
Precision or reliability BIAS the answer to a yes or no question.
reproducibility of how far the average
repeated of many • A variable does not have to be a
measurements measurements is yes/no variable to be
from the true value. dichotomous– it just has to
have only 2 categories, such as
sex (male/female).
Confounding variable

also called a confounder or confounding factor,

It is a third variable in a study examining a

potential cause-and-effect relationship.

It is related to both the supposed cause and the

supposed effect of the study.

may distort or mask the effects of another

variable on the disease in question