Pure Appl. Geophys.
Ó 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-019-02102-w
Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure in the Eastern Part
of Kachchh (Little Rann Area) of Gujarat, India
PEUSH CHAUDHARY,1 KAPIL MOHAN,1 and B. S. CHAUDHARY2
Abstract—A magnetotelluric (MT) survey has been conducted
in the eastern part of the Kachchh region of Gujarat State (crossing
Little Rann) starting from Adesar village in the north to Enjar
village in the south, where limited geophysical data is available.
The profile has been acquired in the N–S direction having a total
length of 52 km with the interstation spacing of 3–4 km. From two-
dimensional (2D) inversion of the MT data, four conductive zones
are identified. The analysis reveals that the depth of the basement
varies from 1.2 km (in the south) to 1.8 km (in the north). The first
conductive zone is found at a distance of * 3 km in the south of
Adesar and is identified at the location of the Kanmer fault [KF; the
eastern extension of South Wagad fault (SWF)] and might be the
KF. The second conductive zone is found at a distance of * 42 km
in the south of Adesar and * 13 km north of Enjar village and is
located at the contact zone of Kachchh and Saurashtra peninsula at
the location of the North Kathiawar fault (NKF). It is inferred as
the NKF. The third conductive zone (at a distance of * 27 km in
the south of Adesar) is found between the first and second con-
ductor. This is interpreted as a step fault, formed during the rifting
process of Kachchh. The lower crust (below 20 km) is found
conductive (* 120 X m) and might indicate the presence of fluid-
filled mafic/ultramafic rocks in the lower crust.
Key words: Magnetotellurics, eastern Kachchh, north Kathi-
awar fault, Kanmer fault, south Wagad fault, lower crust conductor.
1. Introduction
The Kachchh basin is a pericratonic rift basin in
the westernmost part of India. This basin is bounded
by the Nagar Parkar fault (NPF) in the north and the
North Kathiawar fault (NKF) in the south. In the east
is the Radhanpur–Barmer arch limit rift extension,
and the rift is open in the west which merges with the
continental shelf (Biswas 2005). Six major uplifts
1
Institute of Seismological Research, Gandhinagar 382007,
Gujarat, India. E-mail: kapil_geo@yahoo.co.in
2
Department of Geophysics, Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, Haryana, India.
Pure and Applied Geophysics
have been recognized in the Kachchh basin that have
given rise to highland areas of the Kachchh Main-
land, Wagad, and the Island Belt (Pachham, Khadir,
Bela, and Chorar). The Great Rann of Kachchh, Gulf
of Kachchh, and Banni Grassland are the major
structural lows. The Gulf of Kachchh becomes shal-
low in the eastern part and forms a mudflat area. This
mudflat area is named as Little Rann of Kachchh, and
it lies between the Kathiawar and Wagad highlands
(Biswas 2016). The Kachchh basin is seismically
active and has witnessed three devastating earth-
quakes in the past: Allah Bund, Anjar, and Bhuj in
the years 1819, 1956, and 2001, respectively.
To understand the subsurface nature of the
Kachchh basin, various seismological and geophysi-
cal surveys such as gravity, magnetic, seismic, and
magnetotelluric (MT) surveys have been conducted.
Chandrasekhar and Mishra (2002) characterized the
faults in this region based on gravity modeling.
Mishra et al. (2005) suggest the presence of low
gravity and magnetic highs in the south of Adesar
village based on gravity and magnetic surveys.
Recently, Seshu et al. (2015) prepared a basement
and crustal thickness map of the Kachchh region
through three-dimensional (3D) modeling of gravity
data. Prasad et al. (2010) conducted a seismic survey
along Jakhau–Mandvi, Mandvi–Mundra, Mundra–
Adesar, and Hamirpur–Halvad profiles. However,
they used only six shot points to prepare a seismic
section with a depth of 8 km along the Hamirpur–
Halvad profile. Chopra et al. (2014) performed a
receiver function analysis on 32 broadband stations
and estimated the basement depth in the Kachchh
region. The estimated depth of the basement varied
from * 1.5 km in the east to * 6 km in the west
and 2–3 km in the north to 4–5 km in the south. They
 P. Chaudhary et al.
also found the presence of partial melt in the Kachchh
region. Rao et al. (2015) have advocated the presence
of magmatic underplating and an uplifting process
through the receiver function analysis. Seismological
studies conducted in the past provide information
about the basin’s architecture and structural config-
uration (Kayal et al. 2002; Mandal et al. 2004; Mishra
and Zhao 2003; Mishra et al. 2005; Mandal and Pujol
2006). Arora et al. (2002), Sastry et al. (2008),
Naganjaneyulu et al. (2010), and Mohan et al.
(2015, 2018) successfully characterized the subsur-
face features with the help of MTs in this region.
These aforementioned studies were mainly con-
ducted in the central and western part of Kachchh.
However, to the best of our knowledge, eastern
Kachchh is relatively unexplored as compared to the
central and western parts of Kachchh.
Therefore, in this study, we conducted a MT
survey along the north–south profile of length * 52
km from Adesar village in the north to the Enjar
village in the south. A total of 17 MT stations have
been acquired with the station spacing at a distance of
3–4 km and recording a duration of 3–4 days. The
primary objective of this study was to understand the
basin’s architecture and tectonics of the area.
2. Geological and Tectonic Setting
The evolution of the Kachchh rift basin was ini-
tiated during the Mesozoic era after the breakup of
India from Gondwanaland and its collision with the
Asian plate. During the early Tertiary time, India
collided with Asia and stabilized its present position
and shape. Extension activation of the E–W striking
faults caused the expansion of the rift from north to
south. The evolution of basin can be explained in two
phases: (1) extension phase and (2) compression
phase. During the extension phase, the primordial
faults underwent normal faulting, whereas in the
compression phase, these faults underwent strike-slip
faulting. Normal faulting, during the extension phase,
formed a series of half-graben basins successively
from north to south and sedimentation continued till
the Early Cretaceous period.
The stratigraphy of the Kachchh basin consists of
three packages: Mesozoic, Tertiary, and Quaternary.
Pure Appl. Geophys.
The Kachchh basin has the longest record of Meso-
zoic sediments, which were uplifted, folded, intruded,
and covered by basaltic flow (Deccan Trap). The
Tertiary sediments lie over the Deccan Trap and over
the Mesozoic sediments where trap is absent. The
Tertiary sediments are mostly shallow-marine shelf
sediments present in the peripheral and intervening
structural lows bordering the Mesozoic uplift areas.
The Quaternary sediments consist of a wide variety of
sediments ranging from marine to fluvial, lacustrine,
and eolian. The Mesozoic, Tertiary, and Quaternary
sediments fill up the Kachchh basin. The thickness of
these sediments ranges from \ 500 m in the north to
over 4000 m in the south and from 200 m in the east
to 2500 m in the west (Biswas 2005). The Precam-
brian basement rocks over which the Mesozoic
sediments were deposited are exposed at only two
places: Meruda Takkar and Nagar Parkar hills in
Kachchh. Intrusive bodies of igneous rocks that
include coarse-to-fine-grained melanocratic alkaline
basic rocks to oversaturated leucocratic granophyres
are seen intruding into the Mesozoic sediments at
many places in Kachchh. Figure 1 shows the tectonic
setting and geology of the region.
In the eastern part of Kachchh basin, the Wagad
uplift (WU) is present. This is the second largest uplift
in the Kachchh basin having an E–W-oriented large
domical uplift bound by faults. WU is highly faulted in
the southern part and contains several faults. The
South Wagad fault (SWF) system is the collection of
these faults. Biswas (2016) provides a detailed
description of these faults. The Kachchh has a number
of uplifts and depressions. The Little Rann in the south
of WU is an area of depression covered with mudflats
and salt. According to Lyell (1855), Rann is a flat
region that is neither land nor sea and which dries up
during some part of the year and again gets inundated
by saline and fresh water during the monsoon season.
According to Wadia (1926), Rann is a tectonic basin
and is now alleviated by several small rivers. During
the monsoon season, the western and central portions
of the Little Rann at the head of the Gulf of Kachchh
are flooded by surface runoffs as well as by waters
driven from the Arabian Sea by tides. The sediments
carried by the tidal waters spread over the flooded
areas and get deposited as mudflats. In this way, mud
banks have gradually built up every year.
 Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure

Figure 1
Location of MT stations (shown in black triangles) overlapped on the geology and tectonic map of the area (after Biswas 2005). The KMF
stands for Kachchh Mainland fault, KHF stands for Katrol Hill fault, SWF for South Wagad fault, NPF for Nagar Parkar fault, IBF for Island
Belt fault, NKF for North Kathiawar fault, and KF for Kanmer fault. KMU stands for Kachchh Mainland Uplift, WU for Wagad Uplift, PU for
Pachham Uplift, KU for Khadir Uplift, BU for Bela Uplift, and CU for Chorar Uplift

In the south of the Kachchh basin, the NKF
delimits the basin’s extension. This fault is not
exposed and marked based on the geomorphology. It
is also assumed that the NKF passes offshore, but due
to the lack of offshore data, this could not be con-
firmed (Biswas 2016).
3. MT Data Acquisition
GmbH). The dipole length was taken as 80 m during
the whole acquisition. The MT time series were
processed with the help of MAPROS (M/s Metronix
GmbH) processing software to obtain the apparent
resistivity and phase curves. Figure 2 shows MT
transfer functions (apparent resistivity and phase) of
five sites. The area is free from cultural noise and
good-quality MT data can be obtained as reflected by
the MT curves (Fig. 2).

MT data along a 52-km-long profile have been

acquired in a N–S direction from Adesar village in
the north to the Enjar village in the south (Fig. 1). A
total of 17 MT stations have been acquired in the
broadband range (0.001–1000 s) during 3–4 days. To
acquire magnetic and electric data, MFS-06e induc-
tion coils and nonpolarizing electrodes of Pb-PbCl2
were used, respectively, were employed along with
the data recording unit ADU-07e (M/s Metronix
4. Dimensionality Analysis
It is important to estimate the dimensionality of
acquired MT data before conducting inversion. Two
different methodologies have been adopted to esti-
mate the dimensionality of the data: (i) Swift skew
(1967) and (ii) Bahr skew (1988). Swift skew is a
rotationally invariant parameter which measures the
P. Chaudhary et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.
 Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure

b Figure 2
Magnetotelluric transfer functions (apparent resistivity and phase)
of raw unrotated data (left side) and rotated data with fit of the two-
dimensional models (right side) of five sites
departure from an ideal two-dimensional (2D) model.
In an ideal 2D case, the skew will be 0, whereas a
skew value above 0.2 indicates a 2D/3D structure.
Figure 3(a) shows the plot of skew value for all sites.
It is observed that below 100 s, the skew values
are \ 0.2, which indicates a 2D subsurface structure.
However, at higher periods (C 500 s), higher skew
values are also observed. Another useful indicator of
dimensionality, the phase sensitivity skew (Bahr
1988), has also been calculated. Bahr skew is less
sensitive to static shift and is based on the assumption
that for a regional 2D structure, the column elements
of the impedance tensor must have the same phase

Figure 2
continued
 P. Chaudhary et al.
Figure 3
Dimensionality parameters (a) Swift skew and (b) Bahr’s skew/phase-sensitive skew
(Bahr 1988, 1991). Figure 3(b) shows the plot of the
Bahr skew. Most of the sites show a skew value
of \ 0.3, suggesting 2D subsurface structure.
According to Harinarayana et al. (2006), 2D inver-
sion of the MT data can be performed if the MT data
validates a 2D structure along the profile or at least
some parts of it.
The above analysis indicates that the MT data is
of 2D nature, and thus, 2D inversion can be
performed.
5. Strike Analysis
Determination of regional strike direction is a
critical part of MT data interpretation as it is least
stable when compared with other distortion parame-
ters such as shear and twist (Jones et al. 1993). Thus,
2D inversion can be performed successfully after the
calculation of a consistent regional strike.
In general, MT data is distorted by the presence of
small-scale heterogeneities and charge accumulation
in the subsurface due to which MT responses repre-
sent the regional conductivity structure inaccurately.
Literature describes various techniques to obtain an
undistorted MT response by minimizing the influence
of such distortions (Bahr 1988, 1991; Groom and
Bailey 1989; McNeice and Jones 2001; Smith
1995, 1997; Becken and Burkhardt 2004).
In this study, tensor decomposition techniques of
Groom and Bailey (1989) and Becken and Burkhardt
Pure Appl. Geophys.
(2004) were applied for the period band of
0.001–1000 s.
In the Groom and Bailey (GB) approach, distor-
tion parameter’s skew and twist are used in the
analysis of distortion. Shear values give the idea of
distortion. A shear value of 0° indicates no distortion,
whereas ± 45° indicates a total distortion. High
values of shear and twist indicate a strong distortion.
Table 1 shows the estimated values of shear and twist
of the MT data. Figure 4 shows the rose plots of the
strike values for the entire period band
(0.001–1000 s) and three different period bands of
1–10 s, 10–100 s, and 100–1000 s. The strike value
obtained by the GB analysis is N86°E/N4°W with
intrinsic 90° ambiguity.
Becken and Burkhardt (BB) proposed a method-
ology based on ellipticity criteria. According to this
methodology, a regional strike can be obtained by
analyzing the ellipticities of the polarization state of
the electrical and magnetic fields. When small-scale
inhomogeneities galvanically distort the electric field
at the surface, only field rotations and amplification
are observed, whereas the ellipticities remain
unchanged. Thus, regional strike direction can be
obtained from vanishing ellipticities of electric and
magnetic fields even in the presence of distortion
(Becken and Burkhardt 2004). Figure 4 shows the
rose plots of the strike values for different period
bands. In all the period bands (0.001–1000 s, 1–10 s,
10–100 s, and 100–1000 s), rose plots show a strike
direction of N86°E.
 Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure

Table 1
The distortion parameters, shear and twist, estimated from Groom Bailey analysis

Site no. Period (0.001–1000 s)

Shear Twist RMS error Strike angle (°) Phase difference (°)

1 - 4.91 - 2.53 2.48 N89E - 2.53

2 0.35 0.97 1.23 N88E 3.64
3 5.66 0.02 1.22 N80E 5.92
4 - 4.10 - 3.18 1.15 N78E 9.29
5 4.20 - 1.79 1.52 N90E 5.67
6 0.46 - 2.03 0.83 N82E 8.79
7 1.64 - 2.80 0.63 N87E - 6.56
8 0.76 3.06 1.19 N83E 8.96
9 2.46 1.89 0.59 N83E 8.65
10 2.58 - 2.57 0.79 N88E 9.06
11 4.73 - 0.34 1.56 N78E 5.44
12 0.70 0.70 0.48 N84E 9.74
13 0.44 - 2.36 0.77 N87E 8.84
14 0.09 - 4.17 1.17 N85E 6.40
15 5.57 1.99 1.19 N86E 5.76
16 6.84 1.04 2.09 N74E 2.19
17 1.2 0.42 1.34 N73E 2.97

Figure 4
Rose diagram showing the geo-electric strike direction by using the Groom and Bailey (1989) approach (a–d) and by the Becken and
Burkhardt (2004) approach (e–h)

Figure 5 shows the strike obtained in the different GB approaches has inherent 90° ambiguity and thus a
period bands from BB and GB approaches for all direction orthogonal to N86°E is also possible. To
sites, which shows the prominent strike direction of remove this ambiguity, geomagnetic transfer func-
N86°E. In general, the estimated strike by BB and tions (induction vectors) are used. Figure 6 shows the
P. Chaudhary et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.
 Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure

b Figure 5 is implemented in the data interpretation package

Estimation of strike direction for each site along the profile for five
WinGlink. It finds regularized solutions (Tikhonov
different period bands (mentioned in the lower left corner) by using
the Groom and Bailey (GB; 1989 approach (red line) and the regularization) to the 2D inversion problem for MT
Becken and Burkhardt (BB; 2004) approach (blue line) data using the method of nonlinear conjugate gradi-
ents (NLCGs). The data from the 0.001 to 1000-s
period band was used for 2D inversion. In the NLCG
scheme, the inversion process is controlled by a
direction of the induction arrows in the rose diagrams smoothing parameter (also called regularization
for the period bands of 1–10 s, 10–1000 s, and parameter) ‘‘s’’ which is obtained by a tradeoff
1–1000 s. The plots of the rose diagram also suggest between root mean square (RMS) misfit and model
the dominant N86°E strike direction of the region. roughness. Through criteria proposed by Hansen
The general trend of the faults/structures in the (1992, 1998), the smoothing parameter was obtained
Kachchh region is in the E–W direction. Previous MT at the knee of L curve as s = 10 (Fig. 7). For 2D
studies conducted by Mohan et al. (2015) in central inversion, the uniform resistivity of half space was
Kachchh and by Kumar et al. (2017) in the Wagad taken as 100 X m. An error floor of 10% for apparent
area (Kachchh) also confirm the E–W trending strike.
The estimated strike value matched well with the
tectonic setting and the geology of the area. Based on
this analysis, a strike of N86°E is determined and the
data is rotated along the strike direction. The rotated
xy component is assigned as the Transverse Electric
(TE) mode (electric field along/parallel to strike) and
the rotated yx component is assigned as the Trans-
verse Magnetic (TM) mode (electric field across/
perpendicular to the strike; Patro et al. 2005).

6. 2D Inversion

The decomposed and rotated MT data have been

subjected to 2D inversion analysis, using the 2D MT Figure 7
inversion program of Rodi and Mackie (2001), which L curve showing estimation of smoothing parameter tau (s)

Figure 6
Rose diagram showing direction of induction arrows at three different period bands
 P. Chaudhary et al.
resistivity and 5% for the phase was set. A compar-
atively high error floor has been set for the apparent
resistivity as compared to phase data to reduce the
static shift effect (if present) in the apparent resis-
tivity data. The data of TE and TM modes were
inverted separately. Initially, inversion was run with a
sparse grid size and extra columns/rows were added
to the location where major structures were found.
The mesh size of 120 9 120 (row 9 column) was
found optimum for the inversion. The final model
was obtained after 100 iterations. Figures 8, 9, and 10
show the 2D geoelectric sections of up to 50-km
depth for TE, TM, and the combine TE ? TM modes
(including vertical magnetic field component),
respectively.
The RMS value for the final model is approxi-
mately 2.04. Figure 11 shows the plot of RMS values
of each individual site along with the profile. Fig-
ure 12 shows the pseudosection images of observed
and calculated apparent resistivity and phase of the
TE and TM modes. Pseudosections are interpolated
and contoured images of apparent resistivity and
phase versus period have been shown. High resis-
tivity values are represented by blue color, whereas
low resistivity values are represented by red color.
Since resistivity and phase maintain an inverse rela-
tionship, a phase value above 45° is represents by red
color and a phase value below 45° is represented by
Figure 8
2D geoelectric depth section after TE mode inversion of the data along the profile
Pure Appl. Geophys.
blue color. The matching between the observed and
calculated pseudosections of apparent resistivity and
phase was found to be good (Fig. 12).
7. Sensitivity Analysis and Model Robustness
The problem of nonuniqueness is generally
encountered in the inversion of geophysical data.
Therefore, the same data can give different results
during the inversion process. Hence, it is important to
check whether the features obtained in the inverted
model are robust.
To check the effect of half-space resistivity on the
obtained features, five different 2D inversions with
half-space resistivity were run: 10, 50, 200, 300, and
400 X m. Figure 13 shows the resistivity models
obtained with different values of half-space resistiv-
ity. All these models are almost the same as the final
resistivity model (Fig. 10) and features are unaffected
by changing the resistivity of half space.
Following the approach of Rodi and Mackie
(2001) for sensitivity analysis, the sensitivity map
was obtained for the final inverted model (Fig. 14).
The sensitivity values represent the sensitivity to
small changes of resistivity. A large sensitivity value
indicates the region which is well resolved, whereas a
low sensitivity value indicates a poorly resolved and
 Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure

Figure 9
2D geoelectric depth section after TM mode inversion of the data along the profile

Figure 10
Geoelectric depth section obtained after 2D inversion of tipper, TE, and TM mode data along the profile

resistive region. The features with sensitivity values
of more than 0.0001 are considered to be resolved
features (Brasse et al. 2002; Ledo and Jones 2004).
The sensitivity map reflects the sensitivity value
of [ 0.0001 up to a depth of * 50 km (Fig. 14).
Due to the presence of multiple conductive features,
the distinction is not possible for each feature, but
overall, the data sensitivity and penetration can be
confirmed for a depth up to 50 km. The high
sensitivity values are found in the central and
southern part of the profile at deeper depth suggesting
a conductive feature of the body present at greater
depths. The sensitivity analysis proposed by Li et al.
(2003) and Unsworth et al. (2004) was also per-
formed to check the robustness of the features in the
inverted model. The six features (C1, C2, C3, C4, R1,
and R2) are marked in the final 2D model (Fig. 10).
These features have been assigned the fixed
 P. Chaudhary et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 11
The RMS error of each site along the profile

Figure 12
Observed and calculated apparent resistivity and phase pseudosections for the TE (left) and TM (right) modes along the profile

resistivity value of 100 X m, and the inversion has (Fig. 15). After inversion, all features were regener-
been run again by keeping all input parameters the ated again which indicates the robustness of the
same as those provided in the initial inversion model.
 Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure

Figure 13
The 2D geoelectrical models with different half-space resistivity: (a) 10 X m half-space resistivity; similarly, (b) to (e) have 50, 200, 300, and
400 X m half-space resistivity, respectively

8. Results and Discussion was found between features C1 and C3 at a depth

The geoelectric depth section has been produced
from 2D inversion of MT data (Fig. 10). Seven fea-
tures, namely, C1, C2, C3, C4, R1, R2, and R3, are
observed in the section. The features C1, C2, C3, and
C4 are comparatively more conductive than the fea-
tures R1, R2, and R3. The conductive feature C1 was
found between sites 1 and 3 (near Adesar village); C2
was observed near site 13 (15 km NNW of Enjar
village); C3 was observed near site 9 (in the middle
of the profile); and C4 was observed at a depth
of [ 20 km in the lower crust. The resistive body R1
of [ 6 km; R2 was found between features C2 and
C3 at a depth of * 4 km; and R3 was found at a
depth of * 1 km in the south of profile near Enjar
village between sites 15 and 17.
The uppermost layer in the section (Fig. 10)
having the resistivity value ranging from 4 to 30 X m
and thickness varying from 1.8 (in the north) to
0.5 km (in the south) inferred Quaternary sediments
as suggested by Merh (1995). Underlying these
conductive sediments, the basement was observed at
the depth of * 1.8 km near Adesar village. The
basement was found dipping toward the north. Prasad
 P. Chaudhary et al.
Figure 14
Sensitivity map for the 2D geoelectric section of the profile
et al. (2010) also suggested the northward dipping of
the basement (in a profile starting from Hamirpur in
the north to Halvad in the south) based on the seismic
survey.
The location of conductor C1 (located near Adesar
village) coincides with the location of the Kanmer
fault (KF; the eastern extension of the SWF). Mohan
et al. (2015) also confirmed the presence of the SWF
through MT survey near the epicenter zone of the 2001
Bhuj earthquake. However, the present location of the
MT survey is * 80 km east of the 2001 Bhuj earth-
quake’s epicenter. Mishra et al. (2005) also suggested
gravity gradient near Adesar which corresponds to the
SWF based on the gravity and magnetic survey.
The feature C2 is a discontinuity in the resistive
region extending from 2 to 20-km depth, beneath the
profile. The feature possesses a comparatively low
resistivity value ranging from 300 to 500 X m and is
situated in the south of the profile near Enjar village.
This feature is present in the contact zone of Kachchh
and Saurashtra peninsula. Biswas (2005) has pro-
posed the possible location of the NKF (Fig. 1).
Based on MT survey, Mohan et al. (2017) suggested
the possible location of the NKF in the northwestern
part of Saurashtra, * 220 km southwest of the Little
Rann area. Feature C2 passes very close to the
location of the NKF in the eastern part (near the
contact zone of Kachchh and Saurashtra) as
Pure Appl. Geophys.
suggested by Biswas (2005). Raval (2001) have
presented the NGRI Bouguer gravity map, 1975,
which also gives a sharp gravity contrast at the
location of feature C2. Therefore, feature C2 might
be the eastern part of the NKF.
Feature C3 is a discontinuity present in the middle
of the profile between the resistors R1 and R2 having
a resistivity in the range of 300–500 X m, which is
comparatively conductive compared to the sur-
roundings. This feature extends up to a depth
of * 20 km and is inferred as a step fault formed
during the rifting process. Conductor C4 having a
resistivity value ranging from 60 to 250 X m and
present below the depth of [ 20 km is an interesting
conductive zone. Several authors connected the
enhanced conductivity in lower crust by the presence
of aqueous fluids (Lebedev and Kitarov 1964; Hyn-
dman and Hyndman 1968), magma (Hermance
1979), graphite (Alabi et al. 1975; Duba and Shank-
land 1982; Frost et al. 1989), films of conductive
minerals such as magnetite and sulfides (Stesky and
Brace 1973; Stanley 1989), and metamorphism
(Newton 1989; Ferry 1991). Frost and Bucher (1994)
suggested that lower crust is ‘‘dry’’ except in the
regions of active tectonism or thermal events where it
may be ‘‘wet.’’ In addition, the tectonic environment
should be taken into account while interpreting the
enhanced conductivity in the lower crust.
 Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure

Figure 15
Sensitivity analysis for individual conductive features C1, C2, C3, and C4 and for resistive features R1 and R2

Arora et al. (2002) performed MT surveys and
advocated the presence of fluid-filled rock matrix in
the central Kachchh region. Kumar et al. (2017) also
conducted an MT survey in the Wagad region
(Kachchh) and confirmed the presence of fluid in the
lower crust. Mishra et al. (2005) suggested a gravity
low and magnetic high in the south of Adesar village
based on the gravity and magnetic data.
Kayal et al. (2002), Mishra and Zhao (2003),
Mishra et al. (2014), and Singh et al. (2016) also
conducted seismic tomography and seismological
analysis and suggested the presence of the fluid-filled
rock matrix in the Kachchh region.
Rao et al. (2015) suggested the presence of mafic/
ultramafic bodies beneath the Kachchh region based
on a high Vp:Vs ratio. Naganjaneyulu and Santosh
(2011) observed a similar pattern of high conductivity
and low gravity in the Central India tectonic zone,
and they suggested the presence of fluid in the lower
crust.
In the continental flood basalt region, the presence
of magmatic underplating has also been previously
suggested (Cox 1993). Karmalkar et al. (2008) pro-
vided the most direct petrological evidence for the
presence of ultramafic xenoliths beneath the Kachchh
region. This study revealed the presence of fluid-rich
mafic/ultramafic bodies present in the lower crust
corresponding to the conductivity reflected in the 2D
geoelectric depth section (Fig. 10).
 P. Chaudhary et al.
9. Tectonic Implications
The Kachchh basin is an east–west-oriented per-
icratonic rift basin at the westernmost periphery of
the Indian craton (Biswas 1987; Biswas et al. 1994).
The Kachchh rift evolved within the Mid-Protero-
zoic-Aravalli-Delhi fold belt by reactivation of pre-
existing faults (Biswas 2005). As a result, the NE–
SW-trending Delhi fold belt swung to the E–W in the
Kachchh region. The rift is bound by the Nagar
Parkar uplift in the north and Kathiawar uplift
(Saurashtra horst) in the south along. Nagar Parkar
and North Kathiawar faults delimit the E–W rift
(Biswas 2005). The rift shoulders are uplifted Pre-
cambrian basement blocks. The graben between them
is asymmetric, with a tilt to the south along the NKF.
Several intra-basinal sub-parallel strike faults are
responsible for the tilted block uplifts, forming a
series of half-grabens (Biswas 2005). In the western
part of the basin, the uplifted blocks are tilted
southward, whereas in the eastern part, the Wagad
Uplift block is tilted toward the north against the Bela
Horst along the Gedi Fault (Biswas 2016). In the
present study, the three faults have been inferred
along conductors C1, C2, and C3 (Fig. 10). Con-
ductor C1 has been located at the proposed location
of the Kanmer fault (KF; eastern extension of the
SWF; Fig. 1) which was formed during the Kachchh
rifting process. The high sediment thickness in the
northern part (north to the KF) confirms the north-
ward tilting of the Wagad Uplift as suggested by
Biswas (2005). Conductor C2 has been located at the
contact of the Kachchh and Saurashtra peninsula and
is found at the proposed location of the NKF and
dipping northward. Conductor C2 can be inferred as
the NKF, the southern boundary of the Kachchh rift.
Conductor C3 has been inferred as the sub-parallel
fault formed during the rifting process.
10. Conclusion
An MT survey has been conducted in the eastern
part of the Kachchh basin from Adesar village (in the
north) to the Enjar village (in the south) along with a
profile length of 52 km. From 2D inversion of the
acquired data, a geoelectric depth section up to a depth
Pure Appl. Geophys.
of 50 km has been obtained. The seven features,
namely, C1, C2, C3, C4, R1, R2, and R3 (Fig. 10),
have been observed in the section. The upper layer of
resistivity 4–30 X m with thickness varying from 1.8
(in the north) to 0.5 km (in the south) has been
observed at the top of the geoelectric depth sec-
tion. The layer has been inferred as sediments. The
basement along the profile has been found dipping
north. It was also suggested by the previous seismic
survey. Conductor C1 located near Adesar village in
the northern part of the profile coincides with the
location of the KF (the eastern extension of the SWF).
The gravity gradient was also suggested near Adesar.
Therefore, C1 has been inferred as the KF.
Feature C2 with a comparatively low resistivity
ranging from 300 to 500 X m has been suggested as a
discontinuity in the resistive region extending from 2
to 20-km depth, beneath the profile. This feature is
present in the contact zone of the Kachchh and
Saurashtra peninsula and is found at the proposed
location of the NKF near Enjar village. The sharp
gravity contrast has also been suggested at the same
location in the past. Feature C2 is therefore, inferred
as the NKF.
Feature C3 having a resistivity in the range of
300–500 X m is a discontinuity found in the middle
of the profile surrounded by two resistive features R1
and R2. Feature C3 extends up to a depth of * 20
km and is inferred as a step fault formed during the
Kachchh rifting process. Feature C4 having a resis-
tivity in the range of 60–250 X m has been found in
the lower crust below 20 km depth. Based on the past
studies (seismic tomography, seismological analysis,
and Vp:Vs ratio) in the Kachchh and nearby region
(Central India tectonic zone), the fluid-filled mafic/
ultramafic rocks have been inferred in the lower crust.
In a nutshell, the study region is present at the
trijunction of Kachchh, Saurashtra, and Mainland
Gujarat. A sediment thickness of 1.8–0.5 km has
been found in the area from north to south (from
Kachchh towards Saurashtra). The basement has been
found dipping in the north direction. Two faults have
been inferred in the region, (i) the KF (in the north of
the profile and easternmost part of the Wagad region
near Adesar village) and (ii) the NKF (in the southern
part of the profile and at the boundary of the Kachchh
and Saurashtra). A step fault has also been inferred in
 Magnetotellurics Study to Identify Subsurface Resistivity Structure
the middle of the profile. The lower crust ([ 20 km)
in the region has been inferred to be filled with fluid-
filled mafic/ultramafic rocks.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Director General and
Director, ISR for their encouragement and permis-
sion to publish this work. Thanks to the Government
of Gujarat for providing funds under project no.
3425/60/04 to conduct this research work. The
authors are also thankful to the editor and two
anonymous reviewers for their constructive com-
ments and helpful suggestions for improving the
quality of the work.
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.
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