MITOTIC CELL CYCLE

CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE

Chromosomes are made up of 1 very long, condensed DNA molecule associated with
proteins — HISTONES (the main protein) and enzymes (the other proteins)

Histones Function: to organise and condense the DNA tightly so that

it fits into the nucleus
- DNA is coiled around histone to make chromatin
- can interact easily with DNA and is acidic

Enzymes Function: to copy and repair the DNA

Chromatin The combination of the tightly DNA and proteins (most

likely histones)

Chromatids 1 of the two identical parts of a chromosome, held together

by a centromere, formed during interphase by the replication
of the DNA strand

- Sister Chromatids The 2 chromatids that make up the double structure of a

chromosome.
- identical (contains the same genes), resulting in
genetically identical daughter cells

Telomeres Location: cap the ends of the chromatids in chromosomes

*will be furtherly explained in ROLES OF TELOMERES*

Centromeres Function: a narrow region that holds the sister chromatids

together
CELL CYCLE

The regulated sequence of events that occurs between 1 cell division and the next
3 phases of cell cycle:
1. Interphase
2. Nuclear Division (Mitosis)
3. Cell Division (Cytokinesis)

Interphase Process: the cell increases in mass and size and carries out
synthesising of proteins and the replication of its DNA for
mitosis
Phases: G1 -> S -> G2; G: Gap, S: Synthesis
● G1: receives a signal to divide, Cells make RNA,
enzymes, and other proteins required for growth
● S: DNA replicates, each chromosome now consists
of TWO identical sister chromatids.
Start of the production of tubulin protein for making
microtubules for the mitotic spindle
● G2: continues to grow and the new DNAs are
checked; if there are errors, they are then repaired

MITOSIS
*Cell growth stops, nuclear division process starts*
Early Prophase
- Nucleolus & Nuclear envelope are still intact
- Chromosomes start to appear as the chromatin coils
up becoming shorter & thicker, visible when stained
- Centrosomes are produced (in S phase)
- Centromeres are attached to kinetochores

Late Prophase
- Nuclear envelope breaks down/ disintegrates into
small vesicles which are not visible
- Nucleolus becomes part of several chromosomes
- Chromosomes are seen as 2 identical chromatids, 1
chromatids = 2 DNA mol.
- Centrosomes moves to opposite ends of the nucleus
where they form the poles of the spindle

End Prophase
- Spindle is formed.
Cell shows the: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleolus,
nuclear envelope, centromere, chromosomes, & centrosomes
Metaphase Anaphase
- centrosome reaches the pole, & Chromatids move to opposite
helps the organisation production of poles, centromeres first, pulled
the spindle microtubules by the microtubules:
- chromosomes line up across the
equatorial plate, and are attached
by their centromeres to the spindle

Telophase
- Nucleolus and Nuclear envelope reforms
- Chromatids have reached opposite poles, proceeds
to uncoil again
- Remains of spindles are breaking down
Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm & cell into 2 by
constriction from the edges of the cell

CELLULAR STRUCTURE IN MITOSIS

Centrosomes Function:
1. Organise the microtubules; (MTOC) Microtubule
Organizing Center
2. Responsible for making (protein molecules’ job) the
spindle, made of microtubules
3. Provide a structure to the cell
Contains 2 Centrioles, Doesn’t occur in Plant Mitosis,
located at the poles of the spindle, 1 at each pole

- Centrioles Barrel-shaped organelle in the cytoplasm near the nuclear

envelope, composed of a protein called tubulin
Function:
1. Also organises microtubules
2. Help determine the locations of the nucleus and
other organelles within the cell
3. The proteins in centrioles control the production of
the microtubules, not the centrioles.
Kinetochore A protein structure at the centromere of a chromatid that
has microtubules attached to it during nuclear division

- Microtubules Function:
- Pulls the kinetochore towards the pole of the spindle
by shortening of microtubules, both from the pole
end and from the kinetochore end.
Spindle Microtubules: Bundles of microtubules

IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS
Growth of multicellular Occurs due to the genetically identical daughter cells
organisms formed after mitosis, allows the growth of multicellular
organisms from unicellular zygotes

Replacement of damaged/ Cells are constantly dying and being replaced by

dead cells and repair of identical cells
tissues by cell replacement

Asexual Reproduction The production of new individuals of a species by a

single parent organism
- Example: Amoeba
They produce new individuals by budding, a bud on part
of the stem grows a new plant, once grown they will
detach and live independently.

ROLES OF TELOMERES

Protective structures that ‘seals’ the ends

of the chromatids in the chromosomes
Made up of: - short base sequences that
are repeated many times

To avoid the risk of losing genes.

Allows the replication of cell to continue

Function:
Ensures that the ends of the molecule are
included in the replication and not left out
when DNA is replicated.
- Acts as a ‘buffer’ region ensuring
that no important coding sections
on the ends are left out

Telomerase (Enzyme) Adds up the additional bases at each end.

No telomerase = Cell dies after a certain
number of cell divisions, ageing process.
STEM CELLS

Cells that can divide (by mitosis) an unlimited number of times. Each cell produced has
the potential to remain a stem cell/ to develop into a specialised cell
- Specialised cell: Blood cell & Muscle cell
- Potency: the ability of stem cells to differentiate into more specialised cell
Types of Potency: Totipotency, Pluripotency, Multipotency

Totipotency differentiates into any cell type found in an embryo, as well as

extra-embryonic cells. The zygote formed when sperm fertilises an egg
cell is totipotent.
- extra-embryonic cells: cells that make up the placenta (an organ
that develops in the uterus during pregnancy)

Pluripotency differentiates into any cell type found in an embryo but are not able to
differentiate into extra-embryonic cells

Multipotency cells that have lost some of the potency associated with embryonic
stem cells & are no longer pluripotent
- only able to produce a limited range of cell types

Multipotent Found throughout the body of an adult

Adult (ex. Bone Marrow, Skin, Gut, Heart, and Brain)
Stem Cells - remain to produce new cells for growth, cell replacement and
tissue repair
Stem cell therapy: introduction of adult stem cells into damaged tissue to
 treat diseases (ex. leukaemia) and injuries (ex. skin burns)
- telomeres don’t shorten as telomerase is present and active.

CANCER

A group of diseases that result from an uncontrolled mitosis. Divides repeatedly and
form a tumour, an irregular mass of cells.

Mutation Starts to occur due to the change in gene that controls cell division.
Oncogene: the mutated gene that causes cancer.
- However, it can be inherited, just mutations occur more oftenly/
is the main cause.
- NOT unusual events, rarely causes/leads to cancer
Happens when a cancer cell that is mutated manages to escape both
cell death and destruction, which leads to a tumour. (contains a billion
cancer cells)

Carcinogen An agent/ substance/ environmental factor that causes cancer

Benign Tumours Tumours that aren’t cancerous/ don’t spread from their site of origin

Malignant Tumours that spread through the body, invading and destroying other
Tumours tissues, which causes cancer.
- interferes with the normal functions of the area
- may block the intestines, lungs, or blood vessels
- undergoes metastasis

Metastasis The way of spreading cancer where cells can break off and spread
through the blood & lymphatic system to other parts of the body to
form 2ndary growths.
- MOST dangerous characteristic of cancer.
- Secondary cancers are HARD to find and to remove.

DEVELOPMENT OF CANCER
INHERITANCE PT.1

GAMETES & REPRODUCTION

Sexual Reproduction Reproduction that involves the fusion of gametes (fertilisation) to

produce a zygote.

Gamete Sex cell (Sperm & Egg cell).

- 2 gametes fuse together to form a zygote; usually
haploids

Fertilisation Process: the fusing of the nuclei of 2 gametes, to form a zygote

Zygote Cell that’s formed by fertilisation; mostly diploids

Haploid + Diploid Most body cells have two complete sets of chromosomes
Cells (exc. RBC, because they don’t have a nucleus)
- Diploid Cell (2n): owns 2 complete sets of chromosomes
+ Humans: 46 chromosomes in a diploid cell
+ Contains 2 complete set of genes
- Haploid Cell (n): owns a single set of chromosomes
+ Humans: 23 chromosomes
+ Contains 1 complete set of genes

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
MEIOSIS

Early Prophase I
- Chromosomes condense and become visible
- Each chromosomes has already been copied, made
up of 2 identical ‘sister’ chromatids joined at the
centromere
Middle Prophase I
- Synapsis: The process of homologous chromosome
pairing up
- Bivalent: 2 homologous chromosomes lying
alongside each other
- Centromeres moves to opposite ends of nucleus
Late Prophase I
- Nuclear envelope breaks up
- Crossing over of chromatids may occur:
Crossing Over: the exchange of alleles between non-sister
chromatids of homologous chromosomes
1. Chromatids break and reconnects to another
chromatid
2. 1 or more chiasmata may form, anywhere along
length
Chiasma: Point where crossing over of non-sister
chromatids of homologous chromosomes occurs
- Nucleolus 'disappears’
End Prophase I:
- Centrioles migrate to opposite ends of the cell and
form spindle fibres made from microtubules.
- Begin to attach themselves to the centromeres of the
homologous pairs of chromosomes

Metaphase I
- Spindle fibres attach to the centromeres, moving the
bivalents to the equator of the cell. Then, lines up
- Homologous chromosomes in each bivalent remain
attached to each other at the chiasmata.

Anaphase I
- spindle fibres begin to pull on the centromeres,
pulling TWO CHROMATIDS in each bivalent.
- Centromeres remain intact holding the 2 chromatids
of the 1 chromosome firmly together
 Telophase I
- Nuclear envelope & Nucleolus reforms (does not
happen in plant cell)
- Cytokinesis starts to occur
- Chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the dividing
cell, completes the job of spindle fibres, breaking
them down
- Reduction division occurs
Reduction division: nuclear division that results in a
reduction in chromosome number; first division of meiosis.
- Original cell (diploid) becomes new cells (haploid)
containing 1 complete set of chromosomes — 1 from
each homologous pair.
Cytokinesis:
- Cytoplasm splits into 2, forming 2 complete cells,
each with the haploid number of chromosomes.

PRODUCTION OF GENETIC VARIATION

Locus (loci) the position of a gene on a chromosome

Allele A variety of a gene; genes in different forms

CROSSING OVER

Process of where pieces of the chromatids from 1

chromosome in a bivalent can exchange places with
the other producing different combinations of alleles
on the two chromosomes.

-> Homologous pairs of chromosomes with alleles of

two genes. (E+A) & (e+a)

Happens:
Crossing over switches the positions of the alleles

Doesn’t Happen:
Stays on their own chromosome

End of meiosis, new daughter cells will receive just 1 of

the chromatid from each chromosome
- results in 4 different combinations
- 2 new (from crossing over), 2 old
 INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

The production of different combinations of alleles in

daughter cells, as a result of the random alignment of
bivalents on the equator of the spindle during
metaphase 1 of meiosis

In Metaphase 1, where bivalents are paired up, and are

pulled to the equator of the cell by spindle fibres.
- Arrangement is entirely random
(Arrangement of 1 pair has no affect the other pair)

The combination of alleles that ends up in the daughter

cells depends on how the chromosomes were lined up.
- Lots of combinations are possible

At the end of Meiosis 2, each orientation gives 2 types

of gametes, so 4 types altogether

RANDOM FERTILISATION

Male gametes fuse with any female gamete, resulting in large amounts of variation
between them. Sexual reproduction individuals have almost no chance of being
genetically identical.