TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE

Irrigation infrastructure in traditional1 systems is seen by farmers as a system. The irrigation

system is constructed in response to availability of water, at maximum and minimum flow rates,
i.e. summer and winter, respectively. During the dry season, since water availability decreases
considerably, crop areas are smaller than during the rainy season. The infrastructure also enables
to different irrigation practices in each zone. For example, when land is flooded to prepare it by
depositing topsoil silt, which calls for high flow rates. In turn, the system can also be used for
crop irrigation, at lower flow rates (e.g. vegetables) or high flows (e.g. maize and forage that is
flooded). Irrigation infrastructure is oriented toward various and multiple uses: irrigation,
watering livestock, washing vegetables, driving mills, and drainage. The system is laid out, first
of all, to benefit as many families of the community and the greatest land area possible. For this
purpose, they locate the intake upstream, as high as the physical and social conditions (territory)
will allow. On this basis, they normally define the number of users with water rights. However,
the system is also dynamic, because as users increase and land is brought under cultivation, the
network extends gradually. Findings of numerous research studies show that, if there are several
water sources in a single zone, it is common to find them using a single system, but avoiding any
mixing of water. For this purpose, they set up shifts, to take turns using the infrastructure,
thereby minimising conflicts and emphasising transparency. Infrastructure matches social
organisation. That is, each community has points of water delivery and canals identified by
community members and neighbour communities. The system also goes along with the zone’s
physical characteristics. A community could have one or more points of delivery, with their
respective canals. 1 The word “traditional” in this thesis is used not as a concept that refers to
ancient, static or folkloric properties, but to contemporary and dynamic and small-holder systems
that have their roots in Andean management traditions. Traditional irrigation infrastructure may
be grouped into storage, catchment, conveyance and distribution facilities. Storage facilities
commonly built by small farmers are reservoirs, atajado reservoirs (small ponds) and larger dams
(lakes2). Dams are normally built at spots where there are natural reservoirs, where they pile
stones and sod to increase the storage capacity. To release water, they leave an opening that can
be closed using sods, stones and dirt. Reservoirs are generally built when the source is a spring,
with a low flow rate, too little to irrigate crops directly. These facilities store water for a while in
order to release a greater flow rate, enough to get water to croplands. Reservoirs are made with
stones and sod. To release water, an opening is left, that is closed with sod, stones and/or logs. In
some cases, when they can afford it, reservoirs are made with stonework masonry. Atajados are
reservoirs used to store water from hillside runoff, located on sloping land. To build such a
reservoir, they dig into the earth, and construct the sides with the excavated dirt. To waterproof
the walls, they pack them, sometimes using clay or plastic to prevent seepage. There are also
atajado reservoirs that take advantage of water from small creeks. For this purpose, they build
walls crosswise to stop the water’s flow. This is most common in the Tarija region. To release
water from atajado reservoirs, they siphon it out with hoses or pumps. Catchment facilities, to
abstract water from rivers, small farmers generally place their intake on the creek or river bank.
The structure consists of an opening and a canal diagonal to the watercourse. The canal is made
of local materials (clay, branches, and stones). Normally, when the water level is high, this
damages the structure, and users must continually invest labour to rebuild it. These needs are
also found in new facilities materialising through improvement projects, as it will be seen in the
case studies presented in this book. In the altiplano of Potosí and Oruro, rural people have
developed an ancient technique to obtain underground water from rivers. This is kind of a
filtration gallery, but located right at the surface, in the form of a buried canal. These galleries
are called “poteos” and are built with stones piled one on top of the other, forming a vault
crossing the river. Conveyance facilities include canals and aqueducts. Canals or “ditches” are
mainly not hierarchically organised, so they are used for conveyance, distribution and
application. Canals take radial3 directions, and users avoid mixing water from different sources.
Canals generally In Spanish, farmers call them lagunas. 3 In large systems, where there are two
or more communities, although they have one intake, each community wants to have its own
channel if the topographic conditions allow. So, there are many channels (one for each
community) from the same intake like the spokes of a bicycle wheel. Photo 2.1. Atajados in
Totora - Cochabamba have an irregular4 cross-section throughout their length. There is water
lost through filtration, but this depends on the soils from which they are built. Ditches use
different local materials, mainly dirt and dry masonry. User groups would all like to have lined
canals, for which purpose they are always looking for outside funding as presented in the case
studies. Depending on land slopes and/or soil characteristics, canals are subject to problems of
canal bed erosion. Aqueducts conduct water in places where the terrain requires them, and
connect directly with the earthen canal. They are built of different materials: wood, sheet metal,
200-litre metal tanks, and occasionally concrete. Additional aqueducts are a common feature of
improvement projects, as presented here in Naranjos Margen Izquierda, Caigua, San Roque -
Capellanía. Distribution facilities. In traditional systems, water is generally distributed by a
single flow. There are normally distribution points, used to direct water flow from one canal to
the next. These points are normally located at the headwater entrance to the community, the
irrigation zone, and the irrigation group. Sometimes these distribution points may be used as
water division points. Since they are located on the earthen canals, distribution facilities are part
of them, as openings that instead of gates are covered by sod, stone, or sandbags. So, in
traditional systems there are no gates.

SELECT TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING

“Surveying instruments are designed and constructed to provide years of reliable use. Although
they are constructed for rugged field conditions, the mechanical components and electronics of
precision instruments can be damaged by careless acts or inattention to the procedures for use,
care and adjustment of the instruments”.

2.1: Description of topographic surveying tools and instruments

(1) Total Stations

A total station is used for measuring both horizontal and zenith angles as well as slope distances.
In addition, they also have features for measurement to points that cannot be directly observed
Total stations incorporate EDMs as well as provisions for angular measurements and basic
coordinate geometry
(2) Global Positioning System Instruments
GPS receivers may be classified as hand held, mapping grade and survey grade receivers.
Regardless of the type of GPS receiver, all final horizontal positions (latitude and longitude
and/or state plane coordinates) of the observed marks will be relative to a given datum and a
reference system.
Hand Held Receivers: The less expensive GPS receivers obtain only limited information from
the satellites. This type of receiver can be obtained from sporting goods stores and other retailers.
They are typically small, portable, battery powered and has a built in display. Currently the
expected point positioning accuracy with selective availability disabled is approximately 30 ft
(10m) horizontal.
Survey Grade Receivers: Survey grade receivers are single or dual frequency. Information
obtained is generally post processed to arrive at positions of the occupied points. These receivers
may also have the ability to perform Real Time Kinematic (RTK) surveys. Only dual frequency
receivers will be used to observe base lines in excess of 6.2 miles (10km). Geodetic antennas
having a ground plane are required in some cases. Expected horizontal accuracies can be as good
as 0.1 ft (0.03m).

THEODOLITES

1. Definition - In this Manual the term "theodolite" refers to a tribrach-mounted, closed, optical-
reading, angle-measuring instrument with an optical plummet. That is, a theodolite is secured to
a tripod by its separate base, the tribrach; the circles are read through a microscope and prism
system; and it can be plumbed over a point without using a plumb bob. (The term "transit" is
limited to an instrument that has open circles and verniers that must be read directly with the
naked eye or with the aid of a hand-held magnifier.)

Tribrachs

A tribrach is the detachable base of all total stations, and they are also used to attach prisms to a
tripod. A Department tribrach is equipped with a bull’s-eye bubble (circular level) and optical
plummet.
General - Tribrachs are one of the most versatile of all surveying instruments. When equipped
with an optical plummet, they serve as a leveling and positioning base for theodolites, total
station instruments, reflector prisms, sight poles, and targets. Although versatile, optical plummet
tribrachs are the weakest link in the quest for quality measurements. Optical plummet tribrachs
have optical plummets that are not self-checking, and a bulls-eye bubble that is designed for
rough leveling. If the optical plummet is out of adjustment, the instrument, prism, etc. will not be
positioned directly over the mark. The optical plummet must be checked on a regular basis.

Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMs)

The development of electronic distance measuring instruments (EDM/EDMIs) has had a

profound effect on the surveying profession. Linear measurement, in any practical range, can be
made speedily and accurately due to the development of these instruments. Most EDMs have
approximately the same distance measuring accuracy when operated in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. Every instrument has an inherent plus or minus error in every
measurement plus a small error based on parts per million of the distance measured. The primary
differences among makes and models of EDMs are the distance they can measure with one or
multiple reflector prisms and the time required to make a measurement.

Levels
Automatic levels are the standard leveling instrument used on MD SHA survey parties. These
levels are fast, accurate, and easy to maintain. Proper care is required to ensure continuous
service and required precision. DO NOT disassemble them in the field

TRIPODS

A stable tripod is required for precision in measuring angles. Therefore, a tripod should not have
any loose joints or parts, which might cause instability. Some suggestions for proper tripod care
are:
1. Maintain a firm snugness in all metal fittings, but never tighten them to the point where they
will unduly compress or injure the wood, strip threads, or twist off bolts or screws. (This
includes leg clamps.)
2. Tighten leg hinges only enough for each leg to just sustain its own weight (when spread out in
its normal working position).
3. Keep metal tripod shoes clean and free from dirt. They should also be tight.
4. Keep all tripods well painted or varnished to reduce moisture absorption and swelling or
drying out and subsequent shrinking.
Compass
Features - The essential features of compasses used by surveyors are: a. A compass box with a
circle graduated from zero degrees to 90 in both directions from the north and south points. b. A
line of sight along the south-north points of the compass box. c. A magnetic needle. When the
line of sight is pointed in a given direction, the compass needle gives the magnetic bearing.

PRISMS

1. General - Prisms are used with electro-optical EDMI (light, laser, and infrared) to reflect the
transmitted signals. A single reflector is a cube corner prism that has the characteristic of
reflecting light rays back precisely in the same direction as they are received. This retro-direct
capability means that the prism can be somewhat misaligned with respect to the EDMI and still
be effective. Cube corner prisms are formed by cutting the corners off a solid glass cube; the
quality of the prism is determined by the flatness of the surfaces and the perpendicularity of the
90 surfaces.

PRISM POLES

0. General - Prism poles are constructed of aluminum tubing with a 5/8" x 11 mounting stud on
top and have a 2.9.2 circular bubble attached. Two types of bubbles are available. One is
okay for data collection work. The other is much more precise and is to be used with a bipod
during metes-and-bound work.
Rods and Leveling Staff

ABNEY LEVEL (CLINOMETER)

This instrument is suitable for both direct leveling and for measuring slope angles. For direct
leveling, the index of the graduated arc is set at zero. When it is used as a clinometer, the level
tube is rotated about the axis of the vertical arc until the cross wire bisects the bubble as the
object is sighted.

2.2 Adjustment of tools and equipment of topographic surveying