Infiltration

OBJECTIVES
 Define Infiltration
Indicate the role infiltration plays in
affecting and in replenishing:
(1) Soil moisture and
(2) Ground water storage
Review infiltration models/methods)
and illustrate their use…..
Water-holding Characteristics of Sandy Soils

Rain Rain
Drop Drop

Rain
Rain
Drop
Drop
Zones of subsurface water
Droughts in Canada

Parched Land
 Infiltration
 During a storm, the water crosses the ground surface and part of
it penetrates the soil via a process called infiltration.
The water that does not infiltrate moves relatively fast
as surface runoff to the stream …...

 The water in the soil may go back into air as water vapour by the
process of evaporation. (1) It may enter the streams, swamps or
lakes. And (2) it may recharge the underlying aquifer.

 The “infiltration rate” ( f ) is influenced by:

 Physical properties of soils
 Type and extend of the vegetation cover
 The condition of surface crust
 Rainfall intensity

Infiltration rate is measured in inch/hr or mm/hr.

 Infiltration (Cont’d)
 Infiltration capacity (or rate) :

It is the maximum possible infiltration rate,

given the current soil-water content and
under the ideal supply of abundant precipitation.

 Different soils have different infiltration capacity at some time.

Infiltration Capacity is NOT a constant but it is influenced by:

[1] Moisture content of soils

[2] Vegetation cover (grass or forest promotes infiltration)

 Estimation of Infiltration
 In the absence of soil physical parameters, many hydrologists
and engineers prefer to use the empirical infiltration models.

 One of the most widely used is the Horton model.

But it should only be used during very high intensity Limitation
flood producing precipitation events ……….

Horton Equation [One of the Analytical Models of Infiltration]

-kt
f = fc + (fo – fc) e
Where,
f = Infiltration capacity at time t (mm/hr, in/hr),
fc = A final or equilibrium infiltration capacity (mm/hr, in/hr),
fo = Initial infiltration capacity (mm/hr, in/hr), and
k = Horton’s recession constant (hour-1).
 -kt
f = fc+ (fo-fc) e
 An Example
At the beginning of a storm, the infiltration capacity is 38 mm/hr.
After 6 hours, the infiltration capacity is 8 mm/hr. The Horton’s
recession constant (k) is 1.11 hr-1.
Calculate the infiltration rate (or capacity) 3 hours after the storm
began.
-kt
f(t) = fc + (fo – fc) e
Where, fc = a final or equilibrium infiltration capacity = 8 mm/hr
fo = initial infiltration capacity = 38 mm/hr
k = 1.11 hr-1
t = 3 hrs.
Estimate of Infiltration rate at 3 hr after the storm [f(3)]:

f(3) = 8 + (38 – 8)e-1.11 x 3

f(3) = 9.1 mm/hr
 An Example
Given: fo = 3 in/hr; fc = 0.55 in/hr; k = 0.29 hr-1
t = 10 hours, estimate total volume of infiltration
over the entire watershed.
- kt
f(t) = fc + (fo – fc)e
Integration …. [Hint]
∝ - kt
= ‫ 𝒆 𝟎׬‬dt
Upon integration, one gets:
∝
= [e /-k ]
-kt
𝟎

As t ∝ e-kt  0.0

As t  𝟎. 𝟎 e-kt  1.0
 𝑡
Total Volume of infiltrated water =V = ‫׬‬0 [fc + (f0 +fc) e-kt] dt

Upon substitution of the values of f0, fc, and k, one gets:

10
V = ‫׬‬0 [0.55 + (3.0 - 0.55) e-0.29t] dt

And upon integration, one gets:

V = [0.55 t + {2.45/(-0.29)} e-0.29 t]𝟏𝟎
𝟎

V = [0.55 x10-8.45 e-0.29 x 10]-[0.0 - 8.45 e-0.29 x 0.0]

V = [5.5 -0.46] + 8.45

V= 13.49 inches

Total volume of infiltration over the watershed is 13.49 inches

Example
A flooding type infiltration experiment reported an initial
infiltration rate of 114.3 mm/hr. and an infiltration rate of 12.7
mm/hr after prolonged wetting. After 20 hours of the experiment,
the total infiltration cumulative depth was recorded as 476.5 mm.
Estimate the recession constant k using Horton model.
Horton Equation f(t) = fc + (f0-fc) e-kt
Upon multiplication by t term, one gets:

f(t)∆t = fc ∆t +(f0-fc) e-kt∆t

Now replacing t by dt, one gets:

f(t)dt = fc dt +(f0-fc) e-kt dt

Now Integrating the above equation …………..
20 20 20
‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =‫׬‬0 fc dt +‫׬‬0 (f0-fc) e-kt dt
476.5 = [fc t]20
0 +(f -f
0 c ) [(e-kt)/-k]20
0
476.5 = [12.7x20]+[114.3-12.7)][(e-20k -1)/-k]
476.5 = 254 +101.6 [e-20k-1)/-k]
hr -1-1
Example (Cont’d)

222.5 +101.6[e-20k - 1) / k] = 0.0

222.5 k +101.6 e-20k- 101.6 = 0.0

e-20k + 2.19 k - 1 = 0.0

By iterative method (also known as

trial and error method), one obtains
a value of k = 0.457 hr -1.
NOTE:
Volume = V is indeed depth of infiltration.

To obtain its volumetric form = Depth of infiltration x

area of the watershed ……
Field Measurement of the Infiltration Capacity
Infiltrometer  does not simulate a natural condition.
http://www.decagon.com/products/hydrology/hydraulic-
conductivity/mini-disk-portable-tension-
infiltrometer/?utm_source=reorg
 Sprinkler tests on larger area  Sprinkler simulates rainfall on
a plot and runoff from the plot is collected. A better method than
infiltronmeter but it gives higher value than natural conditions.
 -kt
f = fc + (fo-fc) e
Other Infiltration Models/Methods
[1] Horton Model
- kt
f = fc + (fo-fc) e

[2] Indices Methods  Phi-Index and W-index

[3] SCS Runoff Curve Number Procedure

 [4] Hydrograph Analysis Method
for
Estimation of Infiltration
 We will learn more about hydrograph analysis
later-on in this course.

 For now the general understanding hydrograph is

divided into runoff and groundwater (or Base flow).

Then,
Infiltration Rate = [ (Precipitation - Runoff) / Time]
 [2] Infiltration Indices
Phi (ϕ) Index and W- Index
 Infiltration index – an assumption that infiltration occurs at an average rate through out the storm.

 A quick method to estimate infiltration but the method DOES NOT give separate
consideration to depression storage, and infiltration during the period of no rain.

 BEST applications to large storms on wet soils.

 The rainfall above the index line is equivalent to the volume of runoff measured in depth over the
entire watershed.

 The infiltration index assumes the infiltration occurs at an average rate through out the storm and
consequently – underestimate the initial rate and over-estimate the final rate.

 Volume of infiltration = (Precipitation – Runoff). AND thus, ϕ-index = (P-R) / T

 Phi (ϕ) Index is the most commonly used infiltration index. The total volume of
storm loss to infiltration is estimated and distributed uniformly across the
storm pattern.      The unit of phi index is mm/hr or in/hr.
 Phi (ϕ) Index

Duration of excess rain

Duration of excess-rain (net rain):

is the total time during which the rainfall intensity
is greater than infiltration capacity.
 W-Index
• W-index is equivalent to the -index minus the rate of
retention by interception and depression storage.

• W-index = [-index] – [rate of retention]

• The W-index refines the -index by including interception
and depression storage (S), and is expressed as:

W= [Total volume of Infiltration / Time] = [P-R-S] / T

Where, R = total surface runoff and T is the total time

during which rainfall intensity EXCEEDS the infiltration
rate (or capacity).

For S = 0.0, the w-index & -index are same.

 Phi (ϕ) Index
To estimate the runoff (or Net Rain):
(15 – 9) x 1 hr. = 6 mm
(20 – 9) x 2 hr. = 22 mm
(14 – 9) x 1 hr. = 5 mm
Total runoff = 6 + 22 + 5 = 33 mm GIVEN

5x1+15x1+20x2+14x1+1x1
= 75 mm
Computed

GIVEN
Now using information from the previous
page and one proceeds as follows
 = (P-R)/T   = (75-33)/6 = 7.00 mm/hr

Let 14 mm/hr >  > 7.00 mm/hr.

Then (5- ) + (15- ) + (20- )x2 + (14- ) + (1- ) = Runoff = 33 mm

69 - 4 = 33 mm Therefore  = (69-33) / 4 = 9 mm/hr

ONE MUST MAKE CHECK FOR CORRECTNESS AS FOLLOWS.

CHECK  (15-9) + (20-9)x2 + (14-9) = 33 mm

6 + 22 + 5 =33 mm
33 mm = 33 mm

CHECK OKAY and Hence  = 9 mm/hr

 Worked Example
30-minutes period  1 2 3 4 Time in (½) an
Intensity (inches/hr)  2.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 hour time intervals

a) What is the total rainfall?

b) What is the Phi Index if the net rain contributing to surface
runoff is 3.0 in.
SOLUTION:
(a)  The total rainfall = 2 x 0.5 + 4 x 0.5 + 6 x 0.5 +5 x 0.5 = 8.5 in.
 = (P –R)/T =(8.5-3.0)/2 = 2.75 in. /hr. This value of ϕ is not correct because during the first hour, we have only
rainfall intensity = 2 in./hr. whereas ϕ needs 2.75 in. /hr. and hence we must correct ϕ value by following the procedure as follows.

Let 4    2.75 in. /hr.

(b)  0.5{(2- ϕ) + (4- ϕ) +(6- ϕ) + (5- ϕ)} = Runoff = 3 in.
7.5 – 1.5 ϕ = 3 in.  ϕ = (7.5 – 3)/ 1.5  ϕ = 3.0 in. / hr.
CHECK  [(4 – 3) + (6 – 3) + (5 – 3)] x 0.5 hr. = 3.0  (6) x 0.5 hr.  3 in.= 3 in.
Therefore, Check is Okay…..

Thus, the final value of ϕ is 3.0 in. / hr.

 One could also proceed as follows
30-minutes period  (1 2 3 4 ) Total time =2 hr
Intensity (inches/hr)  2.0 4.0 6.0 5.0
a) Total rainfall  2 x 0.5 + 4 x 0.5 + 6 x 0.5 +5 x 0.5= 8.5 in.
b) The Phi Index if the net-rain is equal to 3.0 in.
Initial estimate of the ϕ index = (P-R) / (Duration)
= (8.5 – 3.0)/2 = 2.75 in/hr  Same as was
obtained earlier
This value of ϕ is not correct because during the first hour we have only rainfall intensity = 2 in./hr.
whereas ϕ needs 2.75 in. /hr. and hence we must correct ϕ value by following the procedure as follows.

Let the value of 2.75 in/hr < ϕ < 4.0 in/hr

Then, one can state that  (pi - ϕ) Δti = R (Net rain or runoff).
[(2 - ϕ)+ (4- ϕ) + (6- ϕ) + (5 - ϕ)] 0.5 hr = 3 inches of Runoff
7.5 - 1.5 ϕ = 3     Therefore - ϕ = (3-7.5)/ 1.5  
Hence ϕ = 3.00 inches/hr

Must make a check  [(2 - 3.00)+4-3.00)+(6-3.00)+(5-3.00)] x 0.5 hr. = 3.0 in.

 Therefore 3.00 in. = 3.00 in.
Hence, Acceptable that is the value of ϕ is equal to 3:00 in./hr.
Estimation of the Net Rain Depth
(also known as Runoff Depth)
[3] SCS Runoff Curve Number Procedure:
 SCS (Soil Conservation Services) procedure is a widely used as the
curve number procedure.

 SCS procedure computes direct runoff from rainfall event based on: (1)
soil-cover combinations and
(2) antecedent-moisture-conditions.

 Use of the curve number (CN) to illustrate how well water infiltrate into
the ground.

The higher is the CN, the higher is the surface runoff.

The lower is the CN, the lower is the surface runoff.
 SCS and AMC Considerations
Soils are classified into four hydrologic soil groups:
A – Soils having high infiltration rate, low runoff potential (e.g., sand)
B - Soils having moderate infiltration rate
C – Soils having slow infiltration rate and low rate of water
transmission and hence good runoff potential …..
D – Nearly impervious, high runoff potential (e.g. clay)

Antecedent Moisture Conditions (AMC):

AMC I – Condition of watershed is dry BUT NOT to Wilting point ……
AMC II – Average conditions of watershed preceeding floods
AMC III – Conditions of watershed is wet

CN can be converted from one AMC to another (Table 7.9 of text book)
(DRY) (WET)
 Estimation of the Net Rain OR
Runoff Depth
SCS Runoff Curve Number Procedure:
2
(P – 0.2S)
Q=R=
(P + 0.8S)
Ia = 0.2 S

S = (1000/CN) - 10

Where:
Q = Net Rain or Surface Runoff in inches
P = Rainfall event in inches
CN = Curve number
 An Example:
Obtain the value of  for a watershed
with composite CN = 80 which experienced the following rainstorm.
Time
(hour) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rain
(inches) 0.2 0.7 0.9 1.04 2.34 0.64 0.07

S = (1000/CN) – 10
2.5
S = [(1000 /80) – 10 ] = 2.5 in.
Ia = 0.2 x S = 0.2 x 2.5 = 0.5 in.
2
 The duration of effective rain = 5 hr because
1.5
 the rain amount is greater than Ia = 0.5 in.

1
-index
0.5 Also refer to next slide for
-index computations as
σ𝒏𝒊 (𝑷𝒊 − )𝒕𝒊 = 𝑹𝒖𝒏𝒐𝒇𝒇
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Solution  σ𝒏𝒊 (𝑷𝒊 − ) 𝒕𝒊 = 𝑹𝒖𝒏𝒐𝒇𝒇
Precipitation = 0.2+0.7+0.9+1.04+2.34+0.64+0.07= 5.89 inches
Composite CN= 80
Thus S = (1000/80) -10 = 2.5 in
Therefore, R = Q = (P - 0.2S)2/(P + 0.8S) = (5.89 - 0.2 x2.5)2 /(5.89 +0.8x2.5) = 29.0521/7.8900=3.6821 in.

Thus, Initial  = (P-R)/Duration of Precipitation = (5.89-3.6821) / 7= 0.3154 in/hr

Let  > 0.3154 in/hr and then one proceeds as follows.
(0.2-) +(0.7-) +(0.9-) +(1.04-) +(2.34-)+(0.64-) +(0.07-) = Runoff = 3.6821 in.
5 = (5.6200 - 3.6821) = 1.9379   = 1.9379/5 = 0.3876 in./hr and now make a
check …..
(0.7-0.3876) +(0.9-0.3876) +(1.04-0.3876) +(2.34-0.3876) +(0.64-0.3876) = 3.6821 in.
(5.62-1.938) = 3.6821     3.6820 = 3.6821 Check Okay
Therefore,  = 0.3876 in. /hr.
THANK YOU…..
 Groundwater (Reading Assignment)
 Groundwater is a component of the hydrologic cycle. The source of
groundwater is precipitation (rain and snow), which percolates down into
the ground to become groundwater.
 Water infiltrates into the upper layer of soil and percolates downward
toward the water table. The area above the water table is called the
unsaturated zone or zone of aeration. The area below the water table is
called zone of saturation.  In the zone of saturation, all voids and
openings are filled with water.
 Groundwater travel slowly underground from higher elevation to lower
elevation, seeping and filtering through particles of soils and pores within
rocks. When groundwater travels, it could reach the surface through natural
springs and wells. When groundwater flows through the areas associated
with volcanic activity, it may be heated up and become as hot springs.
 As groundwater flows through contaminated areas, it carries pollutants
with the flow and spreads out.
 Groundwater is a major economic resource, particularly in the western
parts of Canada and USA.
 Groundwater (Cont’d)
 Porosity: The percentage of rock or sediment that consists of
voids or openings. It is a measurement to indicate the ability
to hold water.
 For example: Loose-sand has 30 – 50% of porosity while
compacted-sandstone may have 10 – 20% porosity.
It is indicated as a ratio of the void-volume to total-volume.
• Porosity () = [Vv/VT]
Aquifer: A permeable layer of rock and sediment that stores
and carries groundwater. In it, water can move easily and have
enough quantities to discharge at springs and wells.
 Unconfined aquifer: An aquifer exposed to land-surface and
marked by rising and falling water table.
 Confined aquifer: An aquifer overlain by impermeable rock
and is under pressure.
 Groundwater
Av =Voids Area x {unit depth}
Vv = Void volume A = total area x {unit depth}
(Empty space occupied by
the air inside the soil mass) VT = total volume

𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐕𝐨𝐢𝐝𝐬
Porosity (n) = [ ] = [Volv / VolT] = [Vv / VT]
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

• High porosity usually results in high permeability, and low

porosity results in low permeability
• Permeability: The rate at which water or other liquids passes
through the pore spaces of a rock.
• Groundwater flows through the inter-connected pore space.
• Use Darcy’s Law to estimate the flow of groundwater in all
hydro-geologic environments.
 Darcy’s Law
 Darcy’s Law is used to estimate the velocity or flow rate of groundwater
moving within the aquifer. It is also used to estimate the average travel
time of groundwater within an aquifer.
V  (– ∆h), and V  (1/∆L)

V = – K (∆h/∆L)
Where:
V = flow velocity (Darcy velocity)
K = hydraulic conductivity
∆h = (h2 – h1)
(-ve) sign means V occurs in the direction of
the decreasing head
And since Q = VA
Q = – KA(∆h/∆L)
Q = discharge rate or flow rate
 K Hydraulic Conductivity
K represents a measure of the ability
for flow through porous media.

K value for various material:

 Gravel 0.1 to 1 cm/sec
 Sands 10 to 10 cm/sec
-2 -3

 Silts -4 -5
10 to 10 cm/sec
 Clays 10 to 10 cm/sec
-7 -9
 Darcy Velocity & Seepage Velocity
 Darcy velocity
Assumes that flow occurs across the entire cross-section of the soil sample.
But flow actually takes place through interconnected pore-space and thus not
through the he total cross-sectional area.
 From the continuity equation of flow, Q = VDarcy x A = Vseepage x Av
Where,
Q = flow rate Vseepage is Greater than VDarcy
VD = Darcy velocity
Vs = Seepage velocity
A = total cross-sectional area
Av = area of voids
 Therefore Vs = VD (A / Av), multiply both sides by the length of media, L
 LVs = VD (AL / Av), then Vs = VD (LA / LAv),
 Vs = VD (VolT / Volv) whereas VolT = total volume and Volv = volume of void

 Therefore Vseepage = [ VDarcy / n ]

 Worked Example
 A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.
The K value of the aquifer is 50 m/day and the porosity is 0.2.
From a common datum, the piezo-metric head in two wells 1000 m apart
is 55 m and 50 m respectively.
The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m and the average width of aquifer
is 5 km.
Compute : (a) the rate of flow through the aquifer, and
(b) the average time of travel from the head of aquifer
to a point 4 Km.
downstream.
 Solution: Worked Example
Hydraulic gradient  (55 – 50)/1000 = 5 x 10-3 m/m
Cross-sectional area  30(5km)(1000m/km) = 15 x 104 m2
Flow Rate (Q) for K = 50 m/day
Q = V x A = {- K x ∆h/∆L} x A
(-ve) sign means V occurs in the direction of the decreasing head
Q = {– K (∆h/∆L)} x A = {- (50 m/day) x (5x10-3) } x (15 x104 m2)
= - 37,500 m3/day
(a) Thus, the flow rate through the aquifer is 37,500 m3/day

Darcy velocity = Q/A = 37,500/15 x 104 m2 = 0.25 m/day

Seepage velocity = Darcy velocity / porosity = 0.25/0.2 = 1.25 m/day

(b) Time to travel 4 Km downstream = 4(1000)/1.25 = 3200 days =

8.8 years
This example shows underground water moves very slowly.