General Learning Model

Learning can be accomplished using a number of different methods, such as by

memorization facts, by being told, or by studying examples like problem
solution. Learning requires that new knowledge structures be created from
some form of input stimulus. This new knowledge must then be assimilated into
a knowledge base and be tested in some way for its utility. Testing means that
the knowledge should be used in performance of some task from which
meaningful feedback can be obtained, where the feedback provides some
measure of the accuracy and usefulness of the newly acquired knowledge.

General learning model is depicted in figure above.

The environment has been included as a part of the overall learner system. The
environment may be regarded as either a form of nature which produces
random stimuli or as a more organized training source such as a teacher which
provides carefully selected training examples for the learner component. The
actual form of environment used will depend on the particular learning
paradigm. In any case, some representation language must be assumed for
communication between the environment and the learner.
The information conveyed to the learner component is used to create and
modify knowledge structures in the knowledge base. This same knowledge is
used by the performance component to carry out some tasks, such as solving a
problem playing a game or classifying instances of some concept given a task,
the performance component produces a response describing its action in
performing the task.
The critic module then evaluates this response relative to an optimal response.
Feedback, indicating whether or not the performance was acceptable, is then
sent by the critic module to the learner component for its subsequent use in
modifying the structures in the knowledge base. If proper learning was
accomplished, the system’s performance will have improved with the changes
made to the knowledge base.
The cycle described above may be repeated a number of times until the
performance of the system has reached some acceptable level, until a known
learning goal has been reached, or until changes ceases to occur in the
knowledge base after some chosen number of training examples have been
observed.
There are several important factors which influence a system’s ability to learn
in addition to the form of representation used. They include the types of training
provided, the form and extent of any initial background knowledge, the type of
feedback provided, and the learning algorithms used. The type of training used
in a system can have a strong effect on performance, much the same as it does
for humans.
In this model, the purpose of a learning machine is to be able to infer certain
facts of some data X from a training set selected from X.
Example: Over the set of all people we wish to automatically distinguish some
person as either male or female based on a collection of n observations such as
height, weight, pitch of voice, etc. We stack these observations into a feature
vector x. If we have chosen the types of these observations intelligently then the
distributions of these characteristics may tell us how to classify some person
described by x.
Example: Males will on average be taller, heavier, and have a lower pitched
voice than females. So based on some instance of these characteristics, the hope
is that we will be able to predict the sex of a subject with some amount of
certainty.
Deductive Learning and Inductive Learning
Deductive learning
Deductive learning works on existing facts and knowledge and deduces new
knowledge from the old. This is best illustrated by giving an example. For
example, assume:

A=B
B=C

Then we can deduce with much confidence that:

C=A

Arguably, deductive learning does not generate "new" knowledge at all, it
simply memorizes the logical consequences of what is known already. This
implies that virtually all mathematical research would not be classified as
learning "new" things. However, regardless of whether this is termed as new
knowledge or not, it certainly makes the reasoning system more efficient.
Inductive learning
Inductive learning takes examples and generalizes rather than starting with
existing knowledge. For example, having seen many cats, all of which have
tails, one might conclude that all cats have tails. This is an unsound step of
reasoning but it would be impossible to function without using induction to
some extent. In many areas it is an explicit assumption. There is scope of error
in inductive reasoning, but still it is a useful technique that has been used as the
basis of several successful systems.

Procedural Knowledge and Declarative Knowledge

Procedural Knowledge (Imperative Knowledge): Describes how to do
things, provides a set of directions of how to perform certain tasks,
e.g., how to drive a car. Procedural knowledge consists of courses
of action.

Declarative knowledge: It describes objects, rather than processes.

What is known about a situation, e.g. it is sunny today, and
cherries are red. Declarative knowledge consists of facts about
objects, events and situations.