0. SURVEYING WHAT IS IT?

(A) Brief History of Surveying

The art of surveying is as old as recorded civilization. As long as property ownership was there
in the history of mankind, there had been a means of distributing and distinguishing one‟s
property line from the other. Division of land and other constructions can be cited as examples of
early surveying works:
 Babylonian maps on tablets (2500 B.C)
 Irrigation ditches constructed in Babylon (1800 B. C)
 Division of land in Egypt by surveyors known by harpedonapata (rope stretchers) using
ropes with knots to reestablish boundary marks removed by flooding of Nile river and for
the purpose of taxation (1400 B.C)
 The construction of the great Egyptian pyramids using the 3:4:5 method of right angle
setting and a level made of isosceles triangle and plum bob
  Calculation of earth‟s circumference (250 B.C)
 The Development of the science of geometry by Greeks and its usage for precise land
division
 Contribution of Romans through their practical surveying techniques in their construction
of roads and Military camps in their empire (adoption of system of rectangular
coordinate, invention of odometer)
Since beginning of the industrial revolution the importance of “exact boundaries” and the
demand for public improvements (railroads, canals, roads) brought surveying in to a prominent
position.
(B) Definition of Surveying and surveyor
 Surveying or land surveying is defined as the science, art and technology of determining the
position, in three dimensions, of natural and man-made features on, above or beneath the
surface of the Earth. These features may then be represented in analog form as a contoured
map, plan or chart, or in digital form as a three-dimensional mathematical model stored in the
computer.
 A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and technical expertise
to practice the science of measurement; to assemble and assess land and geographic related
information; to use that information for the purpose of planning and implementing the
efficient administration of the land, the sea and structures thereon; and to instigate the
advancement and development of such practices.
(C) Classification and types of surveying
 Classes of surveying
- Geodetic Surveying
This is the class of surveying, which takes into account the true shape of the earth (spheroid).
The radius of curvature of the earth is taken into account. Geodetic Surveying is a technique
to determine relative positions of widely spaced points, lengths, and directions which require
the consideration of the size and shape of the earth. Large area and large distances are
covered. The object of geodetic survey is to determine precise positions on the surface of
earth. Refined Instruments and Methods are used. Geodetic surveying is conducted by
government agencies.
- Plane Surveying
 This is the type of surveying where the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane.
The radius of curvature of the earth is not taken into account. Plane Surveying is a class of
surveying where the reference base for fieldwork and computations are assumed to be a flat
horizontal surface. Generally within a 12 miles radius the pull of gravity is very nearly
parallel to that at any other point within the radius and thus horizontal lines can be considered
straight. Small area and small distances are covered and degree of accuracy is comparatively
low.
 Types of surveying
1) Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Mapping utilizing data obtained by camera or
other sensors carried in airplanes or satellites.
2) Boundary/ Land/ Cadastral surveying: Establishing property corners, boundaries, and
areas of land parcels.
3) Control Surveying: Establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that serve
as a reference framework for other survey projects.
4) Engineering Surveying/Construction surveying: Providing points and elevations for
the building and Civil Engineering projects.
5) Topographic Surveying: collecting data and preparing maps showing the locations of
natural man-made features and elevations of points on the ground for multiple uses.
6) Route Surveying: Topographic and other surveys for long - narrow projects associated
with Civil Engineering projects. Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.
7) Hydrographic Surveying: Mapping of shorelines and the bottom of bodies of water.
This is also known as bathymetric surveying.
(D) Principles of surveying
Surveying is carried out upon the following fundamental principles:
1) Working from whole to part (Control for new survey);
2) Economy of accuracy;
3) Consistency of practices;
4) Independent checks;
5) Safeguarding;
6) Update by fieldwork.
(E) Surveying Instrumentation
This section lists the equipment, tools and material required for a basic survey party. The list
may be modified according to the task to be performed and to the different phases of surveying,
different jobs, etc.
The main equipment required for surveying tasks is the following:
Total station instrument - EDM reflectors
- Automatic level - Standard reflectors
- Optical plummet tribrach -Standard reflector holder
- Electronic data collector - Range poles
- Printer - Level Rods
- Calculator - Radios
- Barometer - Tripod, extension leg
- Tape measures - Handheld GPS
- Thermometer - Leveling staff
- Compass - DGNSS Instrument
(F) Reference System
To provide a suitable framework to which all surveys are referenced it is necessary to establish
horizontal datum and Vertical datum (references). A horizontal datum is the surface to which
horizontal distances are referred and consists of an ellipsoid of revolution approximating the
figure of the earth. For the purpose of horizontal reference the earth is approximated by an
ellipsoid with semi major axis (radius) of 6,378,137m and a semi minor axis (radius) of
6,356,752.314m.
1o) Geographic coordinate system:
Survey Geographic reference system is composed of surface (ellipsoid) divisions denoted by
Geographic lines of latitude and longitude .The latitudes run east west and are parallel to the
equator. The latitude lines are formed by projecting the latitude angles out of the surface of the
earth and are measured 90o max N and S from the equatorial plane .The longitude lines all run
N/S converging at the poles the lines of longitude (meridians) are formed by projecting the
longitude angle out to the surface of the earth at the equator and measure a max of 180 o E/W
from the plane of 0o longitude Which is arbitrarily placed through Greenwich.
Although this system of Geographic coordinate is much used in navigation and Geodesy, it is not
used in plane surveying. Plane surveying uses the grid coordinate system.
2o) Grid/Cartesian coordinate system
In this system the earth‟s surface is divided in to rectangular grid for horizontal reverence. This
system is limited in size so that no serious errors will accumulate when the curvature of the earth
is ignored. Advantages of this system are the ease of calculation (plane Geometry and
trigonometry) and the availability of one common datum for the X and Y dimensions in large
area. The coordinates of most grid systems can be referenced to the central meridian and to the
equator so that translation to Geographic coordinates is always easily accomplished.
3o) Vertical datum
A vertical datum is a surface which all elevations and depths are referred. Although vertical
dimensions can be referenced to any datum, the referenced datum most widely used is that of
mean sea level (MSL) which is assigned an elevation of 0.000m.
(G) Units of measurements
There are two principal measurements in surveying works:
Linear measurements: the basic unit used is the meter. Decimal fractions of the meter are also
used when accuracy is required. Other units include the foot, the inch, the yard, the mile, etc.
Angular measurements: even though the basic unit is the radian, the degree is used in
surveying field works. For accuracy subdivisions of the degree are available, the minute and the
second.
ƒ 1 degree (1o) = 60 minutes ƒ 1 gon =100 centesimal unit
‟
ƒ 1 minute (1 ) = 60 seconds (“) ƒ 2π rad = 360 degrees
ƒ 360 degrees = 400 gons ƒ

The system most commonly used in the measurement of distance and angle is the „„Systeme
Internationale‟‟, abbreviated to SI. The basic units of prime interest are:
(a) Length in metres (m) from which we have:
1 m = 103 millimetres (mm)
1 m = 10–3 kilometres (km)
Thus a distance measured to the nearest millimetre would be written as, say, 142.356m.
Similarly for areas we have:
1 m2 = 106 mm2
104 m2 = 1 hectare (ha)
106 m2 = 1 square kilometre (km2)
Finally, for volumes we have m3 and mm3.
(b) Angular units:
There are three systems used for plane angles, namely the sexagesimal, the centesimal and
radians (arc units).
The sexagesimal units are used in many parts of the world and measure angles in degrees (°),
minutes (′) and seconds (′′) of arc, i.e.
1° = 60′
1′ = 60′′
and an angle is written as, say, 125° 46′ 35′′.
The centesimal system is quite common in Europe and measures angles in gons, i.e.
1 gon = 100 cgon (centigon)
1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)
A radian is that angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc on the circumference equal in
length to the radius of the circle, i.e.
2π rad = 360° = 400 gon
Thus to transform degrees to radians, multiply by π /180°, and to transform radians to degrees,
multiply by 180°/π. It can be seen that:
1 rad = 57.2957795° = 63.6619972 gon
A factor commonly used in surveying to change angles from seconds of arc to radians is:
α rad = α ′′/206 265
where 206 265 is the number of seconds in a radian.
Conversions between the British/American and metric systems
ƒ 1 inch = 25.4 mm
ƒ 1 foot = 0.3048 m
ƒ 1 yard = 0.9144 m
ƒ 1 mile = 1.609344 Km
ƒ 1 acre = 4046.8564224 m2
(H) Errors and mistakes
Error is generally defined, as the deviation of the measured value from the exact value of a
quantity. The study of errors is important in surveying as it helps the surveyor understand the
sources and exercise the necessary care and apply correction to minimize their effect so that an
acceptable accuracy is achieved.
- Error sources
Generally the errors in surveying measurements are classified as:
a) Personal: the error that occurs due to lack of perfection in the surveyor‟s sense of sight,
touch, hearing etc during survey activity. Also mistakes due to carelessness or fatigue of
the surveyor are classed under this category. This type of error can be minimized with
care and vigilance by the part of the surveyor.
b) Instrumental: it is the error type that occurs due to imperfection of the instruments in
manufacture and during adjustments and due to wear and tear by usage. Also included
are mistakes due to failure or damage of the instrument. This type of error can be
minimized by careful handling, maintenance and adjustment and calibration of
instruments and by applying corrections.
c) Natural: included under this are errors due to effect of temperature, pressure, humidity,
magnetic variation etc. This type of error can be minimized by applying correction and
by carrying out the survey when their effect is minimal.
- Error Types
Classically errors are classified in to three; these are Mistakes, Systematic errors and Random
errors.
a) Mistakes
These actually are not error because they usually are so gross in magnitude compared to the other
two types. These are rather blunder made by surveyor or his equipment and can occur at any
stage of the survey (during reading, recording computing and plotting).
Source: May be due to one of the following:
Carelessness or fatigue by surveyor
Failure of equipment
Examples are:
- Reading wrong scale
 - Transposing figure in recording ex 56 instead of 65 or reading 6 instead of 9.
- Omitting digits during recording ex 200 instead of 2000
- Sighting towards wrong target etc.
Generally, these classes of errors can be easily detected and eliminated if strict and well-
designed procedures and methodologies are followed in measuring recording etc.
Some of these are:
 Taking multiple independent readings and checking for reasonable consistency
 Careful checking of both sighting on targets and recording
 Using simple and quick techniques for verification, applying logic and common sense
 Checking and verifying performance of equipment particularly that with an electronic
read out
 Repeating the measurement with slightly different techniques or adopting different
datum/ index
 Applying geometric or algebraic checks to detect mistakes
b) Systematic errors
These are error types with relatively small magnitude compared to mistakes, and are result of
some systems whose effect can be expressed in mathematical relations; hence their magnitude
and sign can be estimated (determined). In most cases, the system causing the systematic error
can be personal, instrumental or physical and environmental conditions or may be result of
choice of geometric or mathematical model used.
As their values can be determined correction can be applied to improve the data. In addition,
proper calibration and adjustment of instruments also contribute to minimizing their effect.
c) Random Error
These are types of errors that remain after elimination of mistakes and systematic errors. They
occur because neither the surveyor nor his instruments are perfect. The magnitude of this type
can be estimated (standard deviation) but unlike that of systematic errors their sign cannot be
determined. Hence correction cannot be applied.
These types of errors are random in their nature and are thought to have normal probability
distribution. Their effect can be decreased by exercising care and vigilance by the part of
surveyors and by using high precision instruments.
LU1: IDENTIFICATION OF SURVEYING SITE

Objective of Site Reconnaissance

The objective of site reconnaissance is to investigate sites and area in order to evaluate the
feasibility of projects and get information for future survey data collection
Preparation for Site Reconnaissance
To achieve effective and fruitful site reconnaissance, it is important to conduct preparation such
as gathering of available information, and devise a sufficient plan and schedule of survey
activities in advance.
 Information gathering and preparation
As advance information, 1/50,000 topographic maps are prepared to check the topography of the
target site and villages, the catchment area, village‟s distribution and access road. More accurate
information on site accessibility could be collected by contacting local people concerned. Copies
of 1/50,000 topographic maps and route maps enlarged by 200 to 400% are prepared for the
fieldwork. Check list and interview sheet are also prepared for each site reconnaissance.
Reconnaissance Survey
Brief survey of the study area that can provide the assessment team with valuable information to
help plan the field data collection Source: Bunce at al. 2000
Reconnaissance Survey Allows the Team to:
1. Finalize the selection of study sites for field data collection;
2. Collect preliminary information on the number and location of features;
3. Identify logistical and equipment requirements based on local conditions and make
arrangements for field data collection; and
4. Refine study area and sites, and the objectives and parameters as necessary.
Reconnaissance Survey conducts the following:
• Undertake observation and documentation of:
– Bio-physical characteristics
– Socio-economic features
– Issues, problems, threats and opportunities
Materials/Equipment needed in reconnaissance survey:
• Field maps • Field notebook
• List/matrix of forms to complete
• Pens/pencils • Voice/tape recorder
• Digital camera
• GPS
• Others
Basic Reconnaissance Process
1. Plan the work and seek authorization
3. Determine reconnaissance route
4. Undertake reconnaissance
 Observe
 Take basic data (Coordinates, areas,…)
 Take notes/photos
 Complete lists/matrices
 Talk/interview guide
 Discuss results with team membe
Outputs of Reconnaissance
1. Field notes
2. Photographs
3. Completed forms/matrices
4. Decision or recommendations for data collection process
LU2: SELECT TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING

“Surveying instruments are designed and constructed to provide years of reliable use. Although
they are constructed for rugged field conditions, the mechanical components and electronics of
precision instruments can be damaged by careless acts or inattention to the procedures for use,
care and adjustment of the instruments”.

2.1: Description of topographic surveying tools and instruments

(1) Total Stations

A total station is used for measuring both horizontal and zenith angles as well as slope distances.
In addition, they also have features for measurement to points that cannot be directly observed
Total stations incorporate EDMs as well as provisions for angular measurements and basic
coordinate geometry
(2) Global Positioning System Instruments
GPS receivers may be classified as hand held, mapping grade and survey grade receivers.
Regardless of the type of GPS receiver, all final horizontal positions (latitude and longitude
and/or state plane coordinates) of the observed marks will be relative to a given datum and a
reference system.
Hand Held Receivers: The less expensive GPS receivers obtain only limited information from
the satellites. This type of receiver can be obtained from sporting goods stores and other retailers.
They are typically small, portable, battery powered and has a built in display. Currently the
expected point positioning accuracy with selective availability disabled is approximately 30 ft
(10m) horizontal.
Survey Grade Receivers: Survey grade receivers are single or dual frequency. Information
obtained is generally post processed to arrive at positions of the occupied points. These receivers
may also have the ability to perform Real Time Kinematic (RTK) surveys. Only dual frequency
receivers will be used to observe base lines in excess of 6.2 miles (10km). Geodetic antennas
having a ground plane are required in some cases. Expected horizontal accuracies can be as good
as 0.1 ft (0.03m).

THEODOLITES

1. Definition - In this Manual the term "theodolite" refers to a tribrach-mounted, closed, optical-
reading, angle-measuring instrument with an optical plummet. That is, a theodolite is secured to
a tripod by its separate base, the tribrach; the circles are read through a microscope and prism
system; and it can be plumbed over a point without using a plumb bob. (The term "transit" is
limited to an instrument that has open circles and verniers that must be read directly with the
naked eye or with the aid of a hand-held magnifier.)

Tribrachs

A tribrach is the detachable base of all total stations, and they are also used to attach prisms to a
tripod. A Department tribrach is equipped with a bull‟s-eye bubble (circular level) and optical
plummet.
General - Tribrachs are one of the most versatile of all surveying instruments. When equipped
with an optical plummet, they serve as a leveling and positioning base for theodolites, total
station instruments, reflector prisms, sight poles, and targets. Although versatile, optical plummet
tribrachs are the weakest link in the quest for quality measurements. Optical plummet tribrachs
have optical plummets that are not self-checking, and a bulls-eye bubble that is designed for
rough leveling. If the optical plummet is out of adjustment, the instrument, prism, etc. will not be
positioned directly over the mark. The optical plummet must be checked on a regular basis.

Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMs)

The development of electronic distance measuring instruments (EDM/EDMIs) has had a

profound effect on the surveying profession. Linear measurement, in any practical range, can be
made speedily and accurately due to the development of these instruments. Most EDMs have
approximately the same distance measuring accuracy when operated in accordance with the
manufacturer‟s instructions. Every instrument has an inherent plus or minus error in every
measurement plus a small error based on parts per million of the distance measured. The primary
differences among makes and models of EDMs are the distance they can measure with one or
multiple reflector prisms and the time required to make a measurement.

Levels
Automatic levels are the standard leveling instrument used on MD SHA survey parties.14 These
levels are fast, accurate, and easy to maintain. Proper care is required to ensure continuous
service and required precision. DO NOT disassemble them in the field

TRIPODS

A stable tripod is required for precision in measuring angles. Therefore, a tripod should not have
any loose joints or parts, which might cause instability. Some suggestions for proper tripod care
are:
1. Maintain a firm snugness in all metal fittings, but never tighten them to the point where they
will unduly compress or injure the wood, strip threads, or twist off bolts or screws. (This
includes leg clamps.)
2. Tighten leg hinges only enough for each leg to just sustain its own weight (when spread out in
its normal working position).
3. Keep metal tripod shoes clean and free from dirt. They should also be tight.
4. Keep all tripods well painted or varnished to reduce moisture absorption and swelling or
drying out and subsequent shrinking.
Compass
Features - The essential features of compasses used by surveyors are: a. A compass box with a
circle graduated from zero degrees to 90 in both directions from the north and south points. b. A
line of sight along the south-north points of the compass box. c. A magnetic needle. When the
line of sight is pointed in a given direction, the compass needle gives the magnetic bearing.

PRISMS

1. General - Prisms are used with electro-optical EDMI (light, laser, and infrared) to reflect the
transmitted signals. A single reflector is a cube corner prism that has the characteristic of
reflecting light rays back precisely in the same direction as they are received. This retro-direct
capability means that the prism can be somewhat misaligned with respect to the EDMI and still
be effective. Cube corner prisms are formed by cutting the corners off a solid glass cube; the
quality of the prism is determined by the flatness of the surfaces and the perpendicularity of the
90 surfaces.

PRISM POLES

1. General - Prism poles are constructed of aluminum15 tubing with a 5/8" x 11 mounting stud
on top and have a 2.9.2 circular bubble attached. Two types of bubbles are available. One is
okay for data collection work. The other is much more precise and is to be used with a bipod
during metes-and-bound work.
Rods and Leveling Staff

ABNEY LEVEL (CLINOMETER)

This instrument is suitable for both direct leveling and for measuring slope angles. For direct
leveling, the index of the graduated arc is set at zero. When it is used as a clinometer, the level
tube is rotated about the axis of the vertical arc until the cross wire bisects the bubble as the
object is sighted.

2.2 Adjustment of tools and equipment of topographic surveying

LU3: APPLY DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Angular and Leveling Measurement Corrections

Methods of adjustment in Angular Measurements

Checks for angular error are available
Interior angle, sum of interior angles = (2n-4) x right angle, where n is number of traverse side
Exterior angle, sum of exterior angles = (2n+4) x right angle, where n is number of traverse side

2.1.1 Methods of adjustment in Leveling

(A) Height of Instrument Method:
The basic equations are:
• Height of instrument for the first setting= RL of BM + BS(at BM)
• Subtract the IS and FS from HI to get RL of intermediate stations and change points.
• Checking: ∑BS - ∑FS = Last RL – First RL.
This is –ve for FALL and +ve for RISE.
(B) Rise and Fall method:
• Here the difference of the present staff reading is subtracted from the previous staff reading.
• Previous reading – present staff reading = +ve, denotes RISE
• Previous reading – present staff reading = -ve, denotes FALL
• Checking: ∑BS - ∑FS = Last RL – First RL= ∑Rise - ∑Fall
CURVATURE CORRECTION (CC)
The earth appears to “fall away” with distance. The curved shape of the earth means that the
level surface through the telescope will depart from the horizontal plane through the telescope as
the line of sight proceeds to the horizon. This effect makes actual level rod readings too large by:
Curvature Formula
Where D is the sight distance in thousands of feet. Effects of Curvature are:
• Rod reading is too high
Traversing Measurement Corrections

Methods of adjustment in Traverse Surveying

Checks in closed Traverse
Errors in traverse is contributed by both angle and distance measurement
Checks are available for angle measurement but
There is no check for distance measurement
For precise survey, distance is measured twice, reverse direction second time
Adjustment of a traverse is carried out to ensure consistency within the known positions of the
originating and terminating stations and to remove inconsistencies in observed angles and
distances to compensate for random errors.
For a more precise extended traverse, adjustments made on the basis of least squares are
preferred. But a traverse of limited extent can be adjusted by simple approximation methods.
There are four methods for traverse adjustment by approximation:
(a) Arbitary Method This method does not conform to a fixed rule. Rather, the linear error of
closure is distributed arbitarily according to arbitary preference of the surveyor.
(b) Transit Rule: Transit rule is better for adjustment of the traverse where the angles are
measured with greater accuracy than distances, and is valid only when the traverse lines are
parallel with the grid system used for the traverse computations. Corrections are made by the
following rules: the correction in latitude for any station is equal to the multiple of latitude in
that section and total closure in latitude divided by the sum of all latitudes in traverse, and
the correction in departure is equal to the multiple of departure in that section and total
closure in departure divided by the sum of all departures in the traverse
(c) Compass or Bowditch Rule: This method is suitable for adjustment of the traverse where
the angles and distances are measured with equal precision and uses the following rules: the
correction in latitude for any station is equal to the multiple of the length in that section and
total closure in latitude divided by the total length in the traverse, and the correction in
departure is equal to the multiple of the length in that section and total closure in departure
divided by the total length in the traverse.
(d) Adjustment by Least Squares Method The method of least squares adjustment is based upon
the theory of probability; it simultaneously adjusts the angular and linear measurements to
 make the sum of the square of the residuals (error) a minimum [Brinker, 1977, p. 228]. This
method can be used for any type of traverse. Because of the availibility of fast computing
devices at the present time, the least squares method is being widely used. Further, the least
squares solution has the advantage that it determines, quite objectively, a unique solution for
a given adjustment problem.
Learning Unit 5: Produce Topographic Map
Task1:
Define and discuss briefly GIS functions
Answers:
 Data acquisition (Spatial and non-spatial)
 Data processing and manipulation (Management of data)
 Data Analysis (Spatial and statistical analysis)
 Data Storage (Store data more efficiently)
 Data output and presentation (Maps, graphs, tables, reports)
Task2:
Discuss on application and use of GIS
Answers:
GIS is used in several areas and among them we mention:
1. Forestry: Timber inventory and harvesting
2. Fire, Police, emergency vehicle routing
3. Military: Logistics and battle planning
4. Telecommunication: Sitting cellular transmission towers
5. Local to national scale government: City planning, Zoning, natural resource management
6. Academia: Academic institutional research and teaching
Task3:
Give and describe three (3) components/modules of GIS Software.
Answers:
GIS Software is made of three modules which are:
1. ArcMap: Display of toolbars, drawing area, table of contents and data
2. ArcToolBox: Processing of data displayed on the drawing area in terms of overlay
 3. ArcCatalog: Store data in a suitable folder and format
Task4:
List and describe the main components of GIS
Answers:
1. People
2. Data / Information
3. Hardware
4. Software
5. Methods/Procedures
1. People
People are essentially part of GIS. Issues related to people are training, education, management, law,
security, data sharing and coordination. People are subdivided into two groups: GIS professionals
and users.
 System user
 End user
 Data generators
2. Data/Information
There are two basic types of information in a GIS. Spatial and non-spatial. Spatial refers to
geographic features that are represented as raster (Pixels) or vector (Point, line and polygon). Non-
spatial information is descriptive and refers to tabular data which records characteristics of the
geographic features.
3. Hardware
Hardware is:
 Input (Keyboard, mouse, light pen, digitizer, scanner, sound,…)
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Storage devices (Hard disk, floppy,
 Output (Screen, LCD, Projector, Printer, Plotter, …
4. Software
- Operating System (OS), Windows
- Graphic Software (CAD, Micro station)
- Database software
 - Statistical packages
- Word processing
- Image processing
- GIS Systems
5. Methods, procedures
Procedures like digitizing, buffering, clipping, scanning, overlay, querying are some of the
methods used in a GIS.