APOSTROPHES

Apostrophes show possession, mark contractions, and indicate plurals that are singled out for
special attention.
Possession
Possessive apostrophes usually show ownership (Mary’s cat). Sometimes, though, they identify
the works of creative people (Hemingway’s novels) or indicate an extent of time or distance (one
hour’s time, one mile’s distance). Possessive apostrophes are used with nouns and with pronouns
like someone, no one, everybody, each other, and one another.
The possessive form is easily recognized because it can be converted to a prepositional phrase
beginning with of: The collar of the dog. The intention of the corporation. To show possession
with such pronouns, singular nouns, and plural nouns that do not end in an s, add an apostrophe
followed by an s: Someone’s car is blocking our drive. (possessive of pronoun someone). The
women’s lounge is being redecorated (possessive of plural noun women).
With singular nouns that end in s, the possessive is sometimes formed by merely adding an
apostrophe at the end (James’ helmet). The preferred usage, however, is ‘s (James’s helmet)
unless the addition of the s would make it awkward to pronounce the word.
Moses’s followers entered the Promised Land (awkward pronunciation of Moses’s).
Moses’ followers entered the Promised Land (nonawkward pronunciation of Moses’)
Plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by adding only an apostrophe at the end: All the
ladies’ coats are on sale today (possessive of plural noun ladies).
To show joint ownership by two or more persons, use the possessive form for the last-named
person only. To show individual ownership, use the possessive form for each person’s name.
Ronald and Joan’s boat badly needed overhauling. (joint ownership)
Laura’s and Alice’s term projects ate almost completed. (individual ownership)
Hyphenated nouns form the possessive by adding ‘s to the last word: My mother-in-law’s house
is next to mine.
Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns his, hers, whose, its, ours, yours, theirs.
The desk is his; the other one is hers.
Contractions
Contractions of words or numbers omit one or more letters or numerals. An apostrophe shows
exactly where the omission occurs.
Wasn’t that a disappointing concert? (contraction of was not)
Around here, people still talk about the blizzard of ’79. (contraction of 1979)
Don’t confuse the contraction it’s meaning it is or it has, with the possessive pronoun its, which
should never have an apostrophe: e.g. It’s awfully muggy today. It’s been an exciting trip. Every
dog has its day.
Plurals
To improve clarity, the plurals of letters, numbers, symbols, and words being singled out for
special attention are written with apostrophes.
Mind your p’s and q’s. (plurals of letters)
Your 5’s and 6’s are hard to tell apart. (plurals of numbers)
The formula was sprinkled with ∏’s and ∑’s. (plurals of symbols)
Don’t use so many however’s and therefore’s in your writing. (plurals of words)
Apostrophes are often used to form the plurals of abbreviations.
How many rpm’s does this shift turn at? (plural abbreviation for revolutions per minute)
When no danger of confusion exists, an s alone will suffice.
During the late 1990s, many university students demanded changes in academic life.
COMMAS
Commas separate or set off independent clauses, items in a series, coordinate adjectives,
introductory elements, places and dates, nonrestrictive expressions, and parenthetical
expressions.
Independent clauses
When you link two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for,
yet, or so), put a comma in front of the conjunction.
Arthur is majoring in engineering, but he has decided to work for a clothing store following
graduation. The water looked inviting, so Darlene decided to go for a swim.
Don’t confuse a sentence that has a compound predicate with a sentence that consists of two
independent clauses.
Tom watered the garden and mowed the lawn. (single sentence with compound predicate)
Tom watered the garden, and Betty mowed the lawn. (sentence with two independent clauses)
Items in a series
A series consists of three or more words, phrases, or clauses followed on one another’s heels.
Whenever you write a series, separate its items with commas.
Sarah, Paul, and Mary are earning A’s in advanced algebra. (words in a series)
Nancy strode across the parking lot, through the revolving door, and into the elevator. (phrases
in a series)
The stockholders’ report said that the company had enjoyed record profits during the last year,
that it had expanded its work force by 20 percent, and that it would soon start marketing several
new products. (clauses in a series)
Coordinate adjectives
Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives – those that modify the same noun or noun
substitute and can be reversed without altering the meaning of the sentence.
Andrea proved to be an efficient, cooperative employee.
Andrea proved to be a cooperative, efficient employee.
When reversing the word order wrecks the meaning of the sentence, the adjectives are not
coordinate and should be written without a comma.
Many new brands of video recorders have come on the market lately.
Reversing the adjectives many and new would turn the sentence into nonsense. Therefore, no
comma should be used.
Introductory elements
Use commas to separate introductory elements – words, phrases, and clauses – from the rest of
the sentence. When an introductory element is short and the sentence will not be misread, you
can omit the comma.
After bathing, Jack felt refreshed. (the example needs a comma; otherwise, the reader might
become temporarily confused)
Soon I will be changing jobs.// Soon, I will be changing jobs.
When Sarah smiles, her ears wiggle.// When Sarah smiles her ears wiggle.
Always use commas after introductory elements of six or more words.
Whenever I hear the opening measure of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, I get goose bumps.
Places and dates
Places include mailing addresses and geographical locations. The following sentences show
where commas are used:
Sherry Delaney lives at 651 Daniel Street, Memphis, Tennessee 38118.
I shall go to Calais, France, next week.
Morristown, Oklahoma, is my birthplace.
Note that commas appear after the street designation and the names of cities, countries, and
states, except when the name of the state is followed by a zip code.
Dates are punctuated as shown in the following example:
On Sunday, June 9, 2013, Elaine received a degree in environmental science.
Here, commas follow the day of the week, the day of the month, and the year.
With dates that include only the month and the year, commas are optional.
In July 2014 James played chess for the first time.// In July, 2014, James played chess for the
first time.
Nonrestrictive expressions
A nonrestrictive expression supplies added information about whatever it modifies. This
information, however, is nonessential and does not affect the basic meaning of the sentence.
Senator Conwell, the senior senator from this state, faces a tough campaign for re-election.
My dog, frightened by the thunder, hid under my bed while the storm raged.
If we delete the phrase the senior senator from this state from the first sentence, we still know
that Senator Conwell faces a tough re-election battle. Likewise, if we delete frightened by the
thunder from the second sentence, we still know that the dog hid during the storm.
Restrictive expressions, which are written without commas, distinguish whatever they modify
from other persons, places, or things in the same category. Unlike nonrestrictive expressions,
they are almost always essential sentence elements. Omitting a restrictive expression alters the
meaning of the sentence, and the result is often nonsense.
Any person caught stealing from this store will be prosecuted.
Dropping the italicized part of this sentence leaves us with the absurd statement that any person,
not just those caught stealing, faces prosecution.
Parenthetical expressions
A parenthetical expression is a word or a word group that links one sentence to another or adds
information or emphasis to the sentence in which it appears, e.g. All of Joe’s spare time seems to
center around reading. Kevin, on the other hand, enjoys a variety of activities. (phrase linking
two sentences together)
Parenthetical expressions include the following:
Clarifying phrases: Myra Hobbes, our representative in Seattle, is being transferred to Spokane
next month.
Names and titles of people being addressed directly: I think, Jill, that you’d make a wonderful
teacher. Tell me, Captain, when the cruise ship is scheduled to sail.
Abbreviations of degree titles: Harley Kendall, Ph.D., will be this year’s commencement
speaker. (degree title following name)
Echo questions: Alvin realizes, doesn’t he, that he stands almost no chance of being accepted at
West Point?
Adjectives that come after, rather than before, the words they modify: The road, muddy and
rutted, proved impassable. (adjectives following word they modify)

SEMOCOLONS
The main use of the semicolon (;) is to separate independent clauses, which may or may not be
connected with a conjunctive adverb: e.g. The fabric in this dress is terrible; its designer must
have been asleep at the swatch. (no conjunctive adverb) Steve refused to write a term paper;
therefore, he failed the course. (conjunctive adverb therefore joining independent clauses)
Conjunctive adverbs can occur within, rather than between, independent clauses. When they do,
set them off with commas: e.g. Marsha felt very confident. Jane, on the other hand, was nervous
and uncertain. (conjunctive adverb within independent clause)
Other uses include separating:
Two or more series of items. With sentences that have two or more series of items, writers often
separate the series with semicolons in order to lessen the chances of misreading: My duties as
secretary include typing letters, memos, and purchase orders; sorting, opening, and delivering
mail; and making plane and hotel reservations for travelling executives. (The semicolons
provide greater clarity than commas would.)
Comma-containing items within a series. When commas accompany one or more of the items in
a series, it’s often better to separate the items with semicolons instead of commas: The meal
included veal, which was cooked to perfection; asparagus, my favourite vegetable; and brown
rice, prepared with a touch of curry. (Once again, semicolons provide greater clarity than
additional commas.)
Independent clauses with commas and a coordinating conjunction. Ordinarily, a comma is used
to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. When one or more of the
clauses have commas, however, a semicolon provided clearer separation: The long, black
limousine pulled up to the curb; and Jerry, shaking with excitement, watched the President
alight from it. (The semicolon makes it easier to see the two main clauses.)

PERIODS, QUESTION MARKS, AND EXCLAMATION POINTS

Since periods, question marks, and exclamation points signal the ends of sentences, they are
sometimes called end marks. In addition, periods and question marks function in several other
ways.
Periods
Periods end sentences that state facts or opinions, give instructions, make requests that are not in
the form of questions, and ask indirect questions – those that have been rephrased in the form of
statement.
Linda works as a hotel manager. (sentence states fact)
Dean Harris is a competent administrator. (sentence states opinion)
Clean off your lab bench before you leave. (sentence gives instruction)
Please move away from the door. (sentence makes request)
I wonder whether Ruthie will be at the theatre tonight. (sentence asks indirect question)
Periods also follow common abbreviations as well as a person\s initials: Mr., Sr., A.D., Dr.,
Corp..
Mark Valentini Jr. has consented to head the new commission on traffic safety.
Writers today often omit periods after abbreviations for the names of organizations or
government agencies, as the following examples show: ABC, GM, NAM, IRS.
An up-to-date college dictionary will indicate whether a certain abbreviation should be written
without periods.
Question marks
A question mark ends a whole or a partial sentence that asks a direct question.
Do you know how to operate this movie projector? (whole sentence asking a direct question)
Has Cinderella scrubbed the floor? Swept the hearth? Washed the dishes? (sentence and
sentence parts asking direct questions)
Dr. Baker- wasn’t she your boss once? – has just received a promotion to sales manager.
(interrupting element asking a direct question)
The minister inquired, “Don’t you take this woman to be your lawful wedded wife?” (quotation
asking a direct question)
A question mark in parentheses may be used to indicate uncertainty about some piece of
information: Winfield reached America in 1721 (?) and spent the rest of his life in Philadelphia.
Exclamation points
Exclamation points are used to express strong emotion or especially forceful commands.
Darcy! I never expected to see you again!
Sam! Turn that music down immediately!
Use exclamation points sparingly; otherwise, they will quickly lose their force.

COLONS, DASHES, PARENTHESES, AND BRACKETS

COLONS, DASHES, PARENTHESES, AND BRACKETS SEPARATE AND ENCLOSE, THERBY
CLARIFYING RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE VARIOUS PARTS OF A SENTENCE.
Colons
Colons introduce explanations and anticipated lists following words that could stand alone as a
complete sentence.
His aim in life is tremendous: to corner the market in wheat. (explanation)
Three students have been selected to attend the conference: Lucille Perkins, Dan Blakely, and
Frank Napolis. (list)
Three factors can cause financial problems for farmers: (1) high interest rates, (2) falling land
values, and (3) a strong dollar, which makes it difficult to sell crops abroad. (numbered list)
Colons also frequently introduce formal quotations that extend beyond a single sentence.
The speaker stepped to the lectern and said: “I am here to ask for your assistance. Today several
African nations face a food crisis because drought has ruined their harvests. Unless we provide
help quickly, thousands of people will die of starvation.”
In such situations, the material preceding the quotation need not be a complete sentence.
Colons also separate hours from minutes (8:20 A.M.), salutations of business letters from the
body of the letters (Dear Ms. Stanley:), titles of publications from subtitles (The Careful Writer:
A Guide to English Usage), numbers indication ratios (a 3:2:2 ratio), and chapter from verse in
biblical references (Luke 6:20-49).
Dashes
Like colons, dashes set off appositives, lists, and explanations but are used in less formal writing.
A dash emphasizes the material it sets off.
Only one candidate showed up at the political rally--Jerry Manders. (appositive)
The closet held only three garments--an out-at-the-elbows sportscoat, a pair of blue jeans, and a
tattered shirt. (list)
I know what little Billy’s problem is--a soiled diaper. (explanation)
Dashes set off material that interrupts the flow of thoughts within a sentence.
Her new car--didn’t she get it just three months ago?--has broken down twice.
Similarly, dashes are used to mark an interrupted segment of dialogue.
“I’d like to live in England when I retire.”
“In England? But what will your wife--?”
“My wife likes the idea and can hardly wait for us to make the move.”
Dashes set off parenthetical elements containing commas, and a dash can set off comments that
follow a list.
The comedian--short, fat, and squeaky-voiced--soon had everyone roaring with laughter.
(parenthetical element with commas)
A brag, a blow, a tank of air--that’s what Senator Conwell is. (comment following a list)
Type a dash as two spaced hyphens and leave no space between it and the words on either side of
it.
Parentheses
Parentheses are used to enclose numbers or letters that designate the items in a formal list and to
set off incidental material within sentences. Except in the kind of list shown in the first example
below, a comma does not usually precede a parenthesis.
Each paper should contain (1) and introduction, (2) several paragraphs developing the thesis
statement, and (3) a conclusion.
Some occupations (computer programming, for example) may be overcrowded in ten years.
If the material in parentheses appears within a sentence, don’t use a capital letter or period, even
if the material is itself a complete sentence.
The use of industrial robots (one cannot foresee their consequences) worries some people today.
If the material in parentheses is written as a separate sentence, however, then punctuate it as you
would a separate sentence.
Paula’s angry outburst surprised everyone. (She had seemed such a placid person.)
If the material in parentheses comes at the end of a sentence, put the final punctuation after the
closing parenthesis.
This company was founded by Willard Manley (1876-1951).
In contrast to dashes, parentheses de-emphasize the material they enclose.
Brackets
In quoted brackets [] enclose words or phrases that have been added to make the message
clearer. They are also used with the word sic (Latin for ‘thus’) to point out errors in quoted
material.
“This particular company [Zorn Enterprises, Inc.] pioneered in the safe disposal of toxic wastes,”
the report noted. (the bracketed name is added to the original)
“[Carl Sagan’s] expertise in science has made him a popular figure on the lecture circuit,” his
friend stated. (the bracketed name replaces his in the original)
“The principle [sic] cause of lung cancer is cigarette smoking,” the article declared. (the word
principal is misspelled ‘principle’ in the original)
To call attention to an error, follow it immediately with the bracketed sic. The reader will then
know that the blame rests with the original writer, not with you.

QUOTATION MARKS
Quotation marks set off direct quotations, titles of short written or broadcast works, subdivisions
of books, and expressions singled out for special attention.
Direct quotations
A direct quotation repeats a speaker’s or writer’s exact words.
“Tell me about the movie,” said Debbie. “If you liked it, I may go myself.”
The placement director said, “The recruiter for Procter and Gamble will be on campus next
Thursday to interview students for marketing jobs.”(spoken comment)
“The U.S. trade deficit is expected to reach record levels this year,” The Wall Street Journal
noted. (written comment)
Jackie said the party was “a total flop.”
As these sentences show, a comma or period that follows a direct quotation goes inside the
quotation marks. When a quotation is a sentence fragment, the comma preceding it is omitted.
When an expression like ‘he said’ interrupts a quoted sentence, use commas to set off the
expression. When the expression comes between two complete quoted sentences, use a period
after the expression and capitalize the first word of the second sentence.
“Hop in,” said Jim. “Let me give you a ride to school.”
“Thank you,” replied Kelly, opening the car door and sliding into the front seat.
“I can’t remember,” said Jim, “when we’ve had a worse winter.”
Titles of short works and subdivisions of books
These short works include magazine articles, essays, short stories, chapters of books, one-act
plays, short poems, songs, and television episodes.
The article was titled “The Real Conservatism.” (article)
Last night I read John Cheever’s “The Enormous Radio”, “Torch Song”, and “The Swimmer.”
(short stories)
Many John Denver fans consider “Take Me Home, Country Roads” to be his greatest piece of
music. (song)
The unsuccessful TV show Pursued ended in brief run with a segment titled “Checkmate.” (TV
episode)
Here, as with direct quotations, a comma or period that follows a title goes inside the quotation
marks.
Expressions singled out for special attention
Writers who wish to call the reader’s attention to a word or symbol sometimes put it within
quotation marks.
“Bonnets” and “lifts” are British terms for car hoods and elevators.
More frequently, however, these expressions are printed in italics.
Again, any commas and periods that follow expressions set off by quotation marks go inside the
marks.
Quotation marks within quotation marks
When a direct quotation or the title of a shorter work appears within a direct quotation, use single
quotation marks ( ‘’).
“I heard the boss telling the foreman, ‘Everyone will receive a Christmas bonus,’” John said.
The instructor told the class, “For tomorrow, read Ernest Hemingway’s ‘The Killers.’”
Note that the period goes inside of both the single and double quotation marks.
Positioning of semicolons, colons, and question marks
Position semicolons and colons that come at the end of quoted material after, not before, the
quotation marks.
Marcia calls Francine “that greasy grind”; however, I think Marcia is simply jealous of
Francine’s abilities.
There are two reasons why I like “Babylon Revisited”, the characters are interesting and the
writing is excellent.
When a question mark accompanies a quotation, put it outside the quotation marks if the whole
sentence rather than the quotation asks the question.
Why did Cedric suddenly shout, “This party is a big bore”?
Put the question mark inside the quotation marks if the quotation, but not the whole sentence, ask
a question or if the quotation asks one question and the whole sentence asks another.
Marie asked, “What college is your brother planning to attend?” (the quoted material, not the
whole sentence, asks the question)
Whatever possessed him to ask, “What is the most shameful thing you ever did?” (the whole
sentence and the quoted material ask separate questions)

HYPHENS
Hyphens are used to join compound adjectives and nouns, compound numbers and word-number
combinations, and certain prefixes and suffixes to the words with which they appear. In addition,
hyphens help prevent misreading and awkward combinations of letters or syllables and are used
to split words between two lines.
Compound adjectives and nouns
Hyphens are often used to join separate words that function as single adjectives and come before
nouns. Typical examples follow:
Howard is a very self-contained person.
The greenish-yellow cloud of chlorine gas drifted toward the village.
Betty’s devil-may-care attitude will land her in trouble someday.
When the first word of the compound is an adverb ending in –ly or when the compound adjective
follows the noun it modifies, no hyphen is needed.
The badly burned crash victim was rushed to the hospital.
The colour of the chlorine gas was greenish yellow.
When two or more compound adjectives modify the same last term, the sentence will flow more
smoothly if that term appears just once, after the last item in the series. The hyphens
accompanying the earlier terms in the series are kept, however.
Many seventeenth-, eighteenth-, and nineteenth-century costumes are on display in this museum.
Hyphenated nouns include such expressions are the following:
Secretary-treasurer, sister-in-law, good-for-nothing, man-about-town
Denton is editor-in-chief of the largest newspaper in this state.
Compound numbers and word-number combinations
Hyphens are used to separate two-word numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and fractions
that have been written out.
Marcy has worked twenty-one years for this company.
One-fourth of my income goes for rent.
Similarly, hyphens are used to separate numerals from units of measurement that follow them.
This chemical is shipped in 50-gallon drums.
Prefixes and suffixes
Although most prefixes are not hyphenated, the prefixes self- and all- do get hyphens, as does
the suffix –elect. Also the prefix ex- is hyphenated when it accompanies a noun.
This stove has a self-cleaning oven.
Let Claire Voyant, the all-knowing soothsayer, read your future in her crystal ball.
Ethel is the chairperson-elect of the club.
Several ex-teachers work in this department.
A prefix before a capitalized term is always hyphenated.
The ex-FBI agent gave an interesting talk on the operations of that agency.
Preventing misreading and awkward combinations of letters and syllables
Hyphens help prevent misreading of certain words and also break up awkward combinations of
letters and syllables between certain prefixes and suffixes and their core words.
The doctor re-treated the wound with a new antibiotic. (the hyphen prevents the misreading
retreated)
The company plans to de-emphasize sales of agricultural chemicals. (the hyphen prevents the
awkward repetition of the letter e in deemphasize)
Between syllables
Whenever you have to split a word between two lines, place a hyphen at the end of the first line
to show the division. The word is always broken, and the hyphen inserted, between syllables.
(Any good dictionary shows the syllable divisions of each word it includes.) Never divide a one-
syllable word or leave two letters to be placed on the second line, even if those two letters
constitute a syllable.

CAPITALIZATION
Proper nouns
A proper noun names one particular person, group of persons, place, or thing. Such nouns
include the following:
Persons Days, months, and holidays
Organizations Trademarks
Racial, political, and religious groups Languages
Countries, states, cities, and streets Ships and aircrafts
Companies and buildings Abbreviations for academic degrees
Geographical locations and features Titles used in place of names
e.g. Sigmund works for the National Psychoanalytical Institute, an organization that has done
much to advance the science of psychiatry.
Gwen Greene moved to Paris, France, when her father became the consul there.
Larry has a master of art degree, and his sister has a Ph.D.
My father works for the Ford Motor Company, but I work for Chrysler.
Do not capitalize words like institute, college, company, or avenue unless they form part of a
proper name. Likewise, do not capitalize the names of courses unless they start a sentence, are
accompanied by a course number, or designate a language.
I have a 95 average in Economics 112 but only a 73 average in sociology.
Harry plans to take intermediate German in his junior year.
Do you plan to attend Drew College or some other college?
Proper adjectives
Proper adjectives should be capitalized.
Lolita Martinez, our class valedictorian, is of Mexican ancestry. (Mexican is derived from the
proper noun Mexico.)
Abbreviations
Capitalize abbreviations only if the words they stand for are capitalized.
Milton DeWitt works for the IRS. (IRS is capitalized because ‘Internal Revenue Service’ would
ne.)
The flask holds 1,500 cc of liquid. (the abbreviation cc is not capitalized because ‘cubic
centimeters’ would not be)
A few abbreviations are capitalized even though all or some of the words they stand for aren’t.
(TV, VR).
Personal titles
Capitalize a personal title if it precedes a name or is used in place of a name. Otherwise, do not
capitalize.
The division is under the command of General Arnold Schafer.
Tell me, Doctor, do I need an operation?
The dean of our Engineering Division is Dr. Alma Haskins.
Many writers capitalize titles of high rank when they are used in place of names.
The President will sign this bill tomorrow.
The president will sign this bill tomorrow.
Either usage is acceptable.
Titles of literary and artistic works
When citing the titles of publications, pieces of writing, movies, television programmes,
paintings, sculptures, and the like, capitalize the first and last words and all other words except a,
an, the, coordinating conjunctions, and one-syllable prepositions.
Last week I played Gone with the Wind on my recorder and read Christopher Isherwood’s
Goodbye to Berlin. (the preposition with, the article the, and the preposition to are not
capitalized)
John is reading a book called The Movie of Abbott and Costello. (the preposition of and the
coordinating conjunction and are not capitalized)
Although I’m no TV addict, I used to watch every episode of Murder, She Wrote. (all of the
words in the title are capitalized)
Note that the titles of literary and artistic works are italicized.

ABBREVIATIONS
Personal titles
Abbreviate Mister, Doctor, and similar titles when they come just ahead of a name, and Junior,
Senior, and degree titles when they follow names.
Will Mr. Harry Babbitt please come to the front desk?
Arthur Compton Sr. is a well-known historian; his son, Arthur Compton, Jr., is a television
producer.
Names of organizations and agencies
Many organizations and agencies are known primarily by their initials rather than their full
names. Several examples follow: CIA, IBM, NBC, UNESCO
Latin terms
Certain Latin terms are always abbreviated; others are abbreviated when used with dates or
times.
e.g. (exempli gratia: for example)
i.e (id est: that is)
etc. (et cetera: and others)
vs. or v. (versus : against)
A.D. (anno Domini: in the year of our Lord)
A.M. or a.m. (ante meridiem: before noon)
Scientific and technical terms
For brevity’s sake, scientists and technicians abbreviate terms of measurement that repeatedly
occur. Terms that the reader would not know are written out the first time they are used, and they
are accompanied by their abbreviations in parentheses. Unfamiliar organizations and agencies
that are mentioned repeatedly are handled in like manner.
The viscosity of the fluid measured 15 centistokes (cks) at room temperature.
Common practice calls for writing such abbreviations without periods unless they duplicate the
spelling of some word.
Standard dictionaries list common abbreviations. When you don’t recognize one, look it up. Use
abbreviations sparingly in essays. If you’re unsure about what is appropriate, don’t abbreviate.

NUMBERS
Some instructors ask their students to use figures for numbers larger than ninety-nine and to spell
out smaller numbers.
Boise is 100 miles from here. // Boise is ninety-nine miles from here.
Other instructors prefer that students switch to figures beginning with the number ten.
My son will be nine years old on his next birthday. // My son will be 10 years old on his next
birthday.
With either practice, the following exceptions apply.
Numbers in a series
Write all numbers in a series the same way regardless of their size.
Gatsby has 64 suits, 110 shirts, and 214 ties.
In just one hour the emergency room personnel handled two stabbings, five shootings, and
sixteen fractures.
We have 150 salespeople, 51 engineers, and 7 laboratory technicians.
Dates
Use figures for dates that include the year.
February 14, 2014 (not February 14th, 2014)
When the date includes the day but not the year, you may use figures or spell out the number.
June 9// June ninth// the ninth of June
Page numbers and addresses
Use figures for page numbers and street numbers in addresses.
Check the graph on page 415.
I live at 111 Cornelia Street, and my office is at 620 Fifth Avenue.
Numbers beginning sentences
Spell out any number that begins a sentence. If this requires three or more words, rephrase the
sentence so that the number comes after the opening and numerals can be used.
The year 1989 was a good year for this wine.
Sixty thousand fans jammed the stadium.
An army of 265,000 troops assaulted the city. (If this number began the sentence, five words –
an excessive number- would be needed to write it out.)
Decimals, percentages, times
Use figures for decimals and percentages as well as for expressions of time that are accompanied
by A.M. or P.M.
The shaft is 0.37-inch in diameter.
Last year the value of my house jumped 25 percent.
The plane leaves here at 9:50 A.M. and reaches New Orleans at 2:30 P.M.
One number following another
When a number-containing term that denotes a unit of weight or measurement comes
immediately after another number, spell out the first number, if smaller than 100, and use
numerals for the second one. If the first number is larger than 100, use numerals for it and spell
out the second one.
We ordered six 30-gallon drums of solvent for the project.
The supplier shipped us 600 thirty-gallon drums by mistake.
ITALICS

 Titles of longer publications and artistic works

These items may include the following: books, magazines, newspapers, record albums,
paintings, movies, long musical works and poems, plays, and sculptures.
e.g. Last night I finished F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby and read two articles in The New
Yorker. (book, magazine)
Michelangelo’s David is surely one of the world’s greatest sculptures. (sculpture)
The Detroit Free Press had praise for the revival of Tennessee William’s play The Glass
Menagerie. (newspaper, play)
Stephen Vincent Benet’s poem John Brown’s Body won a Pulitzer Prize in 1929. (book length
poem)
 Names of vehicles and vessels: names of particular airplanes, ships, trains, and
spacecrafts.
e.g. The plane in which Charles Lindbergh flew over the Atlantic Ocean was named The Spirit of
St. Louis.
 Foreign expressions
Use italics to identify foreign words and phrases that have not yet made their way into the
English language. When such expressions become completely assimilated, the italics are
dropped.
e.g. The writer has a terribly pessimistic weltanschauung. (philosophy of life)
This season, long skirts are the dernier cri. (the latest thing)
 Expressions singled out for special attention.
These include words, letters, numerals, and symbols.
e.g. I can’t tell whether this letter is meant to be an a or an o or this number a 7 or a 9.
In England, the word lorry means truck.