IV.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS (a) the direction of dip, which is the compass direction
towards which the plane slopes; and
Structural geology is a critical part of engineering geology (b) the angle of dip, which is the angle that the plane makes
which is interested in the physical and mechanical properties with a horizontal plane (Fig. 2.3).
of rocks.
The
Importance of Structural Geology
The study of structural geology has a primary importance in
economic geology, both petroleum geology and mining
geology. The main target of structural geology is to use
measurements to understand the stress field that resulted in
the observed strain and geometries. We can also understand
the structural evolution of a particular area due to plate
tectonics (e.g. mountain building, rifting).

direction of dip can be visualized as the direction in which

An essential importance of structural geology is to know
water would flow if poured onto the plane. The angle of dip is
areas that contain folds and faults because they can form
an angle between 0° (for horizontal planes) and 90° (for
traps in which the accumulation and concentration of fluids
vertical planes). To record the dip of a plane all that is needed
such as oil and natural gas occur. Environmental geologists
are two numbers; the direction of dip followed by the angle
and hydrologists need to understand structural geology
of dip, e.g. 138/74 is a plane which dips 74° in the direction
because structures are sites of groundwater flow and
138°N (this is a direction which is SE, 138°clockwise from
penetration which may have an effect on leakage of toxic
materials from waste dumps or leakage of salty water into
aquifers.

ATTITUDE OF BEDS
(ABIERA, JERLYN B.)
The layered nature of the rock displayed in the mountain
sides results from the deposition of sediments in sheets or
beds which have large areal extent compared to their
thickness. This stratified structure is known as bedding. In
some areas the sediments exposed on the surface of the
earth still show their unmodified sedimentary structure; that
north). In the field the direction of dip is usually measured
is, the bedding is still approximately horizontal. In other parts
with a magnetic compass which incorporates a device called a
of the world, the structure of the layering is dominated by the
clinometer, based on a plumb line or spirit level principle, for
buckling of the strata into corrugations or folds so that the
the measurement of dip angles. One technique is to always
slope of the bedding varies from place to place. Folds, which
take the strike so the dip is 90° to the right of the strike, in
are these crumples of the crust’s layering, together with
which case the redundant letter following the dip angle is
faults where the beds are broken and shifted, are examples of
omitted. The map symbol is a short line attached and at right
geological structures to be dealt.
angles to the strike symbol pointing in the direction which the
planar surface is dipping down. The angle of dip is generally
A bedding attitude is defined as the strike and dip of a bed.
included on a geologic map without the degree sign. Beds
that are dipping vertically are shown with the dip symbol on
Strike and
both sides of the strike, and beds that are flat are shown like
Dip
the vertical beds, but with a circle around them. Both vertical
Strike and dip
and flat beds do not have a number written with them.
refer to the
orientation or
Strike
attitude of a
geologic
feature.
Bedding and
other geological layers and planes that are not horizontal are
said to dip. The dip is the slope of a geological surface. The
dip gives the steepest angle of descent of a tilted bed or
feature relative to a horizontal plane, and is given by the
number (0°-90°) as well as a letter (N, S, E, W) with rough
direction in which the bed is dipping. There are two aspects
to the dip of a plane:
The strike line is a non-plunging or horizontal line within a
dipping plane. The strike line of a bed, fault, or other planar
feature, is a line representing the intersection of that feature
with a horizontal plane. The line numbered 5 in Fig. 2.4 is an
example of a strike line. If we think of the sloping roof of a
house as a dipping plane, the lines of the ridge and the eaves
are equivalent to strike lines. Within a dipping plane the line
at right angles to the strike line is the line with the steepest
plunge. Verify this for yourself by tilting a book on a flat
tabletop as shown in Fig. 2.6. Place a pencil on the book in
various orientations. The plunge of the pencil will be steepest
when it is at right angles to the spine of the book (a strike
line). The angle of plunge of the steepest plunging line in a
plane is equal to the angle of dip of that plane. When
specifying the direction of a strike line we can quote either of
two directions which are 180° different (Fig. 2.6). For
example, a strike direction of 060° is the same as a strike
direction of 240°. The direction of dip is always at right angles
to the strike and can therefore be obtained by either adding
or subtracting 90° from the strike whichever gives the down-
dip direction. The map symbol used to represent the dip of
bedding usually consists of a stripe in the direction of the
strike with a short dash on the side towards the dip direction.
The attitude of the bed is measured by a device called
Brunton Compass. It can show both the dip angle, dip
direction and strike direction.
Once the attitude of a bed is determined it is entered into a
field notebook and then is plotted on a quadrangle map at
the location that
it was collected.
The quadrant
notation that is
commonly used to express the strike of a layer is illustrated in
Figure 6.
OUTCROP
(ABIERA, JERLYN B.)
In the mountainous and sub-mountainous tracts and also in
shallow plains, exposures of rocks may be easily seen forming
sides of valleys or caps of hills or even uplands and slopes in
level fields. An outcrop is simply defined as an exposure of a
solid rock on the surface of the earth.
Outcrop Dimensions
Ø The width or breadth of the outcrop of a particular bed is
given by the distance between the top and bottom edges of
the bed as measured on the surface of the ground in a
direction perpendicular to the strike of that particular bed
Ø Many variations are induced in the breadth of an outcrop
of a rock by the topography of the area.
Ø The thickness of a particular layer or bed is the
perpendicular distance between the top and bottom surface
of the same layer as seen in a vertical section at right angles
to the strike of the layer.
Ø The depth to a particular layer or bed at any place from the
surface, believed to be present on the basis of general
geology and dip of the formation, is given by the
perpendicular distance between the ground surface and the
top surface of that particular layer.
Ø When the ground surface is horizontal, depth d to the
bedrock of known dip may be obtained by the relationship
Ø where is the angle of true dip of the bed exposed at a
place, say at B and C is the distance from that exposure to the
place C where it is desired to find out depth to that bedrock.
EXAMPLES OF OUTCROP PATTERNS
Outcrop patterns of uniformly dipping beds
One of these
surfaces is the
‘geological
surface’ – in this
example the
surface of
contact between
the two
formations. The
other is the
‘topographic
surface’ – the
surface of the ground. As the block diagram in Fig. 2.9B
shows, it is these irregularities or topographic features which
produce the sinuous trace of geological contacts we observe How is such a geological map made?
on maps. If, for example, the ground surface were planar (Fig. The geologist in the field firstly records the nature of rock
2.9D), the contacts would run as straight lines on the map where it is visible at the surface. Rock outcrops are examined
(Fig. 2.9C). The extent to which topography influences the and characteristics such as rock composition, internal
form of contacts depends also on the angle of dip of the beds. structure and fossil content are recorded. Of course, rocks
are not everywhere exposed at the surface. In fact, over
Outcrop patterns of geological surfaces exposed on the much of the area in Fig. 1.1 rocks are covered by soil and by
ground alluvial deposits laid down by recent rivers. Deducing the rock
A geological surface crops out at points where it has the same unit which underlies the areas of unexposed rock involves
height as the ground making use of additional
surface. The line of data such as the type of
outcrop of a soil, the land’s surface
geological surface forms (geomorphology)
crosses a structure and information from
contour for the boreholes. Geophysical
surface only at points methods allow certain
where the ground physical properties of
height matches that rocks (such as their
of the structure magnetism and density) to be measured remotely, and are
contour. therefore useful for mapping rocks in poorly exposed regions.

V-shaped outcrop What is a geological map used for?

patterns The most obvious use of a geological map is to indicate the
A dipping surface nature of the near-surface bedrock. This is clearly of great
that crops out in a valley or on a ridge will give rise to a V- importance to civil engineers who, for example, have to
shaped outcrop (Fig. 2.17). The way the outcrop patterns vee advise on the excavation of road cuttings or on the siting of
depends on the dip of the geological surface relative to the bridges; to geographers studying the use of land and to
topography. In the case of valleys, patterns vee upstream or companies exploiting minerals.
downstream (Fig. 2.17).
The rule for Geologic cross sections often appear with geologic maps.
determining the dip They are diagrams illustrating the distribution of geologic
from the type of vee units in the vertical dimension along a line through the map
(the ‘V rule’) is easily area. They may also show the topographic profile of the land
remembered if one surface.
considers the
intermediate case (Fig. Useful items on geologic maps:
2.17D) where the • The symbol for a geologic unit, labeled on the map and in
outcrop vees in neither the explanation, begins with the capitalized symbol for the
direction. Downstream- geologic period (or era),
pointing vees are followed by lowercase
produced when the letters that designate
beds dip downstream the name of the
more steeply than the formation. For example,
valley gradient (Fig. the Ordovician Swan
2.17E). Finally, vertical Peak Formation is
beds have straight labeled “Osp”
outcrop courses and do not vee (Fig. 2.17F). • Contact lines on a
map separate and mark
the boundary between
GEOLOGICAL MAPS two adjacent geologic
(ALAURIN, JESTONI D.) formations.
• Outcrops are those
A geological map shows the distribution of various types of places where a geologic
bedrock in an area. It usually consists of a topographic map (a formation is exposed at the Earth’s surface. Three factors
map giving information about the form of the earth’s surface) control the width of a formation’s outcrop on a geologic map:
which is shaded, or colored to show where different rock 1) the formation’s thickness; 2) the slope of the land in the
units occur at or just below the ground surface. area of an outcrop; and 3) the dip angle of the beds in the
formation.
• The dip angle, measured in degrees, is the maximum angle
between an imaginary horizontal plane and the sloping
bedding plane of sedimentary strata.
• The direction of dip is the compass bearing that the rock
units are tilted towards, measured downwards from the
horizontal.
• The line of strike is the direction of the intersection of an
imaginary horizontal plane and a tilted bedding plane or
contact. The direction of strike is always at a right angle to
the direction of dip.
• Fold symbols are a line along the crest of an anticline,
trough of a syncline, or the inflection along a monocline. The
type of fold is indicated by arrows across this line: pointing
outward for an anticline, inward for a syncline, and in the
direction of the step down for a monocline.
It is desirable for civil engineers to have the knowledge of
geological maps. Engineering geological maps frequently
consist of basic geological maps on which some engineering
geological data have been incorporated. From the data given
in these maps we can prepare plans and sections and get a
rough idea of the types of rocks and other details of the
place. They provide planners and engineers with information
which assists them in the planning of use of land, and the
location, construction and maintenance of engineering
structures of all types. Engineering geological maps are
produced on the scale of 1:10000 or smaller whereas
engineering geological plans, being produced for a particular
engineering purpose, have a larger scale.
Types:
Analytical- it provide details or evaluate individual
components of the geological environment. Examples of such
maps include those showing the degree of weathering or
seismic hazard.  withstand before it deforms permanently.
Comprehensive- all the principal components of the
engineering geological environment; engineering geological
zoning, delineating individual territorial units
The engineering geological report accompanying the
engineering geological map should include following
discussions and recommendations if any:
 Areas to be avoided if any & mitigation alternatives.
 Topography and slope.
 Stability of geologic units in the site
 Identification and extent of known or probable
geologic conditions which may result in risk to the
proposed land use (such as flood, surface &
groundwater pollution, snow avalanche, landslide,
debris flow, rock fall, expansive soil, subsidence,
erosion, earthquake shaking, fault, volcanic eruption
etc.).
 Prediction of what materials and structural features
will be encountered in proposed cuts.
 Excavation considerations (hard or massive rock,
groundwater flows).
 General considerations of proposed fill masses in
canyons or on side-hills.
 Suitability of on-site material for use as compacted
fill.
 Recommendations concerning erosion protection on
fill slopes.
 Other recommendations required by the proposed
land use, such as the angle of cut slopes, position of
drainage terraces, need for rock-fall and/or erosion
protection on cut slopes.
 Protection from sheet flood or gully erosion, and
debris flows or mud flows
 Recommendation for additional studies like boring,
test pits and trenches, percolation tests and
programs for long-term monitoring of the site to
evaluate geological conditions (survey hubs,
inclinometers, extensometers etc.)
STUDY OF STRUCTURES
(MORADA, JAKE)
Geologic structures such as faults and folds are the
architecture of the earth’s crust.
Physical Behavior of Rocks: Stress and Geologic Structures
Stress refers to the forces that cause rocks to deform. There
are three basic types of stress that deform rocks:
 compression (pushing together)
 tension (pulling apart)
 shear (twisting or rotating)
The bending or breaking of rock is called deformation or
strain.
ELASTIC RESPONSE: The deformation of a body in proportion
to the applied stress and its recovery once the stress is
removed.
ELASTIC LIMIT: The maximum amount of stress a material can
DUCTILE RESPONSE: The permanent deformation, without
fracture in the shape of a solid.
BRITTLE RESPONSE: The fracturing of a rock in response to
stress with little or no permanent deformation prior to its
rupture.
The specific types of geologic structures - the breaks and
bends that deform rock in response to stress
Folds
Ductile rocks behave plastically and become folded in
response to stress. Even in the shallow crust where rocks are
cool and relatively brittle, folding can occur if the stress is
slow and steady and gives the rock enough time to gradually
bend. If the stress is applied too quickly, rocks in the shallow
crust will behave as brittle solids and break. Deeper in the
crust, where the rocks are more ductile, folding happens
more readily, even when the stress and strain occurs rapidly.
Anticlines and Synclines
The most basic types of folds are anticlines and synclines.
Anticlines are defined as those folds in which the strata are
up arched, that is, these become convex upwards; the
geologically older rocks occupy a position in the interior of
the fold, oldest being positioned at the core of the fold and
the youngest forming the outermost flank, the limbs dip away
from each other at the crest in the simplest cases.

Synclines is the strata are down arched, that is, these become
convex downwards the geologically younger rocks occupy a
position in the core of the fold and the older rocks form the
outer flanks, provided the normal order of superposition is
not disturbed, in the simplest cases in synclines, the limbs dip
towards a common center.
The two symbols (Dip
and Strike symbol) are
pointing to each other
(dipping towards each
other) and is separated
by one rock unit. That
rock unit is the center
of the syncline. On the
second picture, the rock
unit represented by the color Pink is the Anticline because the
symbols or arrows at the right and left sides of the Pink unit
are both pointing away from each other (dipping away from
the axis).
Plunging Anticlines and Synclines
A plunging anticline or a plunging syncline is one that has its
axis tilted from the horizontal so that the fold is plunging into
the earth along its length. Plunge direction is the direction in
which the axis of the fold tilts down into the earth.
In map view, a plunging anticline makes a U-shaped or V-
shaped pattern that points, or closes, in the direction of
plunge. A cross-section at a right angle to the axis of a
plunging anticline looks the same as an anticline. In map view,
a plunging syncline makes a U-shaped or V-shaped pattern
that opens in the direction of plunge.
Basins and Domes
A basin is a downward bulge in the rock layers, like a syncline
without an axis. The beds all dip toward the center and the
youngest rock is at the center.
A dome is an upward bulge in the rock layers, like an anticline
without an axis. The beds all dip away from the center and
the oldest rock is at the center.
Mountains
 Converging plates create the world’s largest
mountain ranges. Each combination of plate types—
continent-continent, continent-ocean, and ocean-
ocean—creates mountains.
 Subduction of oceanic lithosphere at convergent
plate boundaries also builds mountain ranges.
 Diverging plates can create mountain ranges. When
tensional stresses pull crust apart, it breaks into
blocks that slide up and drop down along normal
faults. The result is alternating mountains and
valleys, known as a basin-and-range. In basin-and-
range, some blocks are uplifted to form ranges,
known as horsts, and some are down-dropped to
form basins, known as grabens.
Faults
A fault is a planar (relatively flat) surface within the earth,
along which rocks have broken and slid. Faults are caused by
elastic strain that culminates in brittle failure.
The rocks on top of a fault are called the hanging wall.
The rocks beneath a fault are called the footwall.
Normal and Detachment Faults
In a normal fault, the hanging wall has slid down while the
footwall has slid up along the fault.
Normal Fault
A detachment fault is a particular kind of normal fault with a
low dip angle. Normal and detachment
faults form in sections of the crust that
are undergoing tension-where the crust is
being stretched apart. A divergent plate
boundary is generally a zone of major
normal faults, but normal faults also
occur in other zones of crustal tension, such as in the Basin
and Range landscape
Reverse and Thrust Faults
In a reverse or thrust fault, the hanging wall has moved up
while the footwall has moved down along the fault. The
difference between a reverse fault and a thrust fault is that a
reverse fault has a
steeper dip, more than
30°. A convergent plate
boundary is generally a
zone of major reverse
and thrust faults, but
reverse and thrust faults also occur in other settings where
the crust is being compressed.
Strike-Slip Faults
Strike-slip faults are steep or vertical
faults along which the rocks on either
side have moved horizontally in
opposite directions. A transform
plate boundary is generally a strike-
slip fault or zone of strike-slip faults.
Other geologic structures
Grabens and Horsts
A section of the crust that has dropped down along two
parallel normal faults is called a graben. A block of crust that
has been uplifted between two parallel normal faults is called
a horst.
Joints
Joints are the most commonly observed structure at the
earth's surface.
Metamorphic Core Complexes 2) Deformational Structures
A metamorphic core complex is a deep section of the crust These structures show deformation that occurred during or
that has shortly after deposition.
uplifted  Syn-depositional folding occurs during or just after
along deposition, and develops in water-filled sediment.
Examples of syn-depositional folding include
mudcracks and load casts.
 Desiccation cracks, commonly referred to as
detachment faults and become partly exposed at the earth's mudcracks, form as clay rich deposits dry and
surface. Metamorphic core complexes form in areas where contract in the sun.
the crust is undergoing extension, or being pulled apart, all  Scour structures show concave upwards features
the way down to the deep crust. This extension is occurring at resulting from a high-energy erosional flow cutting
the same time as the deep crust is undergoing into the recently deposited bed.
metamorphism and igneous intrusion.
3) Sedimentary Intrusions
What Are the Types of Geologic Structures? These features are characterized by one type of sedimentary
Within structural geology, there are two types of geologic rock protruding into its overlying bed of a different rock type.
structures: primary and secondary.
4) Igneous Structures
Primary structures Igneous rocks are
Primary structures those which have
are non-tectonic, been formed by the
meaning they cooling of magma.
form during Igneous structures
sedimentary can divided into two
deposition, or in categories: intrusive
the case of and extrusive.
metamorphic rock, during crystallization. Primary structures Intrusive structures are those in which magma has cooled and
are useful to geologists for many reasons. For one, they can solidified before reaching the surface of the earth. Extrusive
be used to determine facing, or which side of the rock structures are those caused by a lava eruption at the surface
represents the upward direction during deposition. Primary followed by quick cooling.
structures can also be used to describe the strain the rock has
undergone, as well as adding details regarding the geologic Common intrusive structures: Dikes and Sills
setting during deposition. A dyke is a vertical or sub-vertical tabular intrusion of igneous
rock that cuts across preexisting structures. A sill is a
1) Depositional structures horizontal intrusion of igneous rock that forms between
These structures reflect the environments in which they were preexisting rock beds.
deposited in,
exemplifying Common extrusive structures: Lava flow
the physical, A lava flow is the result of magmatic discharge onto the
chemical, and surface.
biological
processes 5) Depositional Contacts
they The boundary separating one rock body from another is
experienced. known as a depositional contact. Bedding contacts can either
 Lamination- Laminae are planar structures of 1 be conformable or unconformable. Conformable contacts are
centimeter or less in thickness, and are the result of those in which two beds of a continuous depositional
a low energy depository environment. sequence touch. Unconformable contacts are those that
represent a time gap between two layers of rock. The
 Bedding- The smallest division of a stratified
meeting point between two unconformable beds is known as
sedimentary sequence is called bedding. Beds are
a line of unconformity. There are three main types of
sets of laminae in rock that are different than the
unconformities:
layers above and below them.
Types of Bedding:  An angular
a) Graded bedding explains the continuous change in
sediment size between the bottom and top of a rock layer.
b) Cross-bedding are inclined layers within a bed that do not
run parallel
with the main
bedding plane.

unconformity is a discordance of angular

 relationships between the over and underlying beds 1. Location of Dams
of the line of unconformity. 2. Location of Reservoirs
 Disconformities represent a difference in time  Dam on upstream dipping beds
between two sedimentary layers that share a line of
contact. These are the result of the erosion and loss
of once overlying beds.
 Nonconformities represent a difference in time
between crystalline (igneous or metamorphic) and
sedimentary beds that share a line of contact.

Secondary structures
As defined by Wilkerson (2019), a secondary structure is, "any
structure formed in
response to an applied
stress that results from
plate movement."
Therefore, these
structures are tectonic, as
they develop after
 Dam on horizontal beds
lithification of
 Dam on downstream dipping beds
sedimentary and igneous rock, and after crystallization of
3. Location of Tunnels
metamorphic rock. Examples of secondary structures include
 Folded rocks are greatly strained, their removal, for
faults, folds, lineations, cleavage, and shear zones.
tunneling can cause rock explosions
 Along crests of folds, the rocks are in tension,
FOLDS, FAULTS AND JOINTS – THEIR BEARING ON
therefore highly unstable
ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION
 Along the troughs, rocks are highly compressed,
(MAESA, CHARLENE GALE)
hence tough, offer greater resistance to excavation
The selection of sites affected by the various engineering
structures are very large presence of faults and folds, as they
affect the safety of facilities, and pose a significant risk it.
The presence of faults or breaks, reduces the resistance of
the rocks of the jurisprudence, and introduced the facilities
provided by them to collapse.
The folds also a problem, since the existence of structures
concave folds it with a great ability to collect ground water, for tunneling
causing water problems at large Construction of buildings or  Tunneling can be done along the limbs
tunnels located in areas where this kind of folds So we justify
the importance of geological studies and their role in avoiding Effects of Folding on Tunneling
collapse of structures and buildings in the regions illustrated
by the geological maps based on these studies, as well as to
avoid the high costs that may be borne by the concerned
authorities In the event that set up these projects on the
areas of joints and faults and folds, as well as the lives that
may lose by default in the implementation of geological
studies.

Engineering Considerations for Geologic Structures 4. Quarrying

Effects and Civil Engineering Importance of:  Should be done along the limbs:
Folds  Better quality of rocks available
Faults  Fractures associated with crests and troughs are
Joints absent along the limbs
 Problems along the crests and troughs can be
A. Effects of Folding avoided
 Change in attitude 5. Ground water Occurrence
 Shattering of rocks  Synclines often furnish excellent conditions to tap
 Weak in strength parameters ground water
 Porous and pervious in nature  Artesian wells and springs originate from synclines
 Strained nature  Fractures present in folded strata act as channels for
ground water movement
Importance in Civil Engineering
6. Roads and Railway tracks along hillslopes
  Ground stability depends on the mutual relation of
the dip of the beds and the slope of the cutting
 If the surface slope and the dip are in opposite
directions, the ground is stable
 If the surface slope and the dip collide, the ground is
unstable
Stable and Unstable slopes
7. Oil, Gas and Ore deposits
 Oil and gas deposits are often associated with
anticlines
 Suitable cap rocks, are also an essential requirement
 Crests of folds offer convenient places for the
occurrence of ore deposits
B. Effects of Faulting
 Fracture and shattering of rocks along fault zones
 Serves as pathways for water, causes leakage
 Fault zone lubricated with water are potential sites
for further movements
 Gouge and breccia causes problems
 Faults bring together, different rocks, hence
homogeneity is lost
Importance in Civil Engineering
1. Faults at dam site
2. Location of reservoirs
 Faults cause leakage of water, if present in the
reservoir basin
 Downstream dipping faults cause excess uplift
pressure
 Fault zone occurring in the upstream of the river,
leads to erosion and accelerated reservoir silting
3. Location of Tunnels
 Faults zones, being heavily fractured, makes
tunneling unstable
 Ground water associated problems are likely tooccur
 Renewed faulting can lead to ground displacement
4. Quarrying
Quarrying in fault zones produce inferior materials,
quantitatively and qualitatively
5. Roads & Railway tracks along slopes
Fault zones are highly undesirable for construction of
roadside and railway, due to the possibility of landslides
6. Ground water occurrence
Faults zones, being heavily fractured, makes provides space
for storage of ground water and permits their movement
7. Ore minerals
 Faults zones, are often rich in minerals
 They favor different process that eventually lead to
mineral formation
C. Effects of Joints
 Sources of weakness in rocks, pathways for of water
 Jointed rocks, lubricated by the presence of water,
are susceptible to motion
 Joints are usually treated by grouting
 Only a well jointed and porous rock can become a
good aquifer or an oil and gas reservoir
1. Location of Dams and reservoirs
 Too many joints in the sight, will render it unsuitable
for construction of dams
 They act as avenues for serious leakage of water
 Upstream dipping joints are less harmful
2. Occurrence of Landslides
 Landslides take place, when the surface slope of the
hills and the dip of the beds are in the same
direction
 Joints facilitate the heavy percolation of water
 This water comes in contact with clayey material
below the ground, producing fine lubricating
materials, which causes the slipping of over lying
rocks
3. Quarrying
 Depending on conditions joints can play a helpful or
harmful role in quarrying
 Joints cut in situ rocks, which can be easily extracted,
without the use of explosives
 Too many joints, on the other hand, render
quarrying useless, due to excessive decay of rocks
4. Tunneling
 Joints can severely hamper the strength of rocks
 They may cause rocks to fall from the roof of the
tunnel
 Joints can cause the ground to be saturated with
water, decreasing the strength of the rocks
 They may act as sites for the development of
solution cavities in limestone terrain
ROCK MECHANICS
(AYO, RHEINA LEAN)
Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the
mechanical behaviour of rock and rock masses. It is that
branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock
and rock masses to the force fields of its physical
environment. Its main focus is how rocks respond to applied
stresses especially those that naturally occur due to:
 Gravity
 Mantle Convection
 Plate Tectonics
 Diapiric Movements: magma, salt diapirs
Rock mechanics, as applied in engineering geology, mining,
petroleum, and civil engineering practice, is concerned with
the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to
the design of the rock structures generated by mining,
drilling, reservoir production, or civil construction activity  Duration
such as tunnels, mining shafts, underground excavations,  How stress applied over time
open pit mines, oil and gas wells, road cuts, waste  Temperature
repositories, and other structures built in or of rock. It also  Pore Fluids and Pressure
includes the design of reinforcement systems, such as rock
bolting patterns. LITHOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Rocks which are
It is convenient to subdivide rock mechanics into the generally associated
following branches: in field belongs to
a) Structural rock mechanics, which is concerned with the lithosphere (crust
stability of engineering structures in which the material is and upper mantle).
predominantly rock. By increasing depth
b) Comminution, which is concerned with the reduction of over burden
rock to small fragments by the application of external forces
as in drilling, blasting, cutting and grinding.

Rock mechanics involves characterizing the intact strength

and the geometry and the mechanical properties of natural
fracture of rock mass. Testing the intact strength can be done
through Destructive Strength Tests (Point Load Tests, Shear
Strength Tests, etc.) and Nondestructive Strength Tests
(Wave Propagation).

Rock mechanics is the study of the mechanical behavior of increases that results in changing rock properties such as
subsurface sedimentary strata and rocks that are formed. The density, rigidity, etc.
basic principle is that rock simply responds to stress by
changing in volume or form. The change in the rock volume or GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
form due to the applied stress is called strain. Rocks  Temperature increases in the lithosphere at 25°C/km
subjected to compressive stress (+) or tensile stress (−) can go  Temperature continues to increase all the way to the
through three stages of strain deformation. core, but at a lower rate
1. In elastic deformation, the rock deforms as stress is
applied and returns to its original shape as stress is INTERNAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING ROCK BEHAVIOR
relieved. In elastic deformation, the strain is
 Composition (silicates and oxides most resistant to
proportional to the stress (Hooke’s Law).
strain)
2. When applied stress in a rock reaches the elastic
 Texture/Fabric (phaneritic most resistant)
limit, the rock begins to exhibit plastic deformation.
 Pores, cracks, flaws
In plastic deformation, the rock partially returns to
 Degree of Weathering (minerals that weather from
its original shape as stress is relieved.
oxides and silicates to other compounds are
3. If continued stress is applied, fractures develop and
weakened)
the rock fails (ultimate failure stress).
 Presence of fluids in pores or crack
a. Rocks can fail in a brittle manner, usually under low
confining stress, or
ROCK TEXTURE/FABRIC
b. In a ductile manner under higher confining stress.
 Grain Size
Under compression, rocks fail in shear, as it is easier to slide
 Interlockin
rock grains past each other than to crush them. High
g or Grains
confining pressure resists sliding on the shear plane and the
in Cement
rock appears stronger. Furthermore, if the confining pressure
 Sorting
and axial load were equal, there would be no shear stress on
 Foliation/
the rock and no shear failure. Some further key aspects of
Non
rock mechanics in relation to drilling are:
foliated
• Equal stresses promote wellbore stability.
 Sedimentary Layering
• Unequal stresses promote shear stress and possible shear
failure, i.e., wellbore instability.
RIGID AND BRITTLE BEHAVIORS
In actual borehole conditions, pore pressure exerts a force
RIGID:
that tends to push the rock grains apart.
 No strain, no response
 Most rocks show rigid behavior at room temperature
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING ROCK BEHAVIOR and no Pc, and at stresses below Pa
Stress Factors: BRITTLE
 Applied Stress  No strain before failure
 Stress History  In ideal brittle behavior, if stress is removed before
rock fails, there will be no internal sign of strain
Brittle Behavior: A material is brittle if, when subjected to
stress, it breaks without significant deformation (strain)
Shear Failure: A shear load is a force that tends to produce a
sliding failure on material along a plane that is parallel to the
direction of the force.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ROCKS – POROSITY, PERMEABILITY, DENSITY, STRENGTH,
HARDNESS, ELASTICITY, PLASCTICITY, DYNAMIC PROPERTIES
OF ROCKS
(VERGARA, NICOLE JANINE)

Physical Properties of Rock

ROCK STRENGTH
 The compressive strength of rock is a function of a
confining pressure.
 As the confining pressure increases so does the
strength (Goodman, Intro to Rock Mechanics)
 Crushing Strength - It is also termed as compressive
strength of a stone. It may be defined as maximum
force expressed per unit area which a stone can
withstand. Any force beyond the compression
strength will cause a failure of the stone. Crushing
strengths of common types of building stones are
generally higher than the loads that they are
supposed to withstand, in ordinary type of building
constructions.
 Transverse strength - It is defined as the capacity of
the stones to withstand bending loads. Such loads
are only rarely involved in situations where stones
are commonly used.

SPALLING  Abrasive Resistance - the resistance which a stone

SPALL are flakes of a material that are broken off a larger
solid body and can be produced by a variety of mechanisms,
including as a result of weathering, cavitation, etc. SPALLING
and spallation both describe the process of surface failure in
which spall is shed.
offers to rubbing action of one kind or another.
 Frost and fire resistance - Many building stones
show quick disintegration of building stones or rocks
when used in situations involving frost formation
(excessive cold) or heating. Frost causes
disintegration by expansion of water on breezing
within the rock pores.
Fire resistance is especially determined when the
stone is intended for use around stoves, heating
places and in the wall of furnaces. Only compact and
massive sandstones and quartzites suite reasonably
well in fire and heating places.

Mechanical Properties of Rock

 Compressive Strength - Compressive strength is the

WEDGE FAILURE capacity of a material to withstand axially directed
Wedge Failure of compressive forces. The most common measure of
compressive strength is the uniaxial compressive
rock slope results
strength or unconfined compressive strength.
when rock mass Usually compressive strength of rock is defined by
slides along two the ultimate stress. It is one of the most important
intersecting mechanical properties of rock material, used in
discontinuities design, analysis and modelling.
forming a wedge
shaped block.  Young's Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio - Young's
Modulus is modulus of elasticity measuring of the
stiffness of a rock material. It is defined as the ratio,
SQUEEZING for small strains, of the rate of change of stress with
 Gen strain. Poisson’s ratio measures the ratio of lateral
erall strain to axial strain, at linearly-elastic region. For
y most rocks, the Poisson’s ratio is between 0.15 and
0.4.

 Stress-Strain at and after Peak - Strain at failure is

Compression
 Forces acts in opposite direction
 Results in decrease in length, volume and area
the strain measured at ultimate stress. Rocks
generally fail at a small strain, typically around 0.2 to
0.4% under uniaxial compression. Brittle rocks,
typically crystalline rocks, have low strain at failure,
while soft rock, such as shale and mudstone, could
have relatively high strain at failure. Strain at failure
sometimes is used as a measure of brittleness of the
rock. Strain at failure increases with increasing
confining pressure under triaxial compression
conditions.
  Tensile Strength - Tensile strength of rock material is
normally defined by the ultimate strength in tension,
i.e., maximum tensile stress the rock material can
withstand.
Rock material generally has a low tensile strength.
The low tensile strength is due to the existence of
microcracks in the rock. The existence of microcracks
may also be the cause of rock failing suddenly in
tension with a small strain.

 Shear Strength - Shear strength is used to describe

the strength of rock materials, to resist deformation Low porosity usually results in low permeability, but high
due to shear stress. Rock resists shear stress by two porosity does not necessarily imply high permeability. It is
internal mechanisms, cohesion and internal friction. possible to have a highly porous rock with little or no
Cohesion is a measure of internal bonding of the interconnections between pores.
rock material.
Internal friction is caused by contact between
particles, and is defined by the internal friction
angle, φ. Different rocks have different cohesions
and different friction angles.

POROSITY
Porosity is the percentage of void space in a rock. This space
can be between grains or within cracks or cavities of the rock.
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the voids or pore
space divided by the total volume. For most rocks, porosity
varies from less than 1% to 40%.
The porosity of a rock depends on many factors, including the
rock type and how the grains of a rock are arranged. For
example, crystalline rock such as granite has a very low
porosity (<1%) since the only pore spaces are the tiny, long,
thin cracks between the individual mineral grains.
Sandstones, typically, have much higher porosities (10–35%)
because the individual sand or mineral grains don’t fit
together closely, allowing larger pore spaces.
Visualizing pore space (pores shown in blue):
SANDSTONE
A thin layer of water will always be attracted to mineral
grains due to the unsatisfied ionic charge on the surface. This
is called the force of molecular attraction. If the size of
interconnections is not as large as the zone of molecular
attraction, the water can’t move.
Thus, coarse-grained rocks are usually more permeable than
fine-grained rocks, and sands are more permeable than clays.
DENSITY
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume. In rocks, it is a
function of the densities of the individual grains, the porosity,
and the fluid filling the pores. It is influenced by the specific
gravity of the composition minerals and the compaction of
the minerals. Most rocks have density between 2,500nd
2,800 kg/m3.
There are three types of density in rocks: dry density, wet
density, and grain density.
DENSITY MEASUREMENTS AND DISTRIBUTIONS

CRYSTALLINE DRY DENSITY

ROCK

PERMEABILITY
Permeability of a rock is a measure of its capacity for Distribution of dry density for dolomite, shale, and sandstone.
transmitting a fluid and is affected by the pressure in a rock. Dry density is measured on rocks without any water or fluid
High permeability will allow fluids to move rapidly through in their pores.
rocks. Most rocks, including igneous, metamorphic and
chemical sedimentary rocks, generally have very low
permeability.
WET DENSITY
 ELASTICITY
Elasticity refers to the property of reversibility of deformation
when subjected to a load. Many fresh, hard rocks are elastic
when considered as laboratory specimens. But on the field
scale rocks can be expected to contain fractures, fissures,
bedding planes, contacts, zones of altered rock and clays with
plastic properties.
Therefore, most rocks do not exhibit perfect elasticity. The
extent of irrecoverability of strain in response to load cycles
may be important for the design and can be determined by
the slope of the load/deformation curve.

Distribution of wet density for dolomite, shale, and PLASTICITY

sandstone. Plasticity is the ability of certain solids to flow or to change
Wet density is measured on fully saturated cores. shape permanently when subjected to stresses of
intermediate magnitude between those producing temporary
deformation, or elastic behaviour, and those causing failure
of the material, or rupture. Plasticity enables a solid under
the action of external forces to undergo permanent
GRAIN DENSITY deformation without rupture. Elasticity, in comparison,
enables a solid to return to its original shape after the load is
removed.

Plastic deformation takes place when a rock, mineral, or

other substance is stressed beyond its elastic limit. Plastic
deformation is that deformation that produces a permanent
change in the shape of a solid without that solid having failed
by fracturing.

Distribution of grain density for dolomite, shale, and

sandstone.
Grain density describes the density of solid or mineral grains
of the rock.

STRENGTH
Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation
induced by external forces. The strength of a material is the
amount of applied stress at failure. The laboratory uniaxial
(unconfined) compressive strength is the standard strength DYNAMIC ROCK PROPERTIES
parameter of intact rock material.

The strength of rock is influenced by the mineralogical TYPICAL ROCK PROPERTIES

composition, shape of grains, texture, crystallinity,
stratification, lamination, modification by heat or pressure,  Modulus of Deformation – Young’s Modulus – E
and other factors. Secondary processes of cementation and  Modulus of Rigidity – Shear Modulus – G
weathering strongly influence rock strength.  Modulus of Volume Expansion – Bulk Modulus – K
 Poisson’s Ratio - µ
Cementation of rock is an important secondary process
influencing its strength. Principle cementing materials are  Bulk Density – ρ
silica, calcium carbonate, iron oxide, and clays.  Compressive Strength – σC
 Tensile Strength – σT
HARDNESS
Hardness is the characteristic of a solid material expressing its ROCK PROPERTIES RFERENCED TO BLASTING ACTONS
resistance to permanent deformation. Hardness of a rock
materials depends on several factors, including mineral
1. Young’s Modulus is a measure of the resistance of a
composition and density. A typical measure is the Schmidt
solid to transmit load
rebound hardness number.
a. Allows transmission of longitudinal stress from
shock wave impact
Hardness of rock can be a function of many intrinsic
2. Bulk Modulus is a measure of the resistance of a
properties of rock, including mineral type, grain size, cohesion
solid to change in volume
of mineral grain boundaries, and rock strength including
plasticity behavior and modulus of elasticity, among others.
 a. Allows transmission of transverse stress
resulting from shock wave impact
3. Poissons’ ratio defines the amount of borehole
expansion that can occur under dynamic loading just
before rock/ore failure
a. Maximum amount of ‘hoop’ stress that can be
tolerated before cracks are generated
4. Compressive strength dictates the level of crushing
that will occur at the borehole wall
5. Tensile strength dictates the level of tensile stress
when crack formation will occur
a. Can have supersonic cracking as well as
interstitial cracking
TYPES OF WAVE THEORY
(RODRIGUEZ, ARIES)
Wave theories yield the information on the wave motion such
as the water particles kinematics and wave speed, using the
input of wave height, its period and depth of water at the
site. There are more than a dozen different theories available
in this regard. However, only a few of them are common in
use and these are described below: All wave theories involve
some common assumptions, viz,
1. The waves have regular profiles.
2. The flow is two-dimensional (in vertical x, z plane).
3. The wave propagation is unidirectional (or long crested).
4. The fluid is ideal i.e. inviscid, incompressible and
irrotational.
5. The sea bed is impermeable and horizontal.
The wave theories can be categorized into two types:
a. Linear or Airy's (or sinusoidal or small amplitude)
wave theory
b. Non-linear (or finite amplitude) wave theories.
 Stokes Wave Theory
 Cnoidal Theory
 Solitary Wave Theory
 Dean Stream Function Theory
 Trochoidal Wave Theory
The former is distinguished from the latter in that it assumes
that the waves are flatter with a small steepness ratio
(typically < 2%).
Non-linear versus Linear Theory
The profile of a linear wave is symmetrical with respect to the
undisturbed or the still water level (SWL) whereas in case of a
typical non-linear wave height of the crest is greater than
the depth of the through as shown in Figure 2.7.
As the order of a non-linear theory increases, the crests
become more and more steep and the troughs become more
and more flat.
For design purpose it is assumed that due to wave
nonlinearity, the SWL is below the
level of symmetry (drawn midway, horizontally, between
crest and trough).
1. In general the non-linear theories produce larger values of
the wavelength, speed as well as the particle kinematics.
2. The paths followed by the water particles is closed, in
linear waves while it is open, producing a 'drift’, or 'mass
transport’ (as shown in Figure 2.8) in case of a non-linear
wave. This gives rise to a 'mass transport velocity' and the
wave celerity needs to be redefined with respect to it.
FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE VELOCITY
(VERGARA, NICOLE JANINE)
Waves and Energy
 A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy
through matter or space.
 Waves travel through a medium:
 A medium is any substance or region through which
a wave is transmitted.
 Solid, liquid, or gas
 Transfers energy only without any net movement
Wave Velocity, distance traversed by a periodic, or cyclic,
motion per unit time (in any direction). It implies both speed
and direction. The velocity of a wave is equal to the product
of its wavelength and frequency (number of vibrations per
second) and is independent of its intensity.
The speed of a wave is dependent on four factors:
 Wavelength
 Frequency
 Medium
 Temperature
-Speed is constant in a given medium, so a high frequency has
a short wavelength and vice-a-versa
As waves travel through a medium, two properties affect
wave speed:
  Density – the higher the density, the slower the
wave
 Elasticity – waves travel faster through materials
that are more elastic
Temperature:
 The speed of waves increase as temperature
increases. This is due to the increased kinetic energy
of the air molecules and the decrease in density.
Small differences in arrival time of signals at different
locations have been interpreted to show that:
 Velocities are greater in mantle rock than in the
crust.
 Velocities generally increase with pressure, and
therefore with depth.
 Velocities slow in the area between 100 km and 250
km depth (called the “low-velocity zone”; equivalent
to the asthenosphere).
 Velocities increase dramatically at 660 km depth
(because of a mineralogical transition).
 Velocities slow in the region just above the core-
mantle boundary (the D” layer or “ultra-low-velocity
zone”).
 S-waves do not pass through the outer part of the
core.
 P-wave velocities increase dramatically at the
boundary between the liquid outer core and the
solid inner core.
The table shows rough ranges of velocities in units of
kilometers per second for several types of earth materials.
Therefore seismic surveys are most effective at delineating
structure, .i.e. boundaries where rock type changes.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC MODULI OF ELASTICITY
(SANSON, ERIKA JOY)
GROUTING
(RODRIGUEZ, ARIES)
Grouting in civil engineering refers to the injection of
pumpable materials into a soil or rock formation to change its
physical characteristics. It is one of the ways ground water
can be controlled during civil engineering works.
Grouting is suitable where soil permeability would create a
heavy demand on pumping or where ground conditions mean
it may be economically inefficient to bore wells. Grout may
also be used in the formation of pile foundations, ground
anchors, under-reaming, underpinning, in road construction,
dam construction, and other applications.
Different materials may be used for grouting depending upon
factors such as the soil or rock type and the area to be
grouted. However, the basic process is the same: the soil or
rock is injected with fluid grout which sets and reduces or
acts as a sealant on the material’s permeability.
GROUTING MATERIALS
1. Cement grouting
Cement (or cementitious grout) is used for high-permeability
ground. Neat cement and water or a mixture of sand (4 parts)
to cement (1 part) is the usual composition.
Holes are bored in a radius around the area to be excavated
before being injected with a thin grout, the viscosity of which
is then increased by reducing the water-cement ratio. If
required, secondary holes are bored between the primary
holes to ensure the complete grouting of the area.
2. Bentonite grouting
Bentonite is produced from clay which has thixotropic
properties and forms a highly water-resistant gel which, when
mixed with additives, can create a permanent barrier to
water flow. This is used where soil particles are too small for
cement grouting, most commonly to combat in alluvial soils
beneath the foundations of dams or other water-bound
structures.
3. Chemical grouting
Chemical grouting is used in soils of medium- to coarse-
grading. Materials such as sodium silicate and calcium
chloride are mixed together in liquid form and solidified into
a gel. There are two main processes:
 ‘Two-shot’ process: pipes are driven into the
ground. One chemical is injected followed by
another meaning that the reaction, and soil
strengthening, is rapid.
 ‘One-shot’ process: this involves chemical mixing
prior to injection, with the hardening being delayed
by the composition. This allows for wider borehole
spacing.
 Today accepted world-wide as a soil improvement method
4. Resin grouting which is performed to improve the strength, deformation
As opposed to chemical grouts, resin grouts have a very low properties and permeability of the soil.
viscosity and are able to penetrate fine sands. The type of
resin used depends on the chemical content of the local GROUTING EUIPMENTS
water table and may result in different times for setting.
DRILLING EQUIPMENT
 Tannin-based grouts.
 Phenol-formaldehyde.
 Resorcinolformaldehyde

5. Bituminous grouting
Bitumen emulsion can serve as a suitable grouting material
that can be injected into fine sands as an impermeable barrier
to water. Soil strength will not be increased, but cut-off walls
beneath dams and other water-bound structures can be
formed effectively.

TYPES OF GROUTING METHOD SHOTCRETE

1. Permeation Grouting
This method describes the process of filling joints or fractures
in rock or pore spaces in soil with a grout without disturbing
the formation.

2. Compaction Grouting
Grout mix is specifically designed so as not to permeate the
soil voids or mix with the soil. Instead, it displaces the soil into
which it is injected.

3. Hydro Fracture Grouting GROUTING BOLTS

Hydro fracture grouting is the deliberate fracturing of the
ground (soil or rock) using grout under pressure. Typically, it
is used to compact and stiffen the ground or to access
otherwise inaccessible voids.

4. Jet Grouting
The high-pressure water or grout is used to physically disrupt
the ground, in the process modifying it and thereby improving
it.

5. Rock Grouting
Rock grouting is the filling or partly filling by grout injection of
fissures, fractures or joints in a rock mass with grouts without MIXING
creating new or opening existing fractures.

6. Compensation Grouting
Compensation grouting is the responsive use of compaction,
permeation or hydro fracture grouting as an intervention
between an existing structure and an engineering operation

7. Deep Mixing Methods (DMM)