Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2 was originally prepared and printed in 1992 under the direc-
tion of James N. Krider (retired), national environmental engineer, Soil
Conservation Service (SCS), now Natural Resources Conservation Service
(NRCS). James D. Rickman (retired), environmental engineer, NRCS,
Fort Worth, Texas, provided day-to-day coordination in the development of
the handbook. Authors for chapter 2 included Donald Stettler (retired),
environmental engineer, NRCS, Portland, Oregon; Karl H. Reinhardt (re-
tired), conservation planning and applications leader, NRCS, Washington,
DC; David A. Stockbridge (retired), resource conservationist, NRCS, Fort
Worth, Texas.
This version was prepared under the direction of Noller Herbert, direc-
tor, Conservation Engineering Division (CED), Washington, DC. Revisions
to the chapter were provided by Cherie LaFleur, environmental engineer,
Central National Technology Support Center (CNTSC), Fort Worth, Texas;
Cheryl Simmons, national technology specialist, CNTSC, Fort Worth,
Texas; Dr. Glenn Carpenter, Ph.D., national leader, animal husbandry,
Animal Husbandry and Clean Water Division, Washington, DC; Bill Boyd,
Manure Management Team Leader, East National Technology Support
Center (ENTSC), Greensboro, North Carolina; Jeff Porter, environmental
engineer, Manure Management Team, ENTSC, Greensboro, North Carolina;
Stefanie Aschmann, Energy Team Leader, West National Technology Sup-
port Center (WNTSC), Portland, Oregon; Greg Zwicke, air quality engineer,
Air Quality and Atmospheric Change Team, Portland, Oregon; and Harbans
Lal, environmental engineer, Water Quality and Quantity Team, Portland,
Oregon. It was finalized under the guidance of Darren Hickman, national
environmental engineer, CED, Washington, DC. The editing, illustrations,
and formatting were provided by Lynn Owens, editor; Wendy Pierce, illus-
trator; and Suzi Self, editorial assistant, National Geospatial Management
Center (NGMC), Fort Worth, Texas.
Table Table 2–1 Potential impact categories from breach of embankment 2–14
or accidental release
Figure 2–4 Analyzing resource data and formulating solutions using 2–10
the six functions of an AWMS
• treatment
651.0200 Introduction • utilization
Planning an agricultural waste management system Viewing the AWMS by function simplifies interpreting,
(AWMS) involves the same process used for any type analyzing, and evaluating the inventory data as well as
of natural resource management system, such as an the planning of alternatives.
erosion control system. Each system includes a group
or series of practices planned, designed, and installed The functions are accomplished by implementing com-
to meet a need. However, different resource concerns, ponents. Components may be an interrelated group
management requirements, practices, environmental of conservation practices, such as a waste storage
effects, and economic effects must be considered. structure, roof runoff water management, diversion,
and nutrient management. Push-off ramps, manure
Planning an AWMS requires the collaboration and pumps, transport equipment, grade control structures,
combined efforts of a team of people. The decision- and vegetative treatments are examples of component
maker for the property involved, NRCS specialists and elements that support the functions.
conservationists, county agricultural extension agents,
and other professionals often make up the team. Spe-
cialists include engineers, geologists, soil scientists,
and agronomists. The planner must establish a good
working relationship with all members of the team in
order to present the best plan.
t
Pr
tu
m
to fully address the resource concern. By combining
S y ransfer
Agricul
at e
• production me ra g
nt Sto
• collection
Other
• transfer Management
System
• storage
(a) Soil
651.0201 Planning for
Soils are important both in the utilization component
protection of natural resources of the plan and in the siting and construction of stor-
age facilities and other structural components. The
The major objective of the NRCS in planning an AWMS soil resource is most often the medium used in the
is to collaborate with the producer to achieve wise use final assimilation of many of the agricultural waste
of natural resources. The key to doing this is to involve products.
the decisionmaker in the planning process. The NRCS
must assure that the decisionmaker recognizes the Waste must be applied to the soil so that the constitu-
nature, extent, and importance of natural resource ents in the waste do not exceed the soil’s capacity to
conservation (fig. 2–2). In addition to the resources, adsorb and store them. The rate at which liquid wastes
social, cultural, and economic effects of alternatives are applied must not exceed the soil’s infiltration rate.
on the human environment must be considered. A Application of wastes at a rate that exceeds the soil’s
brief description of each of the planning aspects as infiltration rate can result in runoff, which can cause
they relate to an AWMS follows. erosion and convey contaminants. Plant nutrients in
solution or those attached to the soil particles along
A natural resource is any naturally occurring resource with bacteria, organic matter, and other agricultural
needed by an organism, population, or ecological material may be transported to the receiving water.
system. The NRCS applies this term to soil, water, air,
plants, animals, and energy. The application of organic agricultural wastes can
have a beneficial influence on soil condition by im-
proving tilth, decreasing crusting, increasing organic
matter, and increasing infiltration.
(b) Water
Figure 2–2 Resource considerations Maintaining or improving the quality of surface and
groundwater generally is critical in the planning of an
AWMS. Potential groundwater contaminants from agri-
Plants cultural operations include nutrients such as nitrates;
salts; waste pesticides; pathogens, generally bacteria;
Condition and pharmaceuticals. Potential surface water contami-
Mgmt
Suitability nants from agricultural operations are nutrients, usu-
ally nitrates or other agriculture chemicals in solution;
En
Erosion Efficiency
er
gy
So
Condition
A ir
Mgmt
im
(c) Air
als
Quality Quantity
Air quality can be of concern in an AWMS and should
be considered in the system plan.
Water
practicable, the spread of contagious diseases can be efficiency and the use of on-farm renewable energy
minimized if farms, and those persons interacting with sources.
the farms, observe a series of rudimentary practices to
include but not be limited to the following items: In some settings, manure management systems result
in the production of energy through anaerobic di-
• boot washing
gesters or thermochemical processes of gasification,
• equipment washing pyrolysis, and combustion.
• vehicle washing
Within the NRCS, the goal is to help producers and
• disinfectants private landowners reduce the use of fossil fuel-based
energy by:
A CAM event can have a devastating impact to the
• improving the efficiency of energy use
farm income through the loss of animals and the costs
associated with disposal of animal carcasses. • conserving energy
• producing renewable energy
A farm-level CAM response plan that would include,
but not be limited to, the following items should be • producing biomass energy feedstocks in a sus-
considered part of an AWMS: tainable manner
• facility location and directions to the facility
• list of emergency contacts (i.e., local veterinar- (g) Human
ian, local emergency number, contractor with
heavy equipment for handling carcasses, and/or Individual owner preference, equipment, farm layout,
excavating burial sites) and any current system may affect the AWMS design.
It is especially important to know future building or
• list of agencies to notify within 24 hours expansion plans because that could either significantly
• response procedures—the CAM plan should expand or limit options for various components of an
identify site-specific conditions that require ac- AWMS.
tion, specify the actions to be taken, and desig-
nate responsibility for the specified actions Community or social factors must also be taken into
consideration. The wide differences in perspective and
• site-specific disposal options perception in a community can affect how an AWMS is
• map of emergency staging, composting, and received. For example, an AWMS system by an adja-
burial areas, as allowed cent landowner who has a similar enterprise could
be viewed completely differently as compared to an
Wildlife is an important consideration of the AWMS urban, suburban, or exurban neighbor. For this reason,
plan. Pollution of receiving water can have a signifi- planning must deal not only with complex technologi-
cant effect on fish and wildlife habitat. Organic mat- cal considerations, but also human or social consider-
ter can drastically reduce dissolved oxygen levels in ations.
a stream, and high ammonia concentrations can kill
fish. In addition, water over-enriched by nutrients, An AWMS must be planned so that the negative so-
contaminated by agricultural chemicals, or polluted by cial effect on a community is minimized. Measures to
bacteria can result in an environment that has a very minimize odors and maximize landscape compatibil-
negative effect on animals. ity must be included. A public relations effort by the
decisionmaker can also be helpful in assisting a com-
munity in understanding and accepting an AWMS.
(f) Energy
Federal, State, and local laws and regulations must be
Inefficient use of energy in farm and field operations considered in the development of an AWMS. Compli-
increases dependence on nonrenewable energy sourc- ance with the laws and regulations may be the main
es that can be addressed through improved energy objective of some decisionmakers.
To thoroughly and efficiently plan an AWMS, each (b) Determine the objectives
planning step must be considered.
Determining objectives requires developing an under-
An AWMS plan can and should be part of the overall standing with the client of the desired future condi-
conservation plan for a farm. The overall plan identi- tions for the planning area as compared to the existing
fies the concerns and opportunities related to all the conditions. To plan an AWMS that is acceptable and
soil, water, air, plant, animal, energy, and human re- will be implemented, the planner must determine the
sources. Often, it will briefly address the issues related decisionmaker’s objectives early in the planning pro-
to animal waste (such as type and number of livestock, cess.
and location, type and construction dates for any ma-
nure storage facilities), and leave many of the specific The objectives greatly influence the type of AWMS
details to be covered by the AWMS plan. It is especially planned. For example, the type of AWMS planned
important the conservation plan assesses the potential would be significantly affected if the decisionmaker’s
for nutrients to be transported offsite through runoff primary objective is to use the waste for power gener-
(where nutrients attached to soil particles that erode), ation rather than for land application. A decisionmak-
by leaching through the soil profile to groundwater er’s objective to bring the operation into compliance
and by volatization into air. If a potential problem is with laws and regulations may result in an AWMS that
identified, the plan should include appropriate con- is not as extensive as one where the objective is to
servation practices and management activities. Also, minimize the effect on the environment and enhance
the nutrients that are in the manure and wastewater public acceptance of the system. A decisionmaker’s
applied on crop fields are considered and counted in objective to minimize management efforts may result
the nutrient management plan for the farm. in an AWMS significantly different from one that would
emphasize the role of management.
Decisionmakers request assistance in developing an
AWMS for many reasons. Regulations and complaints
from the public motivate some decisionmakers. Others (c) Inventory the resources
have an interest in reducing costs or labor associated
with the current system. Some may desire to make use Inventory or collecting appropriate natural resource,
of nutrients available in agricultural wastes for crop economic, and social information about the planning
production. All may be motivated by a genuine inter- area and related area is planning step 3. Some inven-
est in protecting the environment. A decisionmaker’s tory data may have been developed during the process
reason for requesting assistance does not change the of determining objectives. However, at this point the
planning process, but may influence the attitude and planner must assure that the resource inventory data
responsiveness to the plan presented. are complete to the extent that they can be used to
develop AWMS alternatives.
Following is a description of the planner’s activities
and responsibilities in each planning step as it relates Planning an AWMS requires an inventory based on
to an AWMS. compilation of data from many different sources.
Some of the required data can be digitally measured.
For example, the number of acres available for land
(a) Identify the problem application of waste can be determined from aerial im-
agery. Other data needed, such as the level of manage-
Decisionmakers need to know what problems, poten- ment, are less tangible and must be determined based
tial problems, and Federal, State, and local laws and on observation, discussions with the decisionmaker,
regulations affect their operation. This information and judgment of the planner.
can help them recognize the need to develop an AWMS
that will protect the resource base. Planning an AWMS requires gathering a great deal of
information. A partial list of items that must be inven-
toried or evaluated follows. These items are described
in more detail in their specific chapter.
be located to avoid extreme cutting, filling, and poten- to avoid or minimize accidental spills and to assure
tial erosion. that the designated water use is protected.
Figure 2–4 Analyzing resource data and formulating solutions using the six functions of an AWMS
Functions
Components
(clean water Components Components Components Components Components
exclusion)
Roof gutters and Alley scrapers Pipelines Ponds Lagoons Irrigation systems
downspouts Flush alleys Hauling equipment Tanks Composters Spreaders
Diversions Manure pack Gutters Dry stack Solid separators Commercial sale
Gutters Pumps Settling basins Refeeding
Push-off ramps Bedding
Energy generation*
* Energy generation is included under the utilization function because utilization of the waste material is the basic purpose of such operations.
This is distinct from the treatment function in which the basic purpose is to change characteristics of the waste material. Consequently, waste
material discharged after energy generation must be managed similarly to that which has not been used for energy generation. In the case of
livestock manure, the management process could include transfer to storage and, from there, transfer to a second waste utilization function
of application on the land.
on the number of each type of stock in the herd and (e) Formulate alternative solutions
the amount of wash water used. The consistency of
the waste is either a solid, semisolid, slurry, or liquid. Step 5 of the planning process, formulate alternative
Wastes from a dairy could be generated in one or more solutions, is used to develop alternative AWMSs based
of these consistencies. Components that exclude or on the analysis of the inventory data as cataloged into
introduce clean water also affect the consistency and one of the six functions of an AWMS.
amount of waste.
These types of impoundments may have significant people live can potentially lead to human health prob-
consequences if the embankment fails. Waste im- lems.
poundments may also be designed to have a gravity
outlet to facilitate emptying as a part of the transfer Features, safeguards, or management measures to
function of an AWMS. This type of outlet potentially minimize the risk of embankment failure or acciden-
can allow an accidental or unplanned release. tal release or to minimize or mitigate impact of this
type of failure should be considered if one or more of
Significant consequences in the event of sudden em- the categories listed in table 2–1 may be significantly
bankment breach or accidental release may occur, impacted.
particularly if there is impact to a surface waterbody.
The primary consequence to a surface waterbody is A substantive evaluation of the impact of sudden
contamination with microorganisms, organic matter, breach or accidental release from waste impound-
and nutrients. This contamination may kill aquatic life ments should be made on all waste impoundments.
and make the water unsuitable for its intended use. Waste impoundments planned with embankments
As a minimum, the waterbody would most likely be where significant direct property damage may occur
discolored. Chapter 3 of this handbook describes more should be evaluated with an appropriate breach rout-
completely the effects of animal waste on surface ing procedure, such as that in NRCS Technical Release
water. No. 66, Simplified Dam Breach Routing Procedure.
The following should be considered, either singly or
The magnitude of the environmental impact from in combination, to minimize the potential or the con-
breach or accidental release to a surface waterbody is sequences of sudden breach of embankments if one
related to the amount and concentration of the re- or more of the potential impact categories (table 2–1)
leased waste and to the quality and quantity of water may be significantly impacted.
and the biota in the receiving waterbody. The mag-
• an auxiliary (emergency) spillway
nitude of the impact may also vary according to the
time of year and such factors as the dilution capacity, • additional freeboard
reaeration coefficients, antecedent dissolved oxygen
• accommodating the wet year rather than normal
conditions, sensitivity to phosphorus and nitrogen
year precipitation
loads, and proximity of drinking water intakes and
recreation areas. Exactly what the effect of released • reinforced embankment, such as additional top
waste would be is difficult, if not impossible, to pre- width, flattened or armored downstream side
dict with any precision. Regardless of the impact, it slopes
must be recognized that releasing wastewater in any
• secondary containment
amount or concentration into a surface waterbody is
seldom socially acceptable. For this reason, precau- • permanent markers at critical wastewater eleva-
tionary measures should be considered in planning tions to indicate need for operational action
and design to minimize the risk or consequences of
embankment breach or accidental release if a hydrau-
lic analysis indicates that a surface waterbody may be
impacted. This would be even more important from a
social acceptability aspect if the affected waterbody is
off-farm.
Table 2–1 Potential impact categories from breach of
Embankment breach or the accidental release of embankment or accidental release
effluent from a waste impoundment may also cause
severe erosion and destruction of cropland and criti- Surface waterbodies—perennial streams, lakes, wetlands,
cal habitat. Because animal waste potentially contains and estuaries
disease causing microorganisms that are transmittable Critical habitat
to humans (see ch. 3, table 3–5 of this handbook for a Farmstead or other areas of habitation
listing), a release that would contaminate areas where Off-farm property
The potential for accidental release exists whenever a cracks, tears, seam separation, or loosened connec-
gravity outlet is used to facilitate emptying the waste tions. Concrete liners may leak if they crack or joint
impoundment as part of the utilization function of seals fail. The acceptability of the risk depends on the
an AWMS. Any one of many possibilities, including importance of the underlying aquifer, location and type
vandalism, may result in an accidental or unplanned of aquifer, and geologic site conditions that may be
release. Evaluation of the impact of this type release unforgiving to poor performance.
should be made by routing the outlet’s maximum
discharge. The following should be considered to The seepage protection planned for a waste im-
minimize the potential for accidental release of gravity poundment should correspond to the risk involved.
outlets from the required volume when one or more A thorough geologic investigation is essential as a
of the categories described in table 2–1 may be signifi- prerequisite to planning seepage control for a waste
cantly impacted. impoundment. Special consideration should be given
to seepage control in any one of the following condi-
• Use outlet gate locks or locked gate housing.
tions:
• Have a secondary containment.
• any underlying aquifer is at a shallow depth and
• Use an alarm system. not confined
• Do not use a gravity outlet. Use another means of • the vadose zone is rock
emptying the required volume.
• the aquifer is a domestic water supply or ecologi-
cally vital water supply
Development of an emergency action plan should be
considered for waste impoundments where there is • the site is located in an area of carbonate rock
potential for significant impact from breach or ac- (limestone or dolomite)
cidental release. In addition, consideration should
be given to actions to minimize damage from breach. Should any of these conditions exist, consideration
Actions would include wellhead protection, dikes, and should be given to the following:
diversion channels. These actions should be taken to
• a clay liner designed and installed in accordance
augment, not replace the measures to reduce the risk
with procedures of appendix 10D of this hand-
of breach.
book with a thickness and coefficient of perme-
ability so that specific discharge is less than
(b) Potential hazard of liner failure for 1 × 10–7 centimeters per second.
waste impoundments • a flexible membrane liner over a clay liner
Waste impoundments present a risk of contaminating • a geosynthetic clay liner or flexible membrane
underlying groundwater aquifers and surface water liner
that may be fed by these aquifers because of the nu- • a concrete liner designed in accordance with the
trients and microorganisms contained in the waste- criteria for watertight slabs on grade
water. To minimize this risk, NRCS practice standards
require that waste impoundments be located in soils The subsurface investigation for a waste impoundment
of acceptable permeability or be lined. Despite this, site must be conducted so as to locate any subsurface
risk remains because of the possibility of poor perfor- drainage lines. If found, the lines must either be re-
mance of these measures in preventing the movement moved, rerouted, or replaced with nonperforated pipe
of contaminants to the groundwater. Any of a number with watertight joints.
of causes could lead to nonperformance of liners.
These causes would include such things as not being Some waste impoundments require foundation drains
homogenous with lenses of more permeable material, to lower the seasonal water table to an acceptable
being constructed with inadequate compaction, hav- depth. These drains must be designed and installed
ing desiccation cracks develop following impound- to have an appropriate separation distance from the
ment emptying, and being damaged during agitation. impoundment liner and outlet in nonsensitive areas.
Flexible membrane liners may fail by such things as Functional failure of these drains may impact im-
poundment liner performance. As such, outlets should Siting Agricultural Waste Management Systems, for
be guarded from damage and located so they can be more details on siting to minimize odors.
inspected for proper operation. Dual outlets should be
considered so a backup outlet is available if one fails. Assessment of the social factors related to odors is
difficult because of the varied human response to
Pumping and agitation, if used, can be destructive to odors. Odor sensation is a personal response. Odor
liners, especially soil blanket liners. Plan for pumping is not observed by individuals with equal sensitivity
and agitation at locations that will not result in dam- nor is there always agreement among individuals as to
age to liners or for measures that will eliminate the whether an odor is objectionable when detected. Indi-
possibility of damage. viduals respond differently to odors primarily because
of variations of background. For example, someone
raised in an urban setting would observe an odor from
(c) Potential impact from odors and an AWMS differently than someone raised in a rural
gaseous emissions from waste setting.
impoundments
The social factors to consider in determining the
Potential odors from a livestock operation are not extent that measures must be taken to minimize odors
limited to waste impoundments. Other sources include are related to who the owner or operator is, who the
buildings (e.g., housing units and milking parlors), neighbors are, and the nature of the community in
open lots, the animals themselves, and operational which the AWMS is located. Odors from an enterprise
activities, such as agitation and land application. When owned and operated by a person who has a long-stand-
developing recommendations for minimizing odor, all ing presence in the community are more likely to be
sources must be dealt with effectively. This section tolerated than a similar enterprise owned and oper-
describes AWMS odors and their impact assessment in ated by a newcomer, if local experience to the farm
general terms. However, the planning considerations has been positive. Less likely to be tolerated would be
given are limited to waste impoundments. a newly established, large enterprise owned and man-
aged by someone who does not live on the farm. Odors
Assessment of the potential for offensive odor impact that affect neighbors with similar enterprises are more
from an AWMS is complex. Several factors account for likely to be tolerated. For example, odors from a dairy
this complexity. Odors from an AWMS vary in intensi- that is located in a rural area surrounded by other
ty, frequency, and duration depending on time of year, similar sized dairy farms would probably be toler-
time of day, weather conditions, and management ated. However, odors from a livestock operation that
activities underway. Physiographic characteristics of is much larger than the majority of neighboring farms
the site, including such items as topography, vegeta- and not considered to be part of the farming communi-
tion, and cultural features, can also affect the potential ty may not be tolerated. An example would be a large
for impact. These characteristics interact to vary the corporate farm in the midst of smaller family farms.
distance to which odors may have an impact. Social
factors, described in detail later in this section, also Less tolerant of odors would be neighbors who have
add significantly to the potential for odors to have an dissimilar enterprises, especially nonodor producing
impact. All of these factors must be assessed in plan- enterprises. An example is a hog operation located in
ning an AWMS and associated waste impoundments. a predominately corn-growing area. A type of rural
Consider as many of the interacting factors as each neighbor that would be even less tolerant of odors
individual situation necessitates. would be those who have migrated to the country from
urban areas. Often people with this background have
The first planning consideration for minimizing the moved to the country for the fresh air and not neces-
impact of odors from waste impoundments is choos- sarily to make a living. This neighbor, in all likelihood,
ing the best site possible. This siting will maximize would be less tolerant of odors, especially if they are
separation distance and use prevailing wind direction, intense and drawn-out. Those living in adjacent urban
topography, buildings, and vegetative screens to direct communities will generally not tolerate odors that they
and dissipate odors. See chapter 8 of this handbook, perceive to be objectionable regardless of intensity or
duration.
An evaluation that would include, but not be limited For sites where measures beyond siting are necessary
to, the following factors in determining the recommen- to minimize odors, anaerobic lagoons should be con-
dations for minimizing AWMS odors. sidered instead of waste storage ponds. Lagoons with
loading rates reduced to at least half the values shown
Owner/operator assessment in chapter 10, figure 10–27 of this handbook should be
used. The following measures should be considered
• tenure
for sites where the need to minimize odors is signifi-
• type of enterprise cant:
• size of enterprise • covering anaerobic waste treatment lagoons and
storage ponds
• future plans for expansion
• using naturally aerated or mechanically aerated
• perception of odors
lagoons
Neighboring farms assessment • using composting in conjunction with a solid
waste system rather than a liquid or slurry sys-
• tenure
tem
• type of enterprise
• using a methane recovery system
• size of enterprise
• perception of odors
Community assessment
• composition—percent rural vs. percent urban
• migration to community in the last 5 years
• economic sectors
• history of odor complaints to community leaders
651.0205 References