c.

By Determinants

Solve by,

• Cramer’s Rule
Applicable only to linear system with “n” equations and “n” unknowns.
Applicable only to non-singular matrices.
|𝐴𝑛 |
𝑥𝑛 =
𝐴
Example 1:

x1 – 3x2 = -7 2x1 + x2 = 7

|𝐴| = |1 −3| = (1)(1) − (−3)(1) = 𝟕

2 1
|𝐴1 | = | −7 −3
| = (−7)(1) − (−3)(7) = 𝟏𝟒
7 1
14
𝑥1 = =𝟐
7
|𝐴2 | = |1 −7| = (1)(7) − (−7)(2) = 𝟐𝟏
2 7
21
𝑥2 = =𝟑
7

Example 2:

x1 + 2x2 – x3 = 4 2x1 + x2 + x3 = 5 3x1 - x2 + 2x3 = 3

1 2 −1
𝐵 = |2 1 1|
3 −1 2
= [(1)(1)(2) + (2)(1)(3) + (−1)(2)(−1)] − [(−1)(1)(3) + (2)(2)(2)
+ (1)(1)(−1) = 𝟔
4 2 −1
𝐵1 = |5 1 1|
3 −1 2
= [(4)(1)(2) + (2)(1)(3) + (−1)(5)(−1)]
− [(−1)(1)(3) + (2)(5)(2) + (4)(1)(−1)] = 𝟔
6
𝑥1 = = 𝟏
6
1 4 −1
𝐵2 = |2 5 1 |
3 3 2
= [(1)(5)(2) + (4)(1)(3) + (−1)(2)(3)]
− [(−1)(5)(3) + (4)(2)(2) + (1)(1)(3_] = 𝟏𝟐
12
𝑥2 = =𝟐
6
 1 2 4
𝐵3 = |2 1 5|
3 −1 3
= [(1)(1)(3) + (2)(5)(3) + (4)(2)(−1)]
− [(4)(1)(3) + (2)(2)(3) + (1)(5)(−1)] = 𝟔
6
𝑥3 = = 𝟏
6
Example 3:
1 1 1 13
2 −2 −1 2 0
𝐶=[ | ]
3 −1 2 2 2
1 −1 −2 1 0
𝐶=6
3 𝟏
𝑥1 = =
6 𝟐
9 𝟑
𝑥2 = =
6 𝟐
0
𝑥3 = =𝟎
6
6
𝑥1 = =𝟏
6

Example 4:

3x + 2y + z= 2 4x + 2y + 2z= 8 x – y + z= 4
3 2 12
[4 2 2|8]
1 −1 1 4
𝐷=2
8
𝑥 = − = −𝟒
2
4
𝑦= = 𝟐
2
20
𝑧= = 𝟏𝟎
2
• Using Adjoint of a Matrix

Get the adjoint.

Get the inverse using adjoint.

Solutions are obtained by,

𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏
Example 1:

x1 – 3x2 = -7 2x1 + x2 = 7

|𝐴| = |1 −3| 𝐴=7

2 1
3 −2 1 3
𝐴𝑐𝑜 = | | 𝐴𝑎𝑑𝑗 = | |
3 1 −2 1
1 3
7 7
𝐴−1 = | 2 1|
−
7 7

𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏
1 3
𝑥1 = ( ) (−7) + ( ) (7) = 𝟐
7 7
2 1
𝑥2 = (− ) (−7) + ( ) (7) = 𝟑
7 7
Example 2:

x1 + 2x2 – x3 = 4 2x1 + x2 + x3 = 5 3x1 - x2 + 2x3 = 3

1 2 −1
𝐵 = |2 1 1| 𝐵=6
3 −1 2

3 −1 −5 3 −3 3
𝐵𝑐𝑜 = |−3 5 7| 𝐵𝑎𝑑𝑗 = |−1 5 −3|
3 −3 −3 −5 7 −3

3 3 3
−
6 6 6
1 5 3
𝐵−1 = ||− 6 6
− 6||
5 7 3
− −
6 6 6

3 3 3
𝑥1 = ( ) (4) + (− ) (5) + ( )(3) = 𝟏
6 6 6
1 5 3
𝑥2 = (− ) (4) + ( ) (5) + (− )(3) = 𝟐
6 6 6
 5 7 3
𝑥3 = ( ) (4) + ( ) (5) + (− )(3) = 𝟏
6 6 6

d. LU Factorization/ Decomposition

A non-singular matrix A ha an LU factorization if it can be written as a product of a

matrix L (lower triangular form) and a matrix U (upper triangular form).

𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈 𝐿𝑈𝑥 = 𝑏 𝐿𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑈𝑥
Solve by,

• Doolittle’s Method

Example 1:

x1 – 3x2 = -7 2x1 + x2 = 7

|𝐴| = |1 −3|
2 1
(-2)r1 + r2
1 −3
𝑈= | |
0 7

𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈
1 −3 1 0 1 −3
| |=| || |
2 1 𝐿 1 0 7
2 = 𝐿(1) + 1(0)
𝐿=2

𝐿𝑦 = 𝑏
1 0 𝑦1 −7
| || | = | |
2 1 𝑦2 7
1(𝑦1 ) = −7 𝑦1 = 7
2(𝑦1 ) + 1(𝑦2 ) = 7 𝑦2 = 21

𝑦 = 𝑈𝑥
−7 1 −3 𝑥1
| |=| || |
21 0 7 𝑥2
21 = 0(𝑥1 ) + 7(𝑥2 ) 𝑥2 = 𝟑
−7 = 1(𝑥1 ) + (−3)(𝑥2 ) 𝑥1 = 𝟐

• Crout’s Method

Example 1:

x1 – 3x2 = -7 2x1 + x2 = 7

|𝐴| = |1 −3
|
2 1
 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈
1 −3 𝐿 0 1 𝑈
[ ]=[ 1 ][ ]
2 1 𝐿2 𝐿3 0 1

1 = 𝐿1 (1) + 0 𝐿1 = 1
−3 = 𝐿1 (𝑈) + 0 𝑈 = −3
2 = 𝐿2 (1) + 0 𝐿2 = 2
1 = 𝐿2 (𝑈) + 𝐿3 𝐿3 = 7

𝐿𝑦 = 𝑏
1 0 𝑦1 −7
[ ][ ] = [ ]
2 7 𝑦2 7
1(𝑦1 ) = −7 𝑦1 = −7
2(𝑦1 ) + 7(𝑦2 ) = 7 𝑦2 = 3

𝑦 = 𝑈𝑥
−7 1 −3 𝑥1
[ ]=[ ][ ]
3 0 1 𝑥2
3 = 𝑥1 (0) + 1(𝑥2 ) 𝑥2 = 𝟑
−7 = 1(𝑥1 ) − 3(𝑥2 ) 𝑥1 = 𝟐