Repeaters and Hubs

• Repeaters or hubs work at the OSI physical

Repeaters:

 regenerates amplifies boost signals

 Allows the signal to be transmitted over longer
distances
 extend the range of a network by boosting signals
that have become weak due to distance or
interference

Hubs:

 serve as central connection point for multiple

devices in a network
 Receives data from one device and broadcasts it to
all other connected devices,

Limitations
• Cannot link unlike devices
• Cannot join devices with different access method
 They do not provide isolation and filtering of signal
which means that all the signal received on one
device are broadcast to all other devices. This result
in unnecessary network traffic / network congestion
which result in reduced network performance and
slower data transfer speeds.
 Features
 Can connect different types of media
 The most economic way of expanding networks

Bridges
1 Bridges have one input and one output port:
2 Bridges have the intelligence to examine incoming
packet source and destination addresses:
3 Bridges are utilized to create separate network
segments and prevent unnecessary traffic by
examining the destination address of incoming
packets and forwarding them only to the
appropriate segment. This helps to improve
network performance and security
4 Bridges cannot interpret higher-level information
5 Bridges cannot filter packets according to their
protocol: Since a bridge cannot interpret higher-
level information, it cannot filter packets according
to their protocol. This means that it cannot block or
allow packets based on the type of protocol being
used

How Bridges Work

1 Bridges work at the Media Access Control (MAC)
Sub-layer of the OSI model
2 Routing table is built to record the segment
number of address
3 If the destination address is in the same segment
as the source address, stop transmit
4 If the destination MAC address is not on the same
segment as the source device, the bridge forwards
the packet to the appropriate segment

Remote Bridge
1 Bridges are often used in large networks that have
widely dispersed segments
2 Remote bridges can be used to connect remote
segments via data-grade telephone line

Switch
1 Switches operate at the Data Link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model
2 It Can interpret address information
3 Switches resemble bridges and can be considered as multiport bridges
4 By having multiports, switches can better use limited bandwidth and prove more
cost-effective than bridge
5 Switches divide a network into several isolated channels: Switches can divide a
network into several isolated channels, known as "virtual LANs" (VLANs). This can
improve network performance and security by isolating traffic between devices on
different VLANs
 6 Packets sending from 1 channel will not go to another if not specify
7 Each channel has its own capacity and need not be shared with other channels:

Advantages of Switches

Switches divide a network into several isolated channels

1 Reduce the possibility of collision • Collision only occurs when two devices try to get access to
one channel • Can be solved by changing one of them for later access

2 Each channel has its own network capacity • Suitable for real-time applications, e.g. video
conferencing

3 Since isolated, hence secure • Data will only go to the destination, but not other

Limitations of Switches

1 Although contains buffers to accommodate bursts of traffic, can become overwhelmed by heavy
traffic

2 Device cannot detect collision when buffer full

3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol used in
Ethernet networks to avoid collisions between devices trying to transmit data simultaneously
is not required in switch networks. Instead, switches manage and control access to each port
and regulate traffic flow to prevent congestion.

Method of Switching - Cut Through Mode

1Read the first 14 bytes of each packet, then transmit

2 Much faster

3 Cannot detect corrupt packets

4 Can propagate the corrupt packets to the network

5 Best suited to small workgroup

How Routers Work

• As packets are passed from routers to routers, Data Link layer source and destination addresses
are stripped off and then recreated

• Enables a router to route a packet from a TCP/IP Ethernet network to a TCP/IP token ring network

• Only packets with known network addresses will be passed - hence reduce traffic

• Routers can listen to a network and identify its busiest part

• Will select the most cost effective path for transmitting packets

How Routing Table is formed

1 Routing table is formed based on communications between routers using “Routing Protocols”
2 Routing Protocols collect data about current network status and contribute to selection of the best
path

Distinguishing Between Bridges and Router

1 Bridges forward everything they don’t recognize • Routers select the best path

2 Routers are layer 3 devices which recognize network address • Bridges are layer 2 devices which
look at the MAC sublayer node address