Consider the long distance,

r → |x − x′ |
Z
h
αβ
h̄ ∼ d2 x′ T αβ (t − r, x′ )
r
(WHY DOES ONE???) Use conservation of T αβ
∂α T αβ = 0
This provides two (final) soltuions:
i.) dt T tt + dt T ti = 0
ii.) di T it + di T ij = 0
Consider the components,
htα = 0
z µ → xµ + ξ µ
The next step is because of guage freedomes (WHAT ARE THOSE???)
Z
ij h
h = d3 xi T ij
r
For T ij , use:
T ij = ∂k (x|i| T k|j| ) − x|i| ∂n T k|j
(An exercise is to check this). Apparently next is,
Z
k
ij
d3 x′ ∂x′ (x|i| T k|j| ) − x|i|l ∂z T i|j


h =
r
Z
k
ij
d3 x′ ∂x′ (x|i|Tk|j| ) − x|i|l ∂x T i|j


h =

r
Z
k
ij
d3 x′ −x|i|l ∂x T i|j


h =
r
Z
k
ij
h =− d3 x′ x|i|l ∂k T i|j
r
Z
k
ij
h =− d3 x′ xl(i) ∂k T k|j
r
then Z
k
ij
h =− d2 x′ xl(i) ∂k T (lj)
r
Now compute many parts of this general equation...
1 1
xl(i) ∂k T (lj) = ∂x (xi xj ∂t T tk ) − xi xj ∂t ∂k T tk
2 2
Maybe 8 more computations to go???
In the end we have: Z
2
ij
h̄ = d3 x′ x′i xij ∂t2 T tt
r
2 d2
Z 
ij 3 i j 2 tt
h̄ = d xx x ∂t T
r dt2
2 d2 ij
h̄ij = I
r dt2
... and thus is shown.

48
6.8 Energy in GWs
Prompt: The first detection of gravitational waves by the LIGO gravitational wave de-
tector was at frequencies of ∼ 200 Hz that caused a strain of δL/L ∼ 10−21 . What was
the flux of energy of the wave incident to Earth? If it came from 410 Mpc away, how fast
was the source losing energy to gravitational waves when it was emitted? Express the
answer in terms of the mass of the sun.

Solution: Memorize the definition of power and flux as,

P ower = P = Area · f lux = A · fGW

ω 2 a2 c 3
fGW =
32πG
δL
a∼
L
You can estimate fGW from
E mc2
f∼ =
A·t A·t
And getting units to work out with the exponents of constants G and c.

ω 2 a2 c 3
P = (4πR2 )
32πG
πR2 ω 2 (δL/L)2 c3
P =
8πG
(410 M pc) (200 Hz)2 (10−21 )2 c3
2
P =
8G
(410 M pc)2 (200 Hz)2 (10−21 )2 (3 · 108 m/s)3
P =
8(6.7 × 10−11 m3 kg −1 s−2 )
P = 3 · 1047 W
P = 2 c2 M⊙ /s

49
7 Exercise Set 7 - Cosmology!
7.1 1.) (Problem 18.4 in Hartle)
Prompt: Suppose the present value of the Hubble constant is 72(km/s)/M pc and that
the universe is at critical density. A photon is emitted from our galaxy now. What is the
redshift of this photon when it is received in another galaxy 10 billion years in the future,
assuming it continues to be matter dominated.
Solution: Memorize and begin with the Friedmann equation as:
8πG k
H2 = ρ− 2
3 a
From the problem statement (matter-dominated and critical denisty), use

ρ = ρm = ρcrit

k=0
8πG 0 8πG
H2 = ρm − 2 = ρm
3 a 3
Solve for ρ
3H 2
= ρm
8πG
3H 2
ρm = ρcrit =
8πG
This relationship will be true for other times and places, so also:

3H02
ρm,0 =
8πG
Goal compute redshift, z, from z = a(to )/a(te )−1. Let’s analyze ρ, in general, at constant
mass
m
ρ= 3
l
ρl3 = m
ρ0 l03 = m = ρl3
 3
l
ρ = m = ρ0 03
l
Traditionally, l is a fixed length (or rigid body), but here it’s expanding over time, so that
is to be rewritten such that
l = a(t)
and
a0 3
ρ = ρ0 ( )
a
Substitute this ρ into the ρm,0 from before

a0 −3 3H02
ρm,0 = ρ0 ( ) =
a 8πG

50
 8πG a0 3
H02 = ρ0 ( )
3 a
Memorize and use the definition of the Hubble constant, H
 2
2 ȧ
H =
a

So,  2
2 ȧ 8πG a0 3
H = = ρ0 ( )
a 3 a
Get the a to be a function of the given H0
 2
2 2 ȧ 8πG a0 3 2
H (a ) = = ρ0 ( ) (a )
1 3 a

8πG a0 3 2
ȧ2 = ρ0 ( ) (a )
3 a
 
8πG a0
ȧ2 = ρ0 ( )3 (a2 )
3 a
a0
ȧ2 = H02 ( )3 (a2 )
a
3
2 2 a0
ȧ = H0 ( )
a
HOW DOES THIS BECOME??? ??? ???
a20
ȧ2 = H02 ( )
a
From that unknown change, we continue with
r
a20
ȧ2 = H02 ( )
a
a0
ȧ = H0 √
a
da a0
= H0 √
dt a
√
a
da = H0 · dt
a0
Z √ Z
a
da = H0 · dt
a0
Z 1/2 Z
a
da = H0 · dt
a0
HOW DOES THIS INTEGRATE TO BECOME THIS??? ??? ???
Z
3 a 3/2
( ) = H0 · dt
2 a0

51
 3 a 3/2
( ) = H0 t + C
2 a0
Solve for the constant C with, a(t = 0) = 0

3 (0) 3/2
( ) = H0 (0) + C
2 a0
3 3/2
(0) = 0 + C
2
0=C
WHAT DO WE DO WITH THE C ??? ??? ???

Somehow (maybe with the C), the fraction gets flipped... WHY???
2 a 3/2
( ) = H0 t + 0
3 a0
a 3/2 3
( ) = H0 t
a0 2
a 3
( ) = ( H0 t)2/3
a0 2
a 3
( ) = ( H0 t)2/3
a0 2
 2/3
3
a = a0 H0 t
2
Finally, consider times for the scale factors (a) to get z...

a(te )
z= −1
a(t0 )

a(t0 + ∆t)
z= −1
a(t0 )
Skipping steps...
from the expression
 2/3
3
a(t) = a0 (t) H0 t
2
 2/3
3
a(t = t0 ) = a0 (t0 ) H0 t0
2
 3/2
2 a(t0 )
t0 =
3H0 a0 (t0 )
Memorize that (WHY??)
2
t0 =(∆t)3/2
3H0
Skipping steps (plug this t0 into the z equation)... WHAT ARE THESE STEPS??? ???
???  2/3
3
z = 1 + H0 ∆t −1
2

52