Access To Safe Drinking Water PDF

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Access to safe drinking water
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A
COMMUNITY SERVICE PROJECT REPORT
ON
ACCESS TO SAFE DRINKING WATER
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
The requirements for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted By
B.PUJITHA (21MG1A0402) C.NAGA BHARGAVI (21MG1A0405)

D.SOWJANYA (21MG1A0408) I.RAJESH (21MG1A0446)
K.RAMAKANTH (21MG1A0447) K.SIVA TEJA (21MG1A0450)
K.VEERANJINEYULU (21MG1A0451) K.VEERERSH (21MG1A0452)
K.LAVANYA (21MG1A0453) M.D.RIYAZ (21MG1A0455)
V.ASHOK (21MG1A04B3)
Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. J. DURGA PRASAD, M. Tech.
Associate Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
SREE VAHINI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

TIRUVURU, N.T.R Dist. 521235
Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada
(2022-23)

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Community Service Project work entitled “ACCESS TO SAFE
DRINKING WATER” done by B.PUJITHA (21MG1A0402), C.NAGA BHARGAVI
(21MG1A0405), D.SOWJANYA (21MG1A0408), I.RAJESH (21MG1A0446), K.
RAMAKANTH (21MG1A0447), K.SIVA TEJA (21MG1A0450), K.VEERANJINEYULU
(21MG1A0451), K.VEERESH (21MG1A0452), K.LAVANYA (21MG1A0453), M.D. RIYAZ
(21MG1A0455), V.ASHOK (21MG1A04B3) of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Department, is a record bonafide work carried out by them. This Community Service Project is
done as a partial fulfillment of obtaining Bachelor of Technology Degree to be awarded by
JNTUK, Kakinada.
The matter embodied in this Community Service Project report has not been submitted to
any other university for the award of any other degree.
Mr. J DURGA PRASAD Mr. M. HARI KRISHNA

Associate professor Professor
Internal Guide HOD
Mr. J DURGA PRASAD External Examiner

Associate Professor
CSP Coordinator

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Great acknowledgement is expressed to SVIST Management members whose guidance is

invaluable to complete this Community Service Project in time.
We take this opportunity to place on record our heartiest thanks to Dr. R. Nagendra Babu,
Principal of our college, for his guidance and co-operation during our course of study.
We express our deep sense of gratitude to Prof. M. Hari Krishna, HOD for his motivation
and inspiration provided during the Community Service Project work.
We express our sincere gratitude towards our Community Service Project Coordinator,
Mr. J Durga Prasad Assoc. Professor, for his advice, support and guidance throughout this
Community Service Project.
We sincerely thank you our Internal Guide Mr. J Durga Prasad, M.Tech for supporting
us till the end of the Community Service Project done successfully.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge our deep sense of gratitude to all well-wishers and
friends who helped us directly or indirectly to complete this work.
With all Sincerity,
TEAM MEMBERS
B.PUJITHA (21MG1A0402)
C.NAGA BHARGAVI (21MG1A0405)
D.SOWJANYA (21MG1A0408)
I.RAJESH (21MG1A0446)
K.RAMAKANTH (21MG1A0447)
K.SIVA TEJA (21MG1A0450)
K.VEERANJINEYULU (21MG1A0451)
K.VEERERSH (21MG1A0452)
K.LAVANYA (21MG1A0453)
M.D.RIYAZ (21MG1A0455)

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DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the work presented in this Community Service Project titled
“ACCESS TO SAFE DRINKING WATER” is submitted towards completion of B.Tech
Community Service Project in ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
at SREE VAHINI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, Tiruvuru, NTR Dist., It
is an authentic record of our original work pursued under the guidance of Mr. J. DURGA
PRASAD Assoc. Professor.
We have not submitted the matter embodied in this Community Service Project for the
award of any other degree.
TEAM MEMBERS
B .PUJITHA (21MG1A0402)
C.NAGA BHARGAVI (21MG1A0405)
D.SOWJANYA (21MG1A0408)
I.RAJESH (21MG1A0446)
K.RAMAKANTH (21MG1A0447)
K.SIVA TEJA (21MG1A0450)
K.VEERANJINEYULU (21MG1A0451)
K.VEERERSH (21MG1A0452)
K.LAVANYA (21MG1A0453)
M.D.RIYAZ (21MG1A0455)

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List of Tables:
Table 1: Classification of drinking water sources as per the Joint Monitoring Program 1
Table 2: BIS Standards for Various Chemical and Biological Constituents 27
Water Quality Parameters
List of Figures:
Fig 1.1: Water Crisis Amidst 2
Fig 1.2: Defining the vulnerable population 4
Fig 2.1: Key Organization Players in drinking water
Governance in India 5
Fig 2.2: Water Sanitation Crisis 8
Fig 3.1: Fecal contamination in drinking water sources in Indian S&UTs 10
Fig 3.2: Household drinking water treatment practices in Indian households 11
Fig 3.3: Drinking water treatment technologies 12
Fig 3.4: Solar Disinfection method 13
Fig3.5: Membrane filters 16
Fig3.6: Chlorination Technique 17

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CONTENTS
CONTENTS: Page No.
Chapter-1: 1. Introduction 1-2

1.1 Objective of the study 3
1.2 Defining the vulnerable population 4
Chapter-2: 2. Water Governance Systems in India 5
2.1 Central Government 6-9
2.2 Non-Government Organizations 7-8
2.3 India’s water and sanitation crisis 8
Chapter-3: 3. Drinking Water Scenario in India 9-10

3.1 Drinking Water Purification Methods 11-12
3.2 Physical Methods 12
3.3 Boiling 12-13
3.3.1 UV sterilization 13-14
3.3.2 Filtration 14-16
3.3.3 Chemical Methods 16-18
Chapter-4: 4. Project Implementation 19-26
4.1 Survey Work 19-25
4.2 Our Suggestions 26
Chapter-5: Drinking Water Quality Standards 27
Chapter-6: Conclusions 28
Results 28
References 29

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ABBREVIATIONS:
BPL Below Poverty Line

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
DDWS Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation
DWR Department of Water Resources
DWSM District Water Sanitation Mission

HWT Household Water Treatment
NWP National Water Policy
PPP Public Private Partnership

RO Reverse Osmosis
SWSM State Water and Sanitation Mission
USD United States Dollar

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ABSTRACT
Safe drinking water is one of the fundaments of society and experience has shown that a
holistic national framework is needed for its effective provision. A national framework should
include legal requirements on water protection, surveillance on drinking water quality and
performance of the water supply system, and systematic preventive management. Iceland has
implemented these requirements into legislation. This case study analyzes the success and
challenges encountered in implementing the legislation and provide recommendations on the main
shortcomings identified through the Icelandic experience.
The results of the analysis show that the national framework for safe drinking water is
mostly in place in Iceland. The shortcomings include the need for both improved guidance and
control by the central government; and for improved surveillance of the water supply system and
implementation of the water safety plan by the Local Competent Authorities. Communication to
the public and between stakeholders is also insufficient. There is also a deficiency in the national
framework regarding small water supply systems that needs to be addressed. Other elements are
largely in place or on track. Most of the lessons learned are transferable to other European
countries where the legal system around water safety is built on a common foundation from EU
directives. The lessons can also provide valuable insights into how to develop a national
framework elsewhere.
KEY WORDS: Safe drinking water, microbial contamination, under five-year-old children
diarrhea, drinking water disinfection techniques, drinking water management Corporate Social
Responsibility, Public Private Partnership.
“Drinking water is the water intended for human consumption for drinking
and cooking purposes for many sources. It includes water supplied by any
means that is for human consumption”.
CHAPTER-1

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INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
Drinking water or potable water is a very valuable natural resource. Providing access to safe
drinking water for all is one of the most complex contemporary issues to solve, especially in a
country like India. It is riddled with technological, environmental, and socio-politico-economic
challenges. The logistics of water supply to every household is also a challenge. Freshwater, which is
used for drinking purposes, is disproportionately low on earth when compared to the 97% that occurs
as saline or sea water. Two thirds of the freshwater remain frozen as glaciers and polar ice caps,
leaving very little for direct use as surface water (in ponds, rivers, lakes etc.) or ground water
(accessed through wells, bore wells etc.). Glaciers and rains replenish these water sources. Water can
also be sourced artificially through desalination of sea water and condensation of atmospheric
moisture. While the former is the predominant source of drinking water in many Middle Eastern
countries, the air-to-water technologies are still emerging.
Clean water is fundamental to human health and well-being. UN’s Sustainable Development Goal
is to provide all households with safe quality and adequate quantity of water by 2030. Equal and
equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water is part of that goal. The governments of
countries have the responsibility of providing access to safe drinking water to its populations through
improved supplies. The Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO
and UNICEF tracks and monitors global access to safe drinking water.
1. Piped supplies into their dwellings, yard, or plot
Improved 1. Public stand posts
water sources 2. Boreholes/tube wells
3. Protected wells & springs
4. Rainwater
5. Packaged water including bottled water and
sachet water
No- Piped supplies – unprotected wells and springs
Unimproved
Surface water (rivers, lakes, ponds, stream, irrigation
water sources channel)
Table1: Classification of Drinking Water sources as per the Joint Monitoring Program

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Nearly half the world's population is projected to live in extremely water-stressed regions by
2026. Globally, ~30% (785 million) of the people already lack access to drinking water and every
other Indian does not have access to safe drinking water. Inadequate quantities and poor quality of
drinking water make people exposed to a variety of preventable illnesses and they remain trapped in
morbidity and increased DALY (disability adjusted life years). In 2017, 1.6 million people
worldwide died of diarrhea, of which >0.5 million were U5 children. Incessant diarrhea also
impacts the nutrition and growth of children, especially those living in socio-economically
compromised environments. Microbial contamination of drinking water is closely related to poor
water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), and influenced by the knowledge, attitude, and practices
(KAP) of individuals and communities.
Safe drinking water is simply defined by WHOM as “water that does not represent any
significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption, including different sensitivities that may
occur between life stages”. Water becomes unsafe for consumption when it gets polluted with
physical, chemical, biological, or radiological contaminants. Of these, microbial contamination is
by far the major concern, especially in low-and-middle income countries like India. Pathogens such
as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, cyan bacteria and helminthes are examples of biological
contaminants. Diseases caused by microbial contamination include diarrhea, cholera, typhoid,
dysentery, hepatitis A and E, poliomyelitis etc. Worldwide, infectious diarrhea caused by bacteria
and viruses is a leading cause of mortality of children under the age of five. Diarrhea genicss
pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhoid, Shigella flexneri, Vibrio cholerae and
Rotavirus spread through water and food contaminated with human or animal feces.
Fig 1.1: Water crisis amidst

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1.1 Objective of the study
Mixing of sewage with water bodies and pipelines, open defecation, unsafe disposal of human
and animal wastes, poor water handling practices etc. are routes of drinking water contamination.
According to WHO, microbial safe water is that with no detectable (an indicator of fecal
contamination) in 100 ml of sample.
Disinfection/removal pathogens are ways of making it safe to drink. Avoiding the contamination
in the first place would however be a more sustainable way of providing microbial safe water. This
requires structuring the country’s growth and development on the fundamentals of primordial
prevention including planning and monitoring for WASH in terms of structures, systems, and
behaviors. Under the current scenario in India, purification is one of the ways to provide microbial
safe drinking water. There are several techniques to disinfect/remove pathogens from drinking
water including physical, chemical, biological or a combination of these. Disinfection can be
performed at a centralized, community level facility at the water source, or at the household-level,
or both. In India, drinking water comes under the control of the State and Union Territories
(S&UTs). S&UTs get schematic and financial support from the Central Ministry of Drinking Water
and Sanitation. The Government of India has launched several schemes that are being implemented
by the S&UTs to enhance the quality of drinking water, such as the Jell Jevons Mission and Swatch
Bharat Mission. The Central and State Pollution Control Boards (C & S PCB) monitor India's
primary drinking water sources, namely the surface and ground water sources. Healthcare, which is
closely related to safe drinking water, is also a matter of the state governments.
Several cost-effective techniques and innovations have been brought about in India to provide
safe drinking water to the masses. Awareness among the public and the mission mode of operation
to improve water, sanitation, and hygiene by the local, state, and central governments in India have
helped improve the access to safe drinking water to a large extent. Over 100 million toilets were
constructed and all villages in India were declared as open defecation free (ODF) by the Swatch
Bharat Mission – Garmin (Rural) in 2019 on the 150th birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi. Yet,
the published.
Phase -1 of the National Family Health Survey – 5 (NFHS-5) for 22 S&UTs in 2020, shows that the
meaningless deaths due to U5 children diarrhea continue unabated in India, reflecting gaps in
addressing factors other than toilet construction.

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1.2 Defining the vulnerable population
Lack of access to safe drinking water and good WASH conditions particularly plague certain
segments of India’s population, because of the social/economic/environmental/political contexts
they live in. The children who die of diarrhea in India are likely to be from the 260 Man people
living below the poverty line, 450 Man migrant laborers, 1.2 Man tribal populations, 889 Man
living in rural villages, 5 Man of the internally displaced people, and 65 Man slum dwellers.
Illiteracy among ~311 Man people would also affect the WASH awareness and behavior. Any
technological and other interventions to provide access to safe drinking water would therefore need
to be appropriate to these contexts, to be sustainable. At the same time, the technologies would
also need to consider the long-term impact on the environment, including the water sources
themselves. Technologies that purify drinking water but pollute the environment are not sustainable
in the long run.
Fig 1.2: Defining the vulnerable population

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CHAPTER-2
2. Water Governance Systems in India
The first National Water Policy (NWP) established by the Government of India in September
1987 by the National Water Resources Council (NWRC), indicates the national level commitment
to the importance of water and water utilization. It specifically mentions that water resource
development should be taken up as multi-spectral projects, giving top priority to drinking water. In
NWP, there was a commitment to providing access to safe drinking water facilities to the entire
population (rural and urban), and that this should not be affected because of use by the agriculture
and industrial sectors. NWP was enacted to address the growing disparities in not only the access to
quality and quantum of drinking water, but also to access of water for sanitation. The need for
efforts in conservation and better management of water were particularly highlighted in the 2012
policy.
India has a federal system of governance wherein water (including drinking water and other
supplies, irrigation & canals, drainage and embankments, storage, and power) is a subject matter of
the 28 States and 8 Union Territories (S&UTs), under Article 246 of the Constitution of India.
However, the Central Government has an overall responsibility for appropriate functioning of water
related activities. A third player in the drinking water sector is the non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) including the civil society organizations, academia, research institutions, private industry,
and the corporate social responsibility (CSR) units of private organizations.
Fig 2.1: Key Organizational Players in Drinking Water Governance in India

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2.1 Central Government

The Ministry of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganja Rejuvenation was renamed
as the Ministry of Jell Shakhty on June, with two departments: The Department of Water
Resources, River Development, and Ganja Rejuvenation (DWRRDGR) and the Department of
Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS). The departments oversee regulation of the country's water
resources, as well as establish policy guidelines and schemes. The central ministry's main functions
are overall planning, policy development, collaboration, and guidance in the water resources sector;
setting up of utilizable resources and formulation of policies for optimal usage, supervision of and
assistance to state level activities in ground water development; and general organizational,
technological, and scientific planning for development. It also frames schemes and funds the
S&UTs for better water management and facilitates inter-state consultations to resolve disputes on
water.
Water quality monitoring is a key component of water quality management. In India, there are
14 major rivers, 44 medium rivers, and 55 minor rivers, in addition to numerous lakes, ponds, and
wells that are used as primary sources of drinking water. The Indian parliament enacted the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, with the goal of maintaining and restoring the
cleanliness of our water bodies. The CPCB monitors drinking water quality at district level in every
S&UT and alerts the states. The CPCB comes under the Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and
Climate Change, and its key responsibilities include preventing, tracking, and regulating water, as
well as collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) as and when necessary. One of
the CPCB's mandates is to collect, compile, and disseminate technical and statistical data on water
contamination and quality. The National Rural Drinking Water Program (NRDWP) was launched
by the Department of Drinking Water Supply (DDWS) in April. This was an effort to bring all rural
drinking water initiatives under one umbrella to ensure drinking water security to the rural
population in India. Recognizing the role of rural communities in managing the drinking water, it
incentivizes the State Governments to hand over the responsibility of planning, maintaining, and
managing drinking water to the Panchayati Raj Institutions. The Jell Jevons Mission (JJM), a
centrally funded initiative, was launched on August, by the Department of Drinking Water and
Sanitation, with an aim to link every rural household to a functional household tap connection
(FHTC). The Jell Jevons Mission (JJM) includes the State Water and Sanitation Mission (SWSM),
District Water and Sanitation Mission (DWSM), Gram Panchayat and/or its Subcommittees, such
as the Village.

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2.2 Non-Government Organizations
Civil society organizations, trusts, academic and research institutions, private industries, and
their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) arms are the third kind of players who are involved in
the drinking water services. They contribute to either directly or indirectly providing Products or
services for drinking water. Large trusts like the TATA Water Mission works with the state and
central governments and undertake advocacy, communication, installation of purifiers and promote
innovative projects for safe drinking water. Private enterprises or individuals can also finance
and own a venture completely, that is fully responsible for all water related services. They charge a
price that customers are willing to pay. Private businesses may streamline operations by
establishing consistent ownership and control over activities, resulting in cost-effective services
that can be maintained by revenue. Most are referred to as social entrepreneurs because they have a
stated objective that is obviously beyond a profit motive. Nandi Community Water Services, Health
point Services, Survival, Water life, and Spring Health are all notable examples.
In recent times, Community managed systems have been experimented in India, wherein the
communities have been engaged especially in managing drinking water purification plants.
Government/ NGOs provide capital support, the community invests a part of it and the technology
partner assists with device setup and training the community-based enterprise group in operations
and maintenance of the plant. The recurring costs are recovered as small customer charges. This
model is used by NGOs, many of which are funded by Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). As
per Section VII of the Company Act, the central government has mandated all companies to
dedicate CSR funds for societal programs including clean water, sanitation, and hygiene initiatives.
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is essential for outreach and sustaining technology interventions for
safe drinking water at the ground level if governments are unable to deliver in a timely and quality
manner. Given the government's financial constraints and the private sector's increased productivity,
public-private partnership has emerged as one of the trending ways for the government to improve
the infrastructure. Almost every aspect of India's economy has changed because of economic
reforms, privatization, and globalization. Multi-national as well as national corporate is bidding for
taking charge of water supply services. Although this way of operation started in 1991 in sectors
such as power, it has recently extended to include the water sector, amid severe protests from civil
society organizations. The protests are valid considering that right to water is a basic human right
that cannot be denied if unable to pay. Privatization of water can mean the exchange of ownership

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from the government to a private sector, for profit companies. PPP which is sometimes viewed as a
means of achieving sustainability goals, can be counter-productive if solely profit driven. The
objectives of serving people and conserving the natural resources need to be stated explicitly in the
agreements between the government and the private parties. Penalty for violation, and closure
clauses are also important to be put in place. Unless the governments are on their toes with
appropriate and robust monitoring and regulatory mechanisms, the PPP model can go horribly
wrong over time. The PPP water supply model used by three Karnataka cities Belgaum, Gulbarga,
and Hubli-Dharwar has prompted water delivery reforms in other Karnataka towns as well as
Nagpur, Maharashtra.
2.3 India's water and sanitation crisis

With a population of 1.38 billion people, India is the second most populous country in the
world. More than 6% of this population lack access to safe water and about 15% of India’s population
practices open defecation. A lack of household water connections and toilets contributes largely to
water-borne illnesses, stunting, and death. In India and around the world, millions are navigating the
COVID-19 pandemic with the added challenge of living without access to safe water. Now more than
ever access to safe water is critical to the health of families in India. These factors, combined with the
current political push to end this crisis, has created unprecedented urgency to implement effective
solutions to increase access to safe water and sanitation.
Fig 2.2: water sanitation crisis

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CHAPTER-3
3. Drinking Water Scenario in India
India accounts for approximately 16% of world population, 2.45% of the world's surface area
and 4% of the world's water resources. The available surface water and replenish able groundwater
is 1,869 cubic kilometers. Surface water comes from four major sources, namely rivers, lakes,
ponds, and tanks. The country's total rain replenished groundwater resources are approximately 432
cubic kilometers. Groundwater is used extensively in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and
Tamil Nadu, through wells, boreholes, and hand pumps. However, some states, such as
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Kerala, use more of surface water and only a small portion of their
groundwater resources.
Severe water depletion and a lack of proper planning/implementation for water safety and
security affect two-thirds of India's districts. According to WHO, 37.7 Man Indians are getting
infected by waterborne diseases each year, accounting for 70–80 % of the country's overall disease
burden and 780,000 deaths due to polluted water. According to the National Family Health Survey
4, diarrhea was prevalent in 9.2 % of U5 children. NFHS 4 data further reports that 90% of Indian
households have access to improved sources of drinking water, covering 91% of urban and 89% of
rural. A safe water supply is the backbone of a healthy economy, yet is woefully under prioritized,
globally. It is estimated that waterborne diseases have an economic burden of approximately USD
600 million a year in India. This is especially true for drought- and flood-prone areas, which
affected a third of the nation in the past couple of years. Less than 50 per cent of the population in
India has access to safely managed drinking water. Chemical contamination of water, mainly
through fluoride and arsenic, is present in 1.96 million dwellings.
Excess fluoride in India may be affecting tens of millions of people across 19 states, while equally
worryingly, excess arsenic may affect up to 15 million people in West Bengal, according to the
World Health Organization. Moreover, two-thirds of India’s 718 districts are affected by extreme
water depletion, and the current lack of planning for water safety and security is a major concern.
One of the challenges is the fast rate of groundwater depletion in India, which is known as the
world’s highest user of this source due to the proliferation of drilling over the past few decades.
Groundwater from over 30 million access points supplies 85 per cent of drinking water in rural
areas and 48 per cent of water requirements in urban areas.

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Fig 3.1: Fecal contamination in drinking water sources in Indian S&UTs
Of the Indian S&UTs, >50% of the ground water sources that supplied drinking water in Kerala,
Delhi, Chandigarh, Sikkim, Dadra & Haveli, Daman & Diu were contaminated with fecal coli
forms. Kerala for example, had almost 80% of the tested samples contaminated. In most other
states, <5% of the ground water sources tested were contaminated. Only Goa and Pondicherry had
all tested sources of ground water free of fecal contamination. It is, however, striking to note the
positive deviance that even though Kerala and Sikkim had poor drinking water quality in the
samples tested, the U5 children diarrheal prevalence in both states was well controlled. This
compels one to further explore the drinking water purification techniques/practices in these two

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states. On the other hand, S&UTs like UP, Bihar, Meghalaya, and Pondicherry had

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high prevalence of U5 diarrhea (>10%) despite having reasonable drinking water quality. In fact,
Pondicherry had no contamination at the source of drinking water, and still had high (>10%) U5)
diarrhea prevalence. This needs to be again explored further.
Do Indian households treat their water before drinking?
Majority (62%) of the Indian households do not treat their water before drinking. Treatment is less
common in rural households (29%) as compared to urban (47%). Some households practice simple
water treatment procedures like cloth filtration (14%), boiling (10 %) and other methods (13%)
including alum, bleach/chlorine, electric purifier, and filters (ceramic/sand etc.)
10%
62% 38% 14%
14%
No HWT usedHWT adopted-Cloth filtration HWT adopted-BoilingHWT adopted-Other
Fig 3.2: Household drinking water treatment practices in Indian household
3.1 Drinking Water Purification Methods
Drinking water treatment technologies focus on removal of physical (e.g., turbidity, suspended
particles etc.), chemical (e.g., arsenic, iron, fluoride etc.), and biological (bacteria, virus,
protozoan’s, etc.) contaminants. The focus in this section is mainly on the commonly
Methods/technologies used in India for the removal and/or killing of microbial pathogens from
drinking water, and their appropriateness for the vulnerable population. The reasons for this focus
are that unlike physical or chemical contaminants, microbial pathogens in drinking water multiply
and spread rapidly, killing 6000 U5 children every day globally through diarrheal diseases. Cholera

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for e.g., can take away a child’s life in a few hours if not treated immediately. Simple technology

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And other interventions that provide microbial safe drinking water can thus have a huge public
health impact. Diarrhea and drinking water contamination with pathogens burden the socio-eco
nomically vulnerable populations more than those well-off, and therefore any water
treatment/intervention promoted should be simple, easy to use, intuitive, and affordable. While
being effective, they should be safe and sustainable. Dependence on external resources should be
minimal; instead local resources should be used as far as possible. It is extremely difficult to
identify technologies that meet all the required criteria and therefore one or more appropriate
technologies are being integrated. However, academic and industrial organizations are constantly
innovating to simplify existing technologies and in making the appropriate for the target
population.
Treatment technologies can be classified based on the methods used as Physical, Chemical
Fig 3.3: Drinking Water Treatment Technologies
3.2 Physical Methods

Physical methods use heat to kill or materials to filter the microbial contaminants from
drinking water.
3.3 Boiling
Boiling has been one of the most common and oldest methods of disinfecting household water
for drinking and cooking purposes. Most water-borne pathogens are killed by bringing the water to
a roll boil for at least 1 min, even though most are killed at lower temperatures (e.g., 70 °C). Thus,
boiling is a simple and effective treatment method, especially as a household method. However, the

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time and cost of heating, taste changes, recontamination due to bad handling, and scaling.

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Distillation Systems:
.
The most common separation technique is distillation. The mixed components in water are
separated using heat, the water vapor as it condenses, leaving behind several pollutants. This
method is extremely effective against pathogens like protozoa, bacteria, and viruses, as well as the
most common chemical pollutants like arsenic, barium, lead, nitrate, and a wide range of organic
chemicals. However, the cost of heating and the loss of minerals are the main limitations,
particularly when scaling up.
Solar Disinfection:
Most pathogens are destroyed by ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun and increasing the
temperature of the water increases the effectiveness of the radiation. Solar energy is the most
abundant renewable energy source on earth, and it also happens to be the most abundant in areas
that require clean water. i.e., the developing countries. The method, which is based on radiation
intensity, temperature, water muddiness, and water height, is simple and inexpensive. It involves
exposing water in clear plastic bottles (usually synthetic resin, PET) to the sun for at least six hours.
Fig 3.4: Solar Disinfection Method
3.3.1 UV sterilization
A UV disinfection system for water treatment typically consists of one or more UV lamps and
a pipe or duct through which the water is exposed to radiation. UV light can pass through the cell
walls of microorganisms and be absorbed by proteins and nucleotides, interrupting the structure of
the microorganism's DNA or RNA and helping in its inactivation. The use of UV disinfection to

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treat water is very successful and is a part of many communities use and household water purifiers.

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UV disinfection is a chemical-free procedure that produces no byproducts and has little effect on
the mineral content and organoleptic character of water. It is amenable to be standardized and
scaling up, making it a viable industrial option for large scale water disinfection process.
3.3.2 Filtration
Suspended particles, dissolved gases and certain liquids in drinking water are removed by
adsorption and filtration through materials with varying pore size. Low-cost filtering materials
include cloth, sand and gravel, vegetable husk, ion exchange resins etc. There are sophisticated
synthetic neon and ultra- filtration membranes, with varying pore size to exclude particulate matter
including microbes.
Cloth Filters:
The seminal work by Dr. Rita Colwell demonstrated that even a simple, traditional filtering
method using old sure cloth removes Vibrato cholera and can reduce the incidence of cholera
among U5 children in Bangladesh. Cloth filters however do not remove bacteria /viruses and can
cause fouling if not cleaned properly.
Ceramic Filters:
Due to economic and ecological issues, exploration of ceramic filters are gaining popularity,
using clay materials. Recent works by several authors report the use of clay materials within the
manufacture of water filters. A ceramic filter may be obtained by the blending of dry clay with
organic material (such as used coffee powder, tea leaves, and husk or rice shells) with the addition
of water to get a rigid mixture. The ceramic filters are extensively tested for effectiveness in
reducing varied waterborne microbial.
Diatomaceous Earth Filters:

Diatomaceous Earth (DE) is the skeletal remains of diatoms or aquatic, single celled
microscopic organisms. After the diatoms die, the porous exoskeletons that are made of silica
remain as sediments, which are collected and processed. DE being low density, high porosity and
relatively inert, make for a good filter material. The interior pore size can be as small as 0.1 µm and
comfortably removes water borne pathogens including and bacteria. The low-cost DE candles are

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installed in conventional household filters and, also in food and beverage industries to purify water.

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Membrane Filters:
Membranes are made of various materials, which give rise to specific filtering characteristics
(e.g., pore size, surface charge, and hydrophobicity) that determine the type of contaminant that can
be excluded. Ultra-filtration (UF), Nano filtration (NF), microfiltration (MF), and reverse osmosis
are the four types of membrane filtration (RO). Membranes made from synthetic materials
including cellulose acetate, polyamide, polypropylene, poly tetra fluoro ethylene (Teflon) etc. are
customized per the requirement by the manufacturers. Hydrostatic pressure is used in membrane
processes to remove suspended solids and high molecular weight solutes while allowing water and
low molecular weight solutes to pass through.
The performance of the membrane filters varies depending on the membrane form and the type
of contaminant. Microfiltration is a sub-micron extension of traditional filtration. Microfiltration
can sieve out particles larger than 0.05 mm in diameter, and is effective in removing protozoan,
moderately effective in removing a few bacteria but do not remove viruses. To tackle the new
emerging water contaminants that are smaller (in the range of 0.001-0.05 µm), ultra-filters
developed. Bacteria and moderately effective in removing the viruses. Nan filtration membranes
that combine the properties of reverse osmosis and ultra-filtration membranes, with pore sizes
ranging from 0.008 to 0.01 µm, remove particles based on size, weight, and charge. They are highly
effective in removing bacterial, viral, and protozoa contamination. Micro/ultra/ neon-filters are used
online in sophisticated reverse osmosis (RO) plants. The smaller the pore size, more the
effectiveness in removal of pathogenic bacteria, and viruses. There are several commercially
available purifiers with appropriate membrane filters fitted to suit the households as well as
communities. The disadvantages of these filters are mainly the costs of initial investment,
replacement and maintenance, and the environmental damage during water purification and
replacement of parts. Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification method that has been one of the
widely used technologies in the world in recent times. In regular osmosis, water moves from its
higher concentration to a lower concentration, thereby diluting a concentrated solution. In RO on
the other hand, the impure water is pushed through a semi-permeable membrane under pressure and
the pure water comes out. It typically eliminates salts, heavy metals (like Arsenic), organic
contaminants, dyes, pesticides, and microbes from household water. The biggest disadvantages of
RO systems are that they are environmentally damaging, wasting 4x of water to obtain 1x of pure
water and the prohibitive investment and maintenance costs for a rural community. Besides water
from RO systems is devoid of minerals which can further lead to poor bone health and other
deficiencies due to prolonged use.

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Fig 3.5: Membrane filters.
The filter strips are intended to be land areas of either planted or indigenous vegetation
located between a potential pollutant-source area and a surface-water body that receives runoff.
Vegetated filter strips (also known as grassed filter strips, filter strips, and grassed filters) are
vegetated surfaces that are used to treat sheet flow from adjacent surfaces.
3.3.3 Chemical method

Chemicals are used to kill or coagulate and flocculate the microbial and other contaminants
from drinking water.
 Chlorine based methods:

Chlorination is the most common process for disinfecting drinking water. It includes
adding chlorine or chlorine byproducts (sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite) to water,
where the chlorine reacts to create hypo chorus acid and hypochlorite ion, both products that
can destroy pathogenic microorganisms. Another bactericidal agent with a disinfectant strength
equal to or greater than chlorine is chlorine dioxide. Chlorine dioxide has a high oxidizing
strength, which explains why it has such a high germicidal potential. Disinfection mechanism
involves the inactivation of enzymatic systems or disruption of protein synthesis due to the
high oxidative.

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Chloramines are another type of chlorine-based product that is formed when ammonia
containing water is chlorinated or when ammonia is added to chlorine containing water. They
are powerful and fast acting microbicides. Typically, 99 % of the chlorine amine forming
reactions gets completed within a few minutes. The chemicals used to produce chlorine amine
from ammonia and chlorine gas vary according to the ammonia-based chemical. The dosing of
chlorine-based products is critical for effective and safe usage. Exposure to residual chlorine is
known to cause adverse effects including cancer and skin ailments.
Fig 3.6: Chlorination Technique
 Hydrogen Peroxide:
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a powerful oxidizer that is used to control biological growth
in water. The potency of H2O2 is greatly influenced by temperature, peroxide concentration,
and response time. Combining H2O2 with ozone or UV light has become a practice to
circumvent its limitations in recent times. Usage of these new technologies is increasing
worldwide for groundwater treatment, potable drinking water, and industrial water treatment.
 Copper and Silver Based methods:

Copper and silver have well established antimicrobial properties and have been used as
drinking water storage vessels in ancient civilizations. It is a traditional practice in India to store
drinking water in copper or silver pots. Simple, passive storage of drinking water in copper pots
has been shown to kill water-borne diarrhea genic pathogens. A low-cost copper based; point-of-
use device was found to be effective in disinfecting household drinking water. Further, a copper-

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based product called Tamaris was manufactured that was found to be safe and effective in
disinfecting pathogens at the community level.

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Tamaris is simple to use, affordable product, requiring no recurring Technologies applying the
copper silver ionization principle have evolved significantly over the years, in the drinking water
purification sector. In this technique, electrically charged copper particles in the water neutralize
particles of inverse polarities, like microorganisms and fungi. Copper particles infiltrate the cell
walls and make a passageway for silver particles, which enter the core of the microorganisms and
make them inert.
 Coagulation and Flocculation:

Dissolved solids and suspended particles in water that do not settle naturally are aided
in sedimentation by coagulants and flocculants. Aluminum sulfate (Alum) is one of the best-
known coagulants used in drinking water treatment. Ferric sulfate and Sodium aluminates are
also regularly used coagulants. The coagulants when added to water and mixed, neutralize the
negatively charged dissolved and small sized particles, like microbes, and make them stick
together.
 Chlorination Works for Iron, Manganese and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal:
 As it moves through rock, groundwater dissolves iron and manganese that occur naturally
in the rock. In dissolved form, these minerals are colorless. Chlorine oxidizes iron and
manganese into red-brown or black particle and hydrogen sulfide into yellow particles.
These particles can then be filtered.
 A pH between 6 and 8 is best when chlorinating for iron or hydrogen sulfide removal.
Manganese removal is most effective when the pH is greater than 9.5.
 A certain amount of contact time between the contaminant and the chlorine is required.
Contact usually occurs in the system’s pressure tank, although water might not remain in
the tank long enough for complete oxidation.

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CHAPTER-4
SURVEY WORK
4. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 Survey Work

Our team (batch number: 06) conducted survey on “ACESS TO SAFE DRINING WATER”
by interacting with people living in public areas. Collected information related to safe drinking
water. Cooperated with us further survey. A survey form was designed and we have noted answers
from them.
Details:
Family-1:
Name: Vijaya Lakshmi
House No. 172

Colony: Shree Ram Nagar
Mobile Number: 9640361793
Which type of water would they drink: Municipal tap water
Our suggestions:
1. Boiled Municipal tap water - will kill the bacteria’s, viruses, parasites in drinking water).
2. Use Chlorine Bleach: will kill the most viruses, and batteries - Add 8 drops or a little less
34
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than 1/8 of a teaspoon.

Family-2
Name: B. Venu Gopal
House No:6-183/3
Street Name: C.P.M Office Road, Near Bose Bomma Centre
Mobile No:7799331457
Suggestions:
 Wastes Significantly More Than it produces. One of the biggest disadvantages to RO water
system is wasted water.
 Remove Healthy Minerals present in water in water and decreases the pH value.
 In our India drinking water pH value is 6.5 to 8.5.
 Minimize use of mineral water or RO purified water.
Family-3:
Name: S. Khaja Meya
House No: 3-182
Street Name: Mahatma Gandhi Nagar

Mobile No: 9573409592
35
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Which type of water would they drink: Municipal tap water
RO-PLANT DETAILS:
Name: B. Easwar
RO-Plant Holder Name: Sri Dhugipati Pandu rangaya Rao
Street Name: Bhagat Singh Colony
RO (Reverse Osmosis) Plant-Certified by Municipality (Tiruvuru).
Reverse Osmosis Working: RO-Plant works by using a high-pressure pump to increase the
pressure on the salt side of the RO and force the water across the semi permeable RO
membrane, leaving almost all around95 to 99% dissolved salts in the project stream behind.
RO Water safe to drink long term: Actually not, in this low mineral total dissolved solid
36
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(TDS) drinking water produced by RO or distillation is not suitable for consumption.
37
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Family-4:
Name: K. Nageswaramma
House No: 8-143

Street Name: Near Venkateshwara Swami Temple
Mobile No: 7396363520
Which type of water would they drink: Boiled Bore Well Water
Bore Well Water: Bore water or ground water is the most common source of water in India.
Assessed by drilling the ground and pumping water from aquifers. An aquifer is a water-
holding permeable rock or clay that’s holds ground water. When such water pumped out, it
carries dissolved salts, chemicals, and microorganisms which can be potentially harmful to
human body.
 Bore well Water is not safe to drink.
Make water safe to drink an emergency:

1. Boiled Municipal tap water - will kill the bacteria’s, viruses, parasites in drinking water).
2. Use Chlorine Bleach: will kill the most viruses, and batteries - Add 8 drops or a little less than
1/8 of a teaspoon.

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Family-5:
Name: Krishna veni
Colony: Senga Reni
House No: 4-351

Mobile No: 9493359368
Which type of water would they drink: Boiled Municipal tap water
Gram Panchayat Office:
Name: B.N. Swami Nayak

Mobile No: 9100121382
RWS (Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Department) Officer.
 Nodal agency in the state for providing drinking water and sanitation facilities in rural areas
Under RWS Sector.
 The state government is to provide safe drinking water to the rural population.

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Gram Panchayat/Village Water and Sanitation Committee (GPWSC/ VWSC):

A Gram Panchayat/Village Water and Sanitation Committee (GPWSC/VWSC) is to be set up
as a Standing Committee/ Sub-Committee in each Gram Panchayat for planning, monitoring,
implementation and operation and maintenance of their Water Supply Scheme to ensure
active participation of the villagers. This Committee may be merged with the Village Health
Committee set up under NRHM, so that water, sanitation and health issues are tackled
together at the village level.
Family-6:
Name: M. Bujji
House No: 159-2
Street Name: Sugali Street
Mobile Number: 9963590690
Which type water would they drink: Municipal tap water

Make water safe to drink:
 Boiled Municipal tap water (will kill the bacteria’s, viruses, parasites in drinking
water).
 Use Chlorine Bleach: will kill the most viruses, and batteries. (Add 8 drops or a little
less than 1/8 of a teaspoon).
 Adding a pinch of salt for each quart or liter of boiled water.

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Family-7
Name: T. Krishna veni
House No: 122-1

Street Name: Sundarayya Colony
Which type of water would they drink: Municipal tap water?
Family-8
Name: J. Sunitha
House No: 158-2
Street Name: Madhira Road
Which type of water would they drink?
: Municipal tap water
Make water safe to drink:
1. Municipal tap water is generally a better
Choice because it’s less expensive and doesn’t
create single use plastic waste.
2. Boiled Municipal tap water - will kill the
bacteria’s, viruses, parasites in drinking water.
3. Use Chlorine Bleach: will kill the most viruses, and batteries - Add 8 drops or a little less than
1/8 of a teaspoon.
4. Adding a pinch of salt for each quart or liter of boiled water.

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4.2 Our Suggestions:
 Municipal tap water is generally a better Choice because it’s less expensive and doesn’t create
single use plastic waste.
 Boiled Municipal tap water - will kill the bacteria’s, viruses, parasites in drinking water.
 Use Chlorine Bleach: will kill the most viruses, and batteries - Add 8 drops or a little less than
1/8 of a teaspoon.
 Adding a pinch of salt for each quart or liter of boiled water.
 Bore water or ground water is the most common source of water in India. Assessed by drilling
the ground and pumping water from aquifers. An aquifer is a water-holding permeable rock or
clay that’s holds ground water. When such water pumped out, it carries dissolved salts,
chemicals, and microorganisms which can be potentially harmful to human body.
 Bore well Water is not safe to drink.
 Medical experts say that drinking hot water is good, but there are also disadvantages of
drinking hot water too much.
 Wastes Significantly More Than it produces. One of the biggest disadvantages to RO water
system is wasted water.
 Remove Healthy Minerals present in water in water and decreases the pH value.
 In our India drinking water pH value is 6.5 to 8.5.
 Minimize use of mineral water or RO purified water.

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CHAPTER-5
DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
BIS Standards for Various Chemical and Biological Constituents Water Quality Parameters
S. No. Drinking water
Parameters
Permissible Limit Maximum Limit
1 Odour Agreeable Agreeable
2 Taste Agreeable Agreeable
3 pH 6.5 to 8.5 No relaxation
4 TDS (mg/l) 500 2000
5 Hardness (as CaCO3)

200 600
(mg/l)
6 Alkalinity (as CaCO3)

200 600
(mg/l)
7 Nitrate (mg/l) 45 No relaxation
8 Sulphate (mg/l) 200 400
9 Fluoride (mg/l) 1 1.5
10 Chloride (mg/l) 250 1000

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11 Turbidity (NTU) 5 10
12 Arsenic (mg/l) 0.01 0.05
13 Copper (mg/l) 0.05 1.5
14 Cadmium (mg/l) 0.003 No relaxation
15 Chromium (mg/l) 0.05 No relaxation
16 Lead (mg/l) 0.01 No relaxation
17 Iron (mg/l) 0.3 No relaxation
18 Zinc (mg/l) 5 15
19 Faecal Coliform 0 0
20 E. Coli 0 0
Table 2: BIS Standards for Various Chemical and Biological Constituents Water Quality
Parameters

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CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION
As water is a basic need for human life, access to clean, and safe drinking water is a basic
human right. As a criterion, an adequate, reliable, clean, acceptable and safe drinking water supply
has to be available for various users. Moreover, everyone needs access to safe water in adequate
quantities for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene and sanitation facilities that do not
compromise health or dignity. Access to water is one of the most important catalysts given high
priority by the UN for sustainable development. Despite these facts, there are inequalities in access
to safe drinking water in the world. There are a number of factors challenging the sustainable
WSS. Some of the factors are related to infra structures, clean water issues, natural factors,
human factors.
 People cannot create water.
 But, by managing sources and distribution systems, they can maximize the amount of
available of water and make the most out of every drop.
RESULTS
Water is connected to every form of life on earth and is the basic human needs, equally
importance as air. Water is connected to every aspect of human day -to -day activities directly or
indirectly.at a basic level, everyone needs access to safe drinking water in adequate quantities for
drinking, cooking, personal hygiene and sanitation facilities that do not compromise health or
dignity. From the survey conducted it can be seen that many people are drinking municipal tap
water. Make water to safe drinking an emergency –Boiled water, use chlorine bleach. If we declare
that “access to clean safe drinking water is a basic human right, then providing the necessary
education, infrastructure and support to ensure the success of the responsibility of us all”.

lOMoARcPSD|25314059
REFERENCES
 https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102071
 www.worldscientificnews.com.
 http://cgwb.gov.in/Documents/WQ-standards.pdf
 https://ejalshakti.gov.in/misc/Docs/ProvenTech.pdf
 https://ourworldindata.org/diarrheal-diseases
 https://www.unicef.org/reports/lost-home-2020
 www.worldscientificnews.com
 https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/pdf/drinking/Household_Water_Treatment.pdf
 https://jalshakti-ddws.gov.in/
 https://ourworldindata.org/diarrheal-diseases
 https://www.grandchallenges.ca/grantee-stars/0259-01/
 https://swachhbharatmission.gov.in/SBMCMS/about-us.htm
 https://www.tatatrusts.org/our-work/water-sanitation-and-hygiene

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Access to safe drinking water

Computer Science (SRM Institute of Science and Technology)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

B.PUJITHA (21MG1A0402) C.NAGA BHARGAVI (21MG1A0405)

Under the esteemed guidance of

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

SREE VAHINI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada

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Mr. J DURGA PRASAD Mr. M. HARI KRISHNA

Mr. J DURGA PRASAD External Examiner

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Great acknowledgement is expressed to SVIST Management members whose guidance is

C.NAGA BHARGAVI (21MG1A0405)

K.SIVA TEJA (21MG1A0450)

Downloaded by Sahera Shaik (saherashaik0307@gmail.com)

C.NAGA BHARGAVI (21MG1A0405)

K.SIVA TEJA (21MG1A0450)

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CONTENTS: Page No.

Chapter-1: 1. Introduction 1-2

Chapter-3: 3. Drinking Water Scenario in India 9-10

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BPL Below Poverty Line

DWSM District Water Sanitation Mission

PPP Public Private Partnership

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Fig 1.1: Water crisis amidst

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1.1 Objective of the study

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1.2 Defining the vulnerable population

Fig 1.2: Defining the vulnerable population

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2. Water Governance Systems in India

Fig 2.1: Key Organizational Players in Drinking Water Governance in India

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2.1 Central Government

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2.2 Non-Government Organizations

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2.3 India's water and sanitation crisis

Fig 2.2: water sanitation crisis

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3. Drinking Water Scenario in India

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Fig 3.1: Fecal contamination in drinking water sources in Indian S&UTs

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Do Indian households treat their water before drinking?

62% 38% 14%

No HWT usedHWT adopted-Cloth filtration HWT adopted-BoilingHWT adopted-Other