Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 357 (2011) 165–169

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Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / j n o n c r y s o l

Electrical switching and thermal studies on bulk Ge–Te–Bi glasses

Chandasree Das, G. Mohan Rao, S. Asokan ⁎
Department of Instrumentation and Applied Physics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Bulk, melt quenched Ge18Te82-xBix glasses (1 ≤ x ≤ 4) have been found to exhibit memory type electrical
Received 21 November 2009 switching behavior, which is in agreement with the lower thermal diffusivity values of Ge–Te–Bi samples. A
Received in revised form 26 August 2010 linear variation in switching voltages (Vth) has been found in these samples with increase in thickness which
Available online 19 October 2010
is consistent with the memory type electrical switching. Also, the switching voltages have been found to
decrease with an increase in temperature which happens due to the decrease in the activation energy for
Keywords:
crystallization at higher temperatures. Further, Vth of Ge18Te82-xBix glasses have been found to decrease with
Electrical switching;
Chalcogenide glasses;
the increase in Bi content, indicating that in the Ge–Te–Bi system, the resistivity of the additive has a stronger
Differential scanning calorimetry role to play in the composition dependence of Vth, in comparison with the network connectivity and rigidity
factors. In addition, the composition dependence of crystallization activation energy has been found to show a
decrease with an increase in Bi content, which is consistent with the observed decrease in the switching
voltages. X-ray diffraction studies on thermally crystallized samples reveal the presence of hexagonal Te,
GeTe, Bi2Te3 phases, suggesting that bismuth is not taking part in network formation to a greater extent, as
reflected in the variation of switching voltages with the addition of Bi. SEM studies on switched and un-
switched regions of Ge–Te–Bi samples indicate that there are morphological changes in the switched region,
which can be attributed to the formation of the crystalline channel between two electrodes during switching.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction which are being considered as a possible replacement for conven-

Certain crystalline and amorphous materials, including chalco-
genide glasses, are found to exhibit a non destructive electrical
switching, from a low conducting (OFF) state to a high conducting
(ON) state, upon application of a high electric field. In chalcogenide
glasses, the electrical switching phenomenon is of two types, namely
memory switching and threshold switching [1–3]. If the ON state of
the material is retained even after the removal of electric field, it is
called memory switching; whereas if the material reverts back to the
high resistance OFF state after removing the electric field, it is called
threshold switching. Threshold switching materials require a holding
current and voltage to sustain the ON state. Once the holding current
is removed, they revert back to their original OFF state.
Thermal and electronic are the predominant mechanisms pro-
posed for understanding the electrical switching in amorphous
chalcogenides. While the response of electrons to the applied high
field is used to explain threshold switching, an additional thermally
induced transition to the crystalline state in the electrode region
explains memory switching in chalcogenide glasses [4–10].
The phenomenon of memory switching in chalcogenide glasses
has recently found applications in Phase Change Memories (PCM)
⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +91 80 23608686.
E-mail address: sasokan@isu.iisc.ernet.in (S. Asokan).
tional Non Volatile Random Access Memories (NVRAMs). The phase
change memories make use of chalcogenide glasses of memory
switching type. The main advantages of PCM are their direct write/
over write capability, lower volume operation, write/erase cycle,
easiness to integrate with logic, etc. [11,12].
Generally, tellurides have a higher crystallizability in comparison
with sulfides and selenides. This fact makes the phase change
between amorphous and crystal phases easier in Te based glasses
and hence, more useful materials for PCM applications. In particular,
the GeTe based glasses have been widely investigated for their
suitability for application in phase change memories.
Chalcogenide glasses prepared by melt quenching technique are
normally p-type conductors. However, it has been found that n-type
semiconducting glasses can be obtained by adding Bi to certain
chalcogenide glassy systems such as Ge–Se and Ge–Se–Te, etc. [13,14].
The p–n transition has also been found in Ge–Te–Bi glasses [15],
which has prompted the present investigations on the electrical
switching behavior on Ge18Te82-xBix (1 ≤ x ≤ 4) glasses, with a focus
on the variation of threshold voltages with composition, temperature
and thickness.
In addition, the crystallization process in Ge18Te82-xBix (x = 1, 2, 3)
alloys at different heating rates has also been studied by Differential
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), as it is important for phase change
applications; the composition dependence of crystallization tem-
peratures and the activation energies for crystallization (obtained

0022-3093/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2010.09.046
166 C. Das et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 357 (2011) 165–169

using the Kissinger's method) have been investigated. Further, X- Table 1 shows the crystallization temperature (Tc) of three different
ray diffraction investigations have been undertaken on crystallized compositions of Ge–Te–Bi glassy system, at four different heating rates
Ge–Te–Bi samples to identify the phases formed during devitrifica- (β). The Kissinger's plot [19] of the variation of log (β/T2c ) versus (1000/
tion. Finally, the scanning electron microscopic studies have been Tc) for a representative Ge18Te81Bi1 has been shown in Fig. 5. The
carried out on the switched and un-switched regions of a activation energy for crystallization (Ec) has been calculated using the
representative Ge18Te81Bi1 sample. Kissinger's equation [20], ln (β/T2c ) = −Ec/RTc + D.
Fig. 6 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns of two representative
Ge18Te81Bi1 and Ge18Te79Bi3 samples respectively annealed at their
2. Experimental procedures
respective crystallization temperature for about 2 h. It can be seen
that the diffraction patterns of crystallized sample are indexable
Chalcogenide glasses are reactive at high temperature, particularly
with hexagonal Te, GeTe, BiTe and Bi2Te3. Fig. 7 shows the scanning
with O2, and also the constituent elements frequently differ widely in
electron micrograph of switched and un-switched regions of
volatility. This necessitates the preparation of these glasses in sealed
Ge18Te81Bi1 sample.
containers. Further, impurities can alter the electrical switching and
thermal behavior of these materials, though chalcogenide glasses are
4. Discussion
generally not as sensitive to impurities as intrinsic semiconductors.
Therefore, the elementary materials used for preparing bulk samples
4.1. Electrical switching behavior of Ge–Te–Bi glasses
are always of a high purity (99.999%).
Bulk Ge18Te82-xBix (1 ≤ x ≤ 4) glasses have been prepared by the
As mentioned earlier, the memory switching in chalcogenide
conventional melt quenching method. Appropriate quantity of high
glasses has a thermal origin involving the formation of a conducting
purity components (Ge, Te and Bi) have been mixed in a quartz
crystalline channel between the electrodes, with the energy required
ampoule of 6 mm inner diameter and then evacuated to a pressure of
for crystallization provided by the electric field. The Te-rich
10−5 mbar. The ampoules are maintained at this pressure for about
chalcogenide glasses are normally found to exhibit memory switching
30 min and sealed under vacuum. The sealed ampoules are heated to a
because of their comparatively larger electrical conductance which
temperature of 1000 °C in a horizontal rotary furnace and held at this
results in a higher power dissipation and therefore the conducting
temperature for 36 h to homogenize the melt. Subsequently, the
channel could be formed easily. It is also known that weaker bond,
ampoules are quenched in ice water + NaOH mixture. The amorphous
poor structural cross-linking and more lone-pair interactions [21]
nature of the quenched samples is confirmed by X-ray diffraction
favor memory switching in telluride glasses. The present studies
(XRD).
reveal that Ge18Te82-xBix glasses also exhibit memory type electrical
The electrical switching characteristics of these glasses have been
switching like many other binary and ternary telluride glasses such as
studied using a Keithley source-measure unit (Model 2410c). Samples
Ge–Te, Si–Te, As–Te, Al–Te, As–Se–Te, Ge–As–Te, Ge–Te–Cu [22–29].
polished to a thickness of about 0.25 mm are mounted between a flat
In this context, it is interesting to note that the thermal diffusivity
bottom electrode and a point contact top electrode. A constant current
(α) of representative Ge–Te–Bi samples, namely Ge18Te81Bi1, Ge18-
is passed through the sample and the voltage developed across the
Te80Bi2 and Ge18Te79Bi3, have been found to be 0.015, 0.0108 and
sample is measured. The standard deviation method is used for the
0.00926 respectively, which is comparatively lower than other
analysis of errors in the measurement of switching voltages.
chalcogenide glasses [30,31]. Usually, chalcogenide glasses which
The thermal parameters such as crystallization temperatures (Tc)
have higher thermal diffusivity exhibit threshold type electrical
of Ge18Te82-xBix glasses have been obtained using a Mettler Toledo
switching and those with a lower α show memory behavior [32].
Differential Scanning Calorimeter. Samples have been heated at four
The memory behavior seen in Ge–Te–Bi glasses is therefore consistent
different heating rates and the activation energy for crystallization has
with thermal diffusivity values of these samples.
been calculated using Kissinger's equation, with the calorimetric scans
The composition dependence of threshold/switching voltage in
made in the range room temperature to 350 °C. The typical error in
chalcogenide glasses is determined by three main factors, namely the
the measurement is found to be ±1 °C for Tc at different scanning
resistivity of the additive elements [33], network connectivity, rigidity
rates.
[34] and chemical ordering [35]. The addition of more metallic
Crystallization studies of two representative Ge18Te81Bi1 and
elements usually brings down the switching voltages of chalcogenide
Ge18Te79Bi3 samples have been undertaken by annealing the samples
glasses; this is also the case in the present Ge18Te82-xBix system in
at the respective crystallization temperatures for about 2 h and X-ray
which Bi is more metallic compared to Te (ρBi = 1.29 × 10−6 Ω m and
diffraction studies have been carried out on the annealed samples in a
ρTe = 1 × 10−4 Ω m) and the replacement of Te with Bi leads to the
Philips powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation. The Scanning
reduction in the threshold voltages (Fig. 2).
Electron Microscopic (SEM) images of the switched and un-switched
The rigidity percolation deals with dimensionality and rigidity of a
regions of a representative Ge18Te81Bi1 sample has been taken by
glassy network. For a covalent network glass, the network connec-
ESEM Quanta machine.
tivity & rigidity increases with the increase in average coordination
number and at a mean coordination number brcN = 2.4 (known as the
3. Results Stiffness Threshold or Rigidity Percolation Threshold) [36–38], the
glassy system exhibits a transition from a floppy polymeric glass to a
Fig. 1 shows the I–V characteristics of Ge18Te82-xBix series of rigid amorphous solid.
glasses, from which it is clear that these samples exhibit memory type In general, the memory switching voltages of chalcogenide glasses
electrical switching. Fig. 2 shows the variation of threshold voltage of are found to increase with an increase in network connectivity and
Ge18Te82-xBix glasses with Bi content, which indicates that switching rigidity as the structural rearrangements become more difficult with
voltage decreases with increase in bismuth content. increasing network rigidity [34]. In the Ge18Te82-xBix system, the
The threshold voltage (Vth) of Ge18Te81Bi1 glass is found to addition of Bi with a higher coordination number of 3 [39], at the
decrease with increase in temperature above room temperature as expense of Te with the coordination number of 2 [40], results in a
shown in Fig. 3, which is a common feature exhibited by many progressive increase in network connectivity and rigidity. Hence,
memory switching chalcogenides glasses [16–18]. Fig. 4 shows based on the network connectivity rigidity, one could expect an
thickness dependence of threshold voltage, indicating an almost increase in switching voltages with the addition of Bi. However, the
linear variation. present results show that the switching voltages of Ge18Te82-xBix
 C. Das et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 357 (2011) 165–169 167

a b
1.6
2.5
1.4

1.2 2.0

Current (mA)
Current (mA)
1.0
1.5
0.8

0.6 1.0
117.58V
0.4 114.06V
0.5
0.2

0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Voltage (volt) Voltage (volt)
c d
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
Current (mA)

Current (mA)
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 102.52V 0.6 75.05V

0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Voltage (volt) Voltage (volt)

Fig. 1. I–V characteristics of (a) Ge18Te81Bi1 (b) Ge18Te80Bi2 (c) Ge18Te79Bi3 and (d) Ge18Te78Bi4 representing the Ge18Te82-xBix series.

glasses show a decrease with the increase in Bi concentration, which
indicates that in this system the effect of resistivity of the dopant is
more pronounced than the network connectivity and rigidity.
Further, in many chalcogenide systems, a sharp signature of the
rigidity percolation is seen in the variation of switching voltages at
brcN. However, in the present Ge18Te82-xBix system, it has not been
possible to probe the effect of stiffness transition on switching
voltages as the composition range of bulk glass formation is limited
only to lower brN values (brN ≤2.4).
4.2. Temperature dependence of threshold voltages
The decreasing trend in switching voltages with increase in
temperature is a common feature in many memory switching
chalcogenide glasses [16–18]. The variation of threshold voltage of
Ge18Te81Bi1 glass with temperature (Fig. 3) shows that the Vth of
Ge18Te82-xBix glasses decrease as the temperature is increased above
room temperature. In case of memory switching glasses the decrease
in switching voltages with temperature has been explained on the
basis of a configurational free-energy diagram [25], according to
which the decrease in Vth is due to the decrease in the energy barrier
required for crystallization of a sample with the increase in
temperature. In addition, at higher temperature, the charged defect
centers are filled up by thermally excited charge carriers, which are in
addition to field-injected carriers, resulting in decrease in switching
voltage [41].

130 110

100
120
Threshold Voltage (V)

90
110
80
Vth (V)

100
70

90 60

80 50

40
70
30
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 30 40 50 60 70 80
X (at%) Temperature (oC)

Fig. 2. The composition dependence of threshold voltages of Ge18Te82-xBix Glasses Fig. 3. Temperature dependence of threshold voltage of a representative Ge18Te81Bi1
(1 ≤ x ≤ 4). sample.
168 C. Das et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 357 (2011) 165–169

190
-10.2
180 Ge18Te81Bi1
Threshold Voltage (V)

170
-10.4
160

150 -10.6
140

130 -10.8

120
-11.0
110

100
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 -11.2
Thickness (mm) 1.920 1.925 1.930 1.935 1.940 1.945 1.950
1000/Tc (K-1)
Fig. 4. Thickness dependence of threshold voltages of a representative Ge18Te81Bi1
glass. Fig. 5. The Kissinger's plot showing the variation of ln (β/T2c ) Vs. (1000/Tc) for
Ge18Te81Bi1 glass.

4.3. Thickness dependence of switching voltages
It is known that in memory switching samples, the threshold
voltage (Vth) is found to be proportional to “t” or “t1/2”, where “t” is
the thickness of the sample. A linear variation of Vth with t, has been
seen in samples like Ge–Te–Al [42], As–Se [43], Ge–Se–Tl [44].
However, a few samples like Ge–As–Te [45], Ge–Te [22] have been
found to exhibit a t1/2 variation with Vth. In the present sample, the
variation of threshold voltage Vth with thickness has been observed to
be linear (Fig. 4).
reflected in the variation of switching voltages which shows no
increase with the addition of Bi.
4.6. Electron microscopic analysis of Ge–Te–Bi
It is clear from the SEM images of switched and un-switched
regions of Ge18Te81Bi1 sample which indicate that there are
morphological changes in the switched region. The morphological

4.4. Activation energy for crystallization

The activation energy for devitrification of the Ge–Te–Bi samples,

Intensity (arb. units)

estimated from the Kissinger's plots, has been found to decrease with
the addition of Bi (Table 1). The observed decrease in Ec with Bi
content is consistent with the decrease in memory switching voltages
with Bi content.

4.5. Crystallization behavior of Ge18Te82-xBix glasses

X-ray diffraction studies on Ge18Te81Bi1 and Ge18Te79Bi3 annealed

for 2 h under vacuum at their respective crystallization temperatures
reveal the presence of hexagonal Te and hexagonal GeTe. In addition,
hexagonal BiTe and hexagonal Bi2Te3 have also been found in the 0 10 20 30 04 50 60 70 80 90
crystallized Ge–Te–Bi samples. 2θ
In this context, it is interesting to compare the earlier studies on
the crystallization behavior of Ge–Te–Ag [46] glasses; X-ray investi-
gations on crystallized Ge–Te–Ag samples show that silver forms a
ternary phase along with possible binary phases in this system [46].
Intensity (arb. units)

However, in the case of Ge–Te–Bi samples, no ternary phase has been

found and in fact, more number of binary phases is found. The possible
reason for not finding any ternary phases of bismuth or more number
of binary phases in Ge18Te79Bi3 could be that bismuth is not taking
part in network formation to a greater extent. This aspect is also

Table 1
The crystallization temperatures at different heating rates and the estimated
crystallization activation energies of Ge18Te82-xBix glasses of different compositions.

Composition x Tc at Tc at Tc at Tc at Ec 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(at.%) 4 K/min 6 K/min 8 K/min 10 K/min (kJ/mol)
2θ
1 512.68 515.44 519.1 520.87 27.5
2 473.28 484.14 480.48 483.13 12.9
Fig. 6. The X-ray diffraction patterns of Ge18Te81Bi1 and Ge18Te79Bi3 glasses annealed at
3 517.85 514.43 517.48 526.5 11.8
their respective crystallization temperatures.
 C. Das et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 357 (2011) 165–169
a play in comparison with the network connectivity and rigidity factors.
b [8] D. Adler, H.K. Henisch, N.F. Mott, Rev. Mod. Phys. 50 (1978) 209.
Fig. 7. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) un-switched and (b) switched regions of
Ge18Te81Bi1 glass.
changes are due to the formation of the crystalline channel between
two electrodes during switching.
5. Conclusions
Melt quenched Ge18Te82-xBix glasses have been found to exhibit
memory switching. The lower thermal diffusivity values of these
samples are in agreement with the observed memory switching
behavior. A linear increase has been found in switching voltages with
increase in sample thickness which is also consistent with the
memory switching exhibited by Ge–Te–Bi samples. Also, the switch-
ing voltages have been found to decrease with increase in temper-
ature due to decrease in the activation energy for crystallization at
higher temperatures. Further, the switching voltages of the Ge–Te–Bi
samples have been found to decrease with increase in Bi content,
which indicates that resistivity of the additive has a stronger role to
169
The composition dependence of activation energy for crystallization
of Ge18Te82-xBix glasses, exhibits a decrease with increase in Bi
content, which is consistent with the decrease in switching voltages
with Bi content. Based on the X-ray diffraction studies of thermally
crystallized samples, it is proposed that bismuth is not taking part in
network formation in a greater extent, which is reflected in the
variation of switching voltages with the addition of Bi. SEM studies on
switched and un-switched regions of Ge–Te–Bi sample indicate that
there are morphological changes in the switched region, which can be
attributed to the formation of the crystalline channel formation
between two electrodes during switching.
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