Objective: - To determination of resolving power of Telescope.

Apparatus require:-
Telescope, Adjustable rectangular slit, with micrometer screw, Strips with
equidistant lines.

Procedure:-
Several black strips of equal width “a” and equal spacing “b” are drawn on a white
paper. This design / paper is placed a few meters away from the telescope, with its plane
perpendicular to the axis of the telescope. The design is focused in the telescope, now a
variable graduated slit is mounted on the telescope objective, with its length parallel to the
strips. The slit is fully closed and now it is opened gradually. A condition will come when
the white and black strips will appear to overlap each other (not clearly visible or in other
words the paper will appear to be equally illuminated. The slit width (A) is noted from the
main scale and the circular scale. Now the slit is opened and we will be able to see both
black and white strips clearly. Now again the slit is closed gradually till the design shows
uniform shade, not black and white strips i.e the black and white stripes overlap each
other. The slit width (B) is again noted. Let this critical width of the slit be “W=A+B/2”.
Let “d” be the total diameter of the telescope objective and D be the distance from the
objective of the telescope to drawing..

Ray diagram:-

Telescope
Eye piece ▐ Slit
-----------------
▌ ß--- D ---à

Rectangular
Screw DRAWING OF
STRIPS.
Formula: -

a+b
For aperture W smallest angle resolved =
D
a+bW
For aperture d, smallest angle resolved. q min =
D d
q is the angle when the two images are just resolved. The factor 1.22 is
introduced because the aperture d is circular, while W is for a rectangular slit.

The value of a = 2.0 mm

The value of b = 0.3 mm
The value of d = 2.45 cm
q is the angle when the two image are just resolved.

Plot a graph between slit width W and Distance D by taking suitable scale.
A Straight line may appear.
Calculate q min by substituting a, b, & d .we get
a+b W
q min =1.22 ´ ´
D 2.45
W
q min = K
D
[i.e. : θminimum X D = KW ]

W a q min ´ D or slope of this line will give θminimum

and resolving power is the reciprocal of θminimum.
Total reading should be written using the formula:
Total= Main scale (in cm)+ Least count X Vernier Divisions

Observation Table:-
For critical width (W)
Least count of micrometer screw = …… cm

Distance of Reading of micrometer screw

S.No. Telescope A+B
objective to Open slit (A) Close slit (B) 2
the drawing Main Vernier Total (A) Main Vernier Total (B) =W
D(cm) Scale Scale Scale Scale
cm (in cm (in div)
div)
1 200
2 400
3 600
4 800
5 1000
Calculations: -
θmin for 200 cm distance = ------- in radians
400 cm distance = ---------- in radians
600 cm distance = ----------- in radians
800 cm distance = ---------- in radian
1000 cm distance= ---------- in radian

Results:- (1) The Resolving power of Telescope (1/ θmin ) for

200 cm distance = ------- in radians-1

400 cm distance = ---------- in radians-1
600 cm distance = ----------- in radians-1
800 cm distance = ---------- in radians-1
1000 cm distance= ---------- in radians-1

(2)A graph between W & D is plotted with proper scale.

Precautions:-
(1) Adjustment of the slit and the lines on the strip should be parallel.
(2) The distance D should be used carefully from the objective of the
telescope.
(3) The micrometer screw of the slit should be used carefully for reading
the position of just telescope.
(4) The graph should be properly scaled
Viva-Voce:-

Q. (1) What is a telescope, what is the type of telescope?

Ans. A Telescope is an optical instrument which enables in to see distance objects
quite distinctly which can not be otherwise clearly seen.
There are two type of telescope,
(A) Astronomical Telescope,
(B) Terrestrial Telescope.
Q. (2) Define resolving power of telescope.
Ans. resolving power of telescope is defined as the reciprocal of the smallest angle
subtended at the objective by two point objects which can just be distinguished as separate
RP.= d/1.22 A.
Q. (3) What is the size of one of the largest Telescope of the world.
Ans: One of the largest Telescope is located at Yerkes observatory at lake Geneva,
Wisconsin, USA. It has objective of focal length about 20 meter and 101.60 cm diameter
which is able to collect 26000 times as must light from a distant star as an un-aided eye so
that even very faint stars are revealed by this telescope.

Q. (4) Define Rayleigh’s criterion of resolution.

Ans: Two point sources (or spectra line ) are said to be resolved if the principal maximum
of the diffraction pattern due to one falls on the first secondary minimum of the
diffraction pattern & visa versa.
Objective: To determine Frequency of A.C. mains with a Sonometer.
Apparatus required Sonometer, Bar magnets, a step-down transformer, one meter long
brass wire, a balance, weight box etc.

Description of Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a horizontal pattern sonometer on which a brass wire is

stretched. The alternating voltage is stepped down to say 6 volt by means of a step-down
transformer and then is connected to the wire as shown Fig 1. The wire passes between the
pole pieces N and S of bar magnets. The wire experiences an alternating force due to the
field of the magnet and the current in the wire. For a particular length of the wire between
the bridges it is thrown into resonance as is evidenced by large amplitude oscillations. This
condition is achieved when the frequency of the alternating current passing though the
wire is equal to the mechanical frequency of vibration of wire.

Principle of working and Formula used: -

A sonometer wire is stretched under a constant load and is placed in a uniform
magnetic field at right angles to the wire in the horizontal plane. An alternating current of
low voltage is passed through the wire. Due to the interaction between the magnetic field
and the current in the wire, the wire will be deflected; the direction of its deflection is
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. As the current is alternating, for half of the cycle the
wire will move upwards and next half of the cycle it will be move downwards. In other
words the wire will receive impulses alternately in opposite directions at the frequency of
the current. As a consequence the wire will execute forced vibrations with a frequency f of
the a.c.

If now the distance between the two bridges of the sonometer is so adjusted that
the natural frequency of vibration f of the wire equals to that of current, there will be a
resonance and wire will vibrate with large amplitude. At this stage

1 T
f=
2l m

Where l is the resonant length of the wire between the bridges, m is mass per unit
length of the wire. T(=Mg) is the tension in the wire, M is mass placed on the hanger and
g is acceleration due to gravity.

Procedure

(a) Place the bar magnets across the sonometer wire with opposite poles facing each
other.
(b) Adjust the vibrating length of wire between the bridges by shifting knife edge D
(if edge C is kept fixed) until you observe the vibrations with large amplitude in
the wire.
(c) Measure the length measurement between two knife edges C and D.
(d) Repeat the above procedure by increasing the weight by 100 gm and adjust the
length again between the bridges.
(e) Take four sets of observations each by gradually increasing the load
(f) Now observe the same by gradually decreasing the load.

Observations

Mass per unit length of wire m = 6.60 × 10 -3 gm/cm

 Load Length of Wire on
S.No. with Increasing Decreasing Mean Frequency
Hanger load load Length of A.C.
(M gm) (l1 cm) (l2 cm) l cm = mains ƒ
(l1+ l2)/2 Hz
1 50
2 100
3 150
4 200

The direction of arrow indicates the order of reading to be written / taken.

Calculations

T= M g, g = 980 cm/s2

Calculate the frequency using following formula.

1 T
f=
2l m

Result
Mean frequency of A.C. mains = say x Hz (By experiment)
Frequency of A.C. Mains in India (Standard value) = 50 Hz
x − 50
% error = ×100
50
Precautions
(a) The wire must be uniform without kinks or unevenness.
(b) The knife edges should be shifted slowly so that correct resonance length is
found.
(c) The length of wire should be noted at vibrations of maximum amplitude in the
wire.
(d) Magnets with opposite poles facing each other should be placed.

Questions:

(Do not write in your practical file while submission)

Q. (1) What do you mean by a.c.?

Ans: -. a.c. stands for alternating current i.e. its magnitude changes with time. It
has a finite frequency
Q. (2) What is the frequency of mains of supplied in your lab?
Ans: - 50 Hz. (approximately)
Q. (3) Can we use ordinary thread or rubber string in Sonometer wire?
Ans: No. It is not conducting and rigid.
Q. (4) What is the function of sonometer board.
Ans: Due to holes, the communication of internal air takes place with external
air. Moreover, energy is transmitted to inside through the wood of sonometer.
The internal air vibrates vigorously and loudness takes place and amplitude of
vibration of wire become more at resonance.
Objective: To determine Frequency of A.C. mains using electrical vibrator
Apparatus needed Electrical Vibrator, Thread, Pulley, Pan, Meter scale, Weight box.

Formula used The frequency is given by the formula

1 T
f= ,
2l m

where ℓ = Length of one loop in thread

= L [Total length of thread]

n [No. of loops formed]

m = Mass per unit length of the thread,

M = Total mass suspended (= mass of pan + Applied mass),
g = Acceleration due to gravity.

Description of Apparatus

The electrical vibrator consists of a solenoid through which a thin rod of steel, is

passed. The rod is clamped at one end and at its free a hook is attached to which a string

under tension is connected. The solenoid is connected with a 25 watt lamp and is used

directly with a.c. mains. A permanent horse shoe magnet in also mounted on the base

board. The steel rod is passed through the pole pieces .When a.c. is fed through solenoid,

the rod is magnetized longitudinally with the polarity reversing with change in signs of

the current. Owing to the interaction of this with the field due to the permanent magnet,

the rod vibrates with the frequency of a.c. The length of the steel rod can be adjusted so as

to get resonance, indicated by large amplitude of vibration of its free end .A continuous

vibration is then maintained.

Fig. 1 Experimental setup for determining frequency of a.c. mains by electrical vibrator.

Procedure

(a) A rod AB is kept in a solenoid along the axis with clamping screws X, Y. The end B is
free to vibrate. N-S are the pole pieces of a permanent magnet. The thread is tied at B.
The other end is passed over pulley and fastened with pan. On switching alternating
current from a.c. mains passes through the solenoid. The rod gets magnetized with
polarity changing with a.c. frequency (50 Hz.).
(b) Tie the thread at B and pass it over pulley to fasten it with pan.
(c) Switch on the vibrator by connecting plug to a.c. mains carefully and put some weight
on pan to get loops.
(d) Adjust the length of the thread to get loops say 4 to 8 of maximum amplitude. Note
down the number of loops, weight placed on pan, weight of pan and length of the
thread between point B to pully.
(e) Repeat the same for different weights and have at least 6 set of observations.
(f) Calculate the frequency of a.c.. mains (f) by using the formula given above.

Observations
Mass per unit length of the thread (m) =
(Given at the bottom of the pan)
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 980 cm /s2
 Applied Mass of Total Tension No. of Length Length of
S.No. Mass pan Mass M applied loops of the one loop
(A) gm (B) gm = A+B T= Mg (n) thread ℓ = L /n
gm (L)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculations

1. ƒ1 =
2. ƒ2 =
3. ƒ3 =
4. ƒ4 =
5. ƒ5 =
6. ƒ6 =

Mean value of frequency ƒ = ƒ1 + ƒ2 + ƒ3 + ƒ4 + ƒ5 + ƒ6

______________________________
6

Result
The mean frequency of A.C. Mains = ----------------------------- Hz.

% Error = Standard value – observed value × 100

Standard value

= -----------------

Precautions

(1) The thread should be thin, uniform & non elastic.

(2) The weight to be placed on the pan should not exceed 50 gm otherwise the thread
will break.
(3) The measurements should be taken in the maximum amplitude position of the
loops.

Questions:
(Do not write in your practical file while submission)

Q. (1) What do you mean by a.c.?

Ans: -. a.c. stands for alternating current i.e. its magnitude changes with time. It
has a finite frequency
Q (2) What is frequency ?
Ans: - The number of oscillations in one second in called the frequency.

Q. (3) Why the nodes & anti nodes formed.?

Ans: - At nodes the displacements is minimum and at ant nodes the displacement
is maximum.
Q. (4) What is the frequency of mains of supplied in your lab?
Ans: - 50 Hz. (approximately)
Q.(5) What in meant by the state meant 50 cycles per sec.
Ans: - It means that in one second the current flow 50 times in one direction and
then 50 times in the reverse direction.
Q(6). Does the current become zero also in this process?
Ans: - Yes, is does.
Objective: To determine band gap of a semiconductor pn-Junction Diode.

Apparatus: The set up is placed in an assembled training board consisting of

i) dc power supply(0-1V)
ii) heating arrangement to heat the diode
iii) thermometer (00 C to 1000 C)
iv) micro ammeter (0-1000µA)
v) pn - junction diode
Circuit: The circuit diagram for conducting the experiment is shown in Fig.1 The diode
is reverse biased with the help of a d.c. power supply and the current that flows through
the reverse biased diode is measured with ammeter. A heating coil helps to raise the
temperature of the diode. The circuit is available in an assembled training board.

Thermometer

Oven

Fig.1 Electrical connection for determination of band gap

Theory: The band gape Eg is an important physical property of a semiconductor

material. It specifies the energy required to break the covalent bonds to make electrons
(holes) are free in a semiconductor. It determines the number of free electron (and holes)
available for participation in electrical conduction at a given temperature. This in turn
determines the electrical behavior of the device. For example, the band gap in silicon is
1.12 eV and that of germanium it is 0.72 eV at room temperature. Obviously at a given
temperature germanium will have more free charge carriers than silicon. Secondly, the
temperature range of a device is determined by the band gap of the material from which it
is made. It is seen that silicon device will have wider temperature range. A pn-junction
diode can be used to determine the band gap.

Fig.2 Reversed biasing in pn junction

A pn-junction diode consists of a p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor. The

band gap in these extrinsic semiconductors will be the same as that in a pure
semiconductor. Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers in p-type
material. Similarly, electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in n-
type material. When these semiconductors form a junction, a space charge region called a
depletion layer is formed at their junction region. The electric field in this space charge
region prevents majority carriers from crossing the junction while it favors the movement
of the minority carriers across the junction. The majority carriers arise due to the impurity
introduced in each region while the minority carriers are generated only due to the
temperature effect. In other words minority carriers are generated through the breaking of
the covalent bonds which require supply of energy equal to Eg. Therefore by studying the
temperature variation of the minority carriers it is possible to evaluate Eg.
The diode equation expresses the current I through a pn –junction for the both
sign of the applied voltage is given by
 eV 
I = I 0  e k BT − 1  ………………..(1)
 
 
where ,e is the fundamental electronic charge , T is absolute temperature of diode, V is
applied voltage , kB is Boltzman constant, and I 0 is reverse saturation current . The
variation of minority carriers can be carried out through temperature variation of reveres
saturation current, which is the current in the diode under reverse bias condition. Thus
dependence on the energy gap Eg occurs through the factor I0. It is given by,

−E g
I0 = C e k BT …………..(2)
where Eg is the energy gap of the semiconductor and C is constant depending upon the
semiconductor doping and other parameter, and it is represented with usual meaning of
parameters as
  −Eg
C = A e  D p p + Dn n p  N C N V e kT ……………….(3)
 L p N D n Ln N A 
 

Taking logarithms on both the sides of equation (2) we get

ln I0 = lnC – E g
×
1
kB T
or log10 I0 = log10 C − Eg /2.3026 kBT …………………(4)

or log10 I0 = constant − 5.04Eg .103/T ………………….(5)

Equation (4) implies that the reverse saturation current I0 in a given semiconductor diode
is dependent only on the temperature T. It varies inversely with temperature. A plot of
log10 I0 vs 103 /T gives a straight line having a slope = 5.04 Eg . Hence band gap

[Eg]ev = (slope of line ) /5.04 ………………(6)

Procedure:
(1) The diode and thermometer are kept in there respective receptacles in the oven.
(2) The apparatus is switched on .The room temperature and the current through the
diode at room temperature are noted down.
(3)The oven is switched on and the temperature is allowed to increase up to 65° C.
(4) As soon as the temperature reaches 65° C the oven is switched off. Sufficient time is
allowed for the temperature of the diode to be stabilized. The reading in the current meter
is noted at that temperature.
(5) As the temperature decreases the current through the diode decreases. As the current
falls through steps of 10 μ A, the corresponding temperatures are noted down.
(6)A graph is plotted taking 103/T on x-axis and log 10 I0 on y-axis. A straight line is
obtained.
(7) The slope of the line is determined. Eg is calculated using equation (6)
Observations: Room temperature:

Diode reverse 3
S.No Saturation
Temperature Temperature 1 × 10

Current t oC T=(t+273)oK T log

10 I0
o -1
I0 μ A K
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Calculations:

Log10 I0

103/ T
Fig.3 Graph for band gap determination

From the graph AC = …………

and BC = …………..
Slope = AC/BC =…………….

Eg = (Slope/5.04 ) eV

= ………… eV

Result:
The width of the forbidden gap in germanium semiconductor is found to be ……eV
Precautions:
1. The thermometer should be properly placed .
2. The maximum temperature of the diode is not allowed to go beyond 700C
Objective: To plot the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a current
carrying circular coil & estimate the radius of circular coil by the
graph.

Apparatus required: Stewart & Gee (S&G) type tangent galvanometer, rheostat,
cummutator, key, connecting wires, spirit level

Description of the apparatus:

The S&G tangent galvanometer consists of a circular coil having a number of turns of
insulated copper wires with its vertical plane. A magnetometer compass box is provided
which can slide on the bench and the center of the needle always lie on the axis of the coil.
The distance of needle from the center can be read on the scale provided.

Theory: A circular coil carrying a current i amperes will provide a magnetic

perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The magnetic field intensity F at any point situated
on the axis of the coil and at a distance ‘x’ from its centre is given by

2pnir 2
F= ,
10( x 2 + r 2 ) 3 / 2
Where n is the number of turns in the coil, and r is the radius of coil.
If F is perpendicular to earth’s magnetic field H, the deflection θ is related to F as
F=H tanθ i.e.
2pnir 2
H tanq = .
10( x 2 + r 2 ) 3 / 2
Procedure:

(1) You will note that in the magnetic compass provided to you, the big thin needles
pointing on scales are pointers whereas the thick, small and black object is a freely
suspended magnet, (see Fig.1) which will always rest in north – south direction.
Thus the long needles will always point towards east – west directions.

(2) Now through natural observations locate geographical east and west directions and
then place the S&G galvanometer along with magnetic needle on the table such
that the long arms (pointers) of the magnetometer are in the east - west directions. This
enables us to place our apparatus in a magnetic meridian (i.e. along earth’s
magnetic field i.e. north – south direction).
(3) Place the magnetic compass at the centre of the coil and look from top of the
circular coil and rotate the apparatus such that the magnet and coil lies in the same
plane. Now our apparatus is in magnetic meridian.

(4) Now rotate the magnetic compass slowly such that the two long needles (pointers)
are at zero- zero (see Fig.1). If there is slight error in any of the needles reading level
the apparatus with the help of leveling screws and the spirit level provided. Once the
pointers are at zero – zero and the apparatus is in magnetic meridian we can
connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Care should be taken that the
magnetic coil shouldn’t be disturbed.

(5) With the help of the circuit diagram (see Fig.2) connect the circuit and adjust the
current in the circuit (by varying the sliding port of rheostat) such that the pointers
deflection reads around 70-75 degrees. Place this as reading at x = 0.
(6) Now move the compass slightly by 2 cm or 4cm towards left and note down the
reading of the compass in forward direction and reverse direction ( by changing the
position of the keys in the commutator) in the observation table. In this way note
down the reading after every two / four centimeters and reach the extreme left of
the apparatus. Here it must be noted that all the values of deflection (θ) will be almost
similar and if it is not so it is an indication that the apparatus is not perfectly placed
in magnetic meridian or not properly leveled.

(7) Now continue this process till you reaches the extreme end (LHS) or the deflection
drops to 2°- 4°.

(8) Now again bring the compass in the center and note the reading at x = 0. Start
moving towards RHS and repeat the above mentioned process.

(9) Now plot a graph between the distance (on x axis) and tanθ on the y axis by taking
suitable scale (see Fig.3)
(10) The graph will be like as shown in the figure 3.
(11) Now mark the points of inflexion (points where the graph changes its concavity /
slope) say P and Q.
(12) Measure the distance between P and Q. This is roughly twice the radius of the coil.
Half of this distance gives us the estimated radius of the coil.
 Observation Table
S.No. Distance of the Deflection in the magnetic needle (on moving tan θ
needle from the towards RHS end)
center of the Current one way Current in reverse Mean θ = (θ1
apparatus direction +θ2 +θ3 +θ4 )
x = --- cm θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 /4
1 0 cm
2 2 cm
3 4 cm
4 6 cm
5 8 cm
6 10 cm
7 12 cm
8 14 cm
9 16 cm
10 18 cm
11 20 cm
12 22 cm
13 24 cm
14 28 cm
15 30 cm
S.No. Distance of the Deflection in the magnetic needle (on moving towards tan θ
needle from the LHS end)
center of the Current one way Current in reverse Mean θ = (θ1
apparatus direction +θ2 +θ3 +θ4 )/4
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4
1 0 cm
2 2 cm
3 4 cm
4 6 cm
5 8 cm
6 10 cm
7 12 cm
8 14 cm
9 16 cm
10 18 cm
11 20 cm
12 22 cm
13 24 cm
14 28 cm
15 30 cm
Results:
(1) A study of the variation of magnetic field along the axis of the circular coil was done.
The graph showing this variation of magnetic field is plotted and it was concluded that the
magnetic field is maximum at the center of the coil and the field decreases as we move
away from the center of the coil on either side.

(2) The radius of the coil was estimated from the graph drawn and it comes out to be
________ cm.
Precautions
1.The coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian.
2.All the magnetic materials and current carrying conductors should be at a considerable
distance from the apparatus.
3.Parallax should be removed while reading the position of the pointer.
4.The curve should be drawn smoothly and points of inflexion should be determined very
carefully.
Questions
(Please do not write in your practical file for submission)
1. Does earth have any magnetic field of its own?
Ans. Yes the earth itself is a magnet. Its north geographical pole is close to a magnetic
south pole which is why the north pole of a compass needle points north. The earth’s
magnetic axis is not quite parallel to its geographic axis ( the axis of rotation), so a
compass reading deviates somewhat from geographic north. This deviation which varies
with location is called magnetic declination or magnetic variation.

2. Why the apparatus is placed in the magnetic meridian?

Ans. To nullify the effect of earth’s magnetic field.
3. What is magnetic meridian?
Ans. The plane containing earth’s magnetic north south pole is known as magnetic
meridian
4. What is the unit of magnetic field?
Ans. There are following two units:
(i) 1 Tesla =1T=1N/Am (SI units)
(ii) 1 Gauss = 1G=10-4T (CGS units)
5. What is Gauss law for magnetic field?
Ans. The total magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero.
6.What will happen if we increase / decrease the number of turns or current in the coil?
Ans. The magnetic field will increase / decrease.
7. What will happen if we increase / decrease the radius of the coil?
Ans. The magnetic field will decrease / increase.
8. At what point the magnetic field is maximum?
Ans. At the center of the coil.
OBJECTIVE:-
To estimate the absorption co-efficient of a given semitransparent
glass plate by Lummer Brodhum photometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
Lummer Brodhum photometer, optical bench, two sources of light,
semi transparent glass plate.

Description of the Apparatus and theory:

Illuminating power:-
The illuminating power of a source is the quantity of light falling per second on a unit area
placed at a unit distance from the source in a direction normal to the rays. It is measured in
candle power.

Intensity of Illumination.
The intensity of illumination at a point is defined as the light per second on a unit aria of the
surface placed at a point under consideration.
Intensity of illumination = Illuminating power / (distance) 2

The Lummer-Brodhum photometer is shown in Fig. (1). It consists of a magnesium

carbonate slab AB arranged such that each face is illuminated by the sources S1 and S2. G1
and G2 are the two right angle prism which receive the light after the reflection from the slab
AB. The light is now reflected from these prisms, enter into a double prisms G3 and G4. The
two prisms are placed with their hypotenuse faces together and separated by a thin air film
except at the center. The central portion is cemented with Canada balsam. The rays striking
the cemented part are totally transmitted while those striking the air film totally reflected.
This is shown in the left adjoining figure. The rays 1 and 3 coming from prism G1 are
reflected while ray 2 is transmitted. Similarly rays 4 and 6 coming from the prism G2 are
reflected while ray 5 is transmitted. In this way light reflected from prism G1 and
transmitted through G3 illuminate the central portion of the field of view and light reflected
from G2 and again reflected from G4 illuminate the rest of the field of view of the telescope as
shown in Fig.(2). Due to the different illuminating powers of the two sources, the intensities
of the two portions are different and we see two regions of different illumination through eye
piece.
 A

r1 r2
S1 S2
B

G1 G2

G4
G3

Figure 1

S2

S1

Figure2
 Glass plate
Source Source
S1 S2

← r1' → ← r2 ' →

Figure 3

When the distances of the sources are adjust such that the two parts are equally bright, i.e. the
light falling from both the sources is equal, we have

P1 P2 P1 r12
= or = , (1)
r12 r22 P2 r22

where r1 and r2 are the distances of two sources S1 and S2 respectively at the point of where
the two sources produces equal illumination.
Now if we place a screen or as in our case a semitransparent glass plate with
absorption coefficient k (then the transmission coefficient of the glass plate will be 1-k where
we have neglected the reflection coefficient r (as r+a+t=1)) is put, near the photometer
against source S1. Let with the glass plate we obtain equal illumination at distances (say)
r1 ' and r2 ' , then the Eq.(1) will be modified to

(1 - k ) P1 r1'2
= '2 . (2)
P2 r2
Using Eq.(1) in (Eq.2) we get

(1 - k )r12 r1' 2 r '12 r22

= or k = 1 - . (3)
r22 r2' 2 r ' 22 r12
PROCEDURE:-

(i) The photometer upright is mounted nearly in the middle of an optical bench and
adjusted in such a way that photometer head becomes normal to the line joining the
two sources as shown in Fig.(3).
(ii) Remove the shutter from one end of photometer and allow light to fall on one face of
the head and observe carefully through the eye piece whether the central or outer
region of the screen is more illuminated. Close the shutter and open the shutter from
the other end and again make the same observation. This will give us an idea that due
to which source the two regions of the screen are illuminated.
(iii) Now remove the shutters from both sides of photometer and allow the light to fall on
each face of the head.
(iv) The positions of one lamp and photometer head are noted. For one set of observation,
position of the photometer head should not be disturbed.
(v) Now move the other lamp from one end of the bench towards photometer till the field
of view in photometer is equally illuminated. Note down the position of the lamp.
(vi) Now interpose the glass plate between photometer and source S1. Move S1 till the
field of view in photometer is equally illuminated. Note the distance of source from
photometer.
(vii) Repeat the above procedure by changing the distance of source S2 from photometer.
(viii) Repeat the above procedure and take at least five sets of observations.
VIVA-VOCE:-
Q. (1) What do you mean by photometer?
Ans: The branch of the optics which deals with the comparison and measurement of the
quantity of radiant energy emitted or received or absorbed .
Q. (2) Define illuminating power.
Ans: The illuminating power of a source is the quantity of light falling per second on the
unit area placed a unit distance form the source in a direction normal to the rays .It is
measured in candle power.

Q. (3) What is inverse square law?

Ans: The intensity of illumination I at a point due to point source varies inversely as the
square of the distance r of the given point form the source I α 1/r2.

Q. (4) What is the sensitivity of the eye in comparing luminance of two surfaces
Ans: The eye can distinguish between two surfaces placed side by side and seen
simultaneously which differ in brightness by one percent?

Q. (5) Why is the co lour of the diffusing screen white?

Ans: We know that a white surface reflects all colors equally well and hence the light,
diffused by it does not differ appreciably form the original.
Observations:

S.No. Position of Without glass plate With glass plate r1=|x-a| cm r2=|b-x| cm r2 ' =|x-c| cm r2 ' =|d-x| cm r '12 r22 Mean k
photometer Position Position Position Position
k = 1-
r ' 22 r12
‘x’ cm of source of source of source of source
S1 S2 S1 S2
a cm b cm c cm d cm
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculations:

RESULT: - The absorption coefficient of given glass plate = …………………….

Objective:
To determine the width of the single slit from the study of Fraunhoffer
diffraction pattern using a He-Ne Laser.

Warning: Please do not allow laser light to fall in your

eyes as it may cause permanent damage to them.
Apparatus:- He-Ne laser source (0.25 to 0.5 milli-watt), single slit ,suitable lens, screen,
circular or rectangular aperture.
Diffracting
Plane(single Slit) Focal plane(Screen)

Lens

He-Ne
LASER

Fig1 Experimental arrangement

Theory :
He-Ne laser: The word LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation. A laser provides an output which is coherent and of high
irradiance. It has a good directionality and monochromatic in nature. In He-Ne
laser population inversions is produced through inelastic collisions between excited
He atoms and the Ne atoms. This is possible because the levels E4 E6 of neon
atoms have almost the same energy as the levels F2 and F3 of helium atoms as
shown in energy level diagram below. The most prominent laser line is 6328Ǻ
emitted by transition from E6 to E3.

Helium
19 - Through atomic collisions
- Neon
17 - F3 E6 3..39 mm
- E5
15 - F2 E4 1.15 mm 6328 Ǻ
Energy - E3
eV 13 - Excitation by Spontaneous
E
- collision with 2 emission (6000 Ǻ)
11 - electrons
- De-excitation by
0 collision.
E
F1 1

Fig. 2 Energy-levels He-Ne laser

Diffraction is a wave phenomena that is dependent on wavelength light wave bend as they

pass by the edge of narrow aperture or slit. this effect is approximated by q = l / d where θ

is the diffraction angle, l the wavelength of radiant energy, and d the aperture diameter.

When an single slit is placed in the path of a laser beam a well-defined diffraction pattern
is obtained. The width of the slit b is obtained from the formula
ml
b=
sin q n

Where l = wave length of the source He-Ne laser = 6328 Ǻ

m = order of diffraction pattern = ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 4, ± 5…….

q m = d m / D = the angle of diffraction for order m

D = distance of screen from the slit

The first order minimum occurs at q = ± sin -1 ( l / b ) , the second minimum at

q = ± sin -1 (2 l / b ) .Since sinθ cannot exceed unity, the maximum value at m is integer
which is less than b/l.

Procedure

(i)The diffraction pattern is obtained at the focal plain of the lens. The single slit is put in

front of the He-Ne laser source normal to the incident beam

(ii) The scale is adjusted to be obtain the symmetrical diffraction pattern about the central

maximum

(iii)The distances between the central maximum and the first, second, third minima are

measured accurately on either side of it with the help of the transparent side.

(iv) The distance D between the slit and the screen is noted.
Observations

Distance of the scale from the slit (D) =…………..cm

S.No. Order of Position Position of Minima

the of the
diffraction central On one side On other side
pattern maximum x1(cm) x2(cm)
(spots) x0
1 2 0 cm
2 3 0 cm
3 4 0 cm
4 5 0 cm

Calculations:

Order of x1- x0 = αn1 x2- x0 = αn21 a n1 + a n 2 an 180 nl

an = cm q = ´ b=
diffraction cm cm 2 D 3.14 sin q n
pattern (n) deg.
2
3
4
5

Results:-The width of the single slit using the He-Ne laser source = ………..cm

Precautions:

i)The He-Ne Laser should not be seen directly.

ii)The scale on the screen should be kept normal to the incident beam.
Objective: - To plot the charging and discharging curves of two different
combinations of resistances and capacitors.

Apparatus required: - electronic training board, Stop watch, wires.

Description of the apparatus: - The electronic training board on charging on charging

and discharging of condenser is fully self contended trainer requiring no other item except
one stop watch.
The power supply has been provided built in and the voltage of the same can be
measured at Vin.
Three capacitor and three resistances of different values have been connected across the
terminals thus forming different pairs of R C combination. No multiple switches are
required to be used as for each connection two terminals are provided.
A charging and discharging switches has been provided witch connects the supply
during the charging and disconnect the supply during discharging and connect the
resistance to the –ve terminal.
Experimental procedure:-
(1) Select one resistance and one capacitor.
(For better results connect high resistance and low capacitance and then make such
combination.)
(2) Note down the reading of voltage every after five seconds. The time should be adjusted
by stop watch.
(3) Record the result as below:-
Value of Resistance:-
Value of Capacitance:-
V in volt:-
(4) Plot the curve for charging and discharging of capacitor by taking suitable scale on
same graph paper.
(5) Repeat the same procedure for other two sets of capacitor and resistance.

Circuit Diagram:-

R C X
Y
Z

+ -

Battery
Connect Y and Z – for charging
Connect Y and X - for Discharging
Observation Table:-
R 1 = ---- Ω, C 1 =---- μf.

Charging S.No. Discharging

S.No
Time(sec) Voltage V Time (sec) Voltage V

1 5 1 5
2 10 2 10
3 15 3 15
4 20 4 20
5 25 5 25
6 30 6 30
7 35 7 35
8 40 8 40
9 45 9 45
10 50 10 50

Graph:-

Charging Curve
Charging
or
Discharging
Voltage (V)
(in voltage) Discharging Curve

| | | | | | | | | | | | |
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time(in sec.)
Scale:-
X axis = 10 division = -----Sec.
Y axis = 10 division = ….V.

Result: - It is clear from the graph that the current flow has an exponential nature in
both the cases of charging and discharging of a capacitor through a resistance.

Precautions:-1. The connections wire should be strength and not coiled in order to
eliminate to effect due to self induction.

2. Before starting the fresh observations, the condenser should be discharged by sorting
both end of the condenser.
3. Wires connected to the power should be well insulated and so placed that they are not
likely to be touched accidentally.

Questions:-
Q.1 what is capacitor?
Ans. A condenser is a device for storing charge. Basically, it consists of two conducting
plates separated by an insulating material called dielectric.

Q.2 What do you mean by capacity of a condenser?

Ans. The quantity of charge given to a conductor is directly proportional to its potential

QαV

or Q/V = constant = C

This constant C is called the capacity of the conductor and is defined as the ratio of the
charge on the conductor to its potential.

Q.3 What is the SI unit of capacity?

Ans. The SI unit of capacity is Farad.

Q.4 Define 1 Farad.

Ans. The capacity of a condenser is one farad when a charge of one coulomb raises the
potential differential between its plates by one volt.

Q.5 what types of condensers do you know?

Ans. There are three types of condensers:
1. Condensers with air as dielectric.
2. Condensers with solid dielectric.
3. Electrolytic condensers

Q.6 On what factors does the rate of charging and discharging of a capacitor depends?
Ans. The rate of charging and discharge and discharging of a capacitor depends on its
capacity C and effective resistance R in the circuit.

Q.7 what is meant by time constant?

Ans. The product RC has the dimension of time and is called time constant of the circuit.
It is measured in second.
Q.8 Draw the symbol of capacitor and electrolytic capacitor.
Ans.

Capacitor Electrolytic Capacitor.

Q.9What is electrolytic capacitor?
Ans. This capacitor utilizes the phenomenon of electrolysis for its operation. It consists of
aluminum electrodes dipped in a solution of ammonium borate. Due to the passes of
current electrochemical reaction takes place whereby a thin film of ammonium oxide is
formed on the positive electrode. This film is highly insulating, non conducting and serves
the purpose of an efficient dielectric. The electrolyte acts as an extension of the negative
electrode.
Q.10 What is the merit of such an electrolytic condenser?
Ans. In this condenser the thickness of the dielectric is extremely small, consequently
fairly large capacities can be manufactured for a small size of the condenser. It is for this
reason that these condensers are being widely used in radio sets where large spaces are not
available for inserting the condensers.
Objective: To determine the Numerical Aperture of the optical fiber .

Equipment: Fiber Optic trainer, Optical fibers, Numerical Aperture Measurement pattern

Theory: Numerical aperture (NA) refers to the maximum angle at which the light
incident on the fiber end is totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the
fiber. Thus Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can
be collected by the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident
medium and the sine of the maximum ray angle.
NA = n0.sinөmax ; n0 for air is 1,

hence NA = sinөmax

For a step-index fibre, the numerical aperture in term of refractive indices is given by

NA= − ncladd
2 2
n core

Procedure:

The schematic diagram of the numerical aperture measurement system is shown in Fig 1 .

Fig.1
 1. Connect power supply to the board.

2. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter circuit and the other end
to the numerical aperture measurement pattern. Take the other end of the fiber and
project the light output on to the screen (NA Measurement pattern) to obtain a bright
circular spot as shown in fig 1.
3. Determine the diameter W of the bright spot and the distance L from the fiber end to
the screen. For this hold the white scale-screen with 4 concentric circles (5, 10, 15&
20 diameter), vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber
coincide with diameter circle. Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic
cable and make it coincide with one of the concentric circles. Note its distance.
4. Calculate the acceptance angle using the formula θ = tan − 1 ( W )
0
2L

5. Compute the Numerical aperture is given by formula NA = sinθ0.

6. Repeat this procedure for at least four other values of distance L and calculate the
acceptance angle and numerical aperture in each case.
7. Tabulate the various distances and diameter of the circles made on the white screen
and calculate numerical aperture from the formula. Finally take the average of the four
numerical aperture values.

Observation Table

S.No. L(mm) W (mm) Angle of Numerical Average

Acceptance aperture NA= sinӨ
Ө( Degrees) NA= sinӨ

1
2
3
4

Result: Numerical aperture of the available optical fibers is determined, and is -----.
Objective: To study the V-I characteristics of light emitting diode (LED).
Apparatus: Light emitting diode, 0-5V variable Supply, 0-10v Voltmeter, 0-50mA DC Ammeter.

Theory: In a PN junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross from the
N layer to the P-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the P-side while holes are in the
valence band on the N-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level compared to the valence
band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the difference in energy is given out in the
form of heat or light. In case of silicon or germanium, the energy dissipation is in the form of heat,
whereas in case of gallium-arsenide and gallium phosphide, it is in the form of light. This light is in
the visible region. Germanium and silicon, which have Eg about 1 eV cannot be used in the
manufacture of LED. Hence Gallium arsenide, Gallium phosphide which emits light in the visible
region is used to manufacture LED.

Procedure:

1. Connect the Light emitting diode as shown in figure 1.

2. Slowly increase forward bias voltage in steps of 0.1 volt.

3. Note the current passing through the LED.

4. Do not exceed 10 mA current.

5. Plot a graph of light emitting diode

6. Voltage Vs light emitting diode current.

Fig .1 Fig.2
Observation Table :

(i)For Red LED

(ii)For Green LED

S.No. Voltage (Volts) Current (mA)

Result: The V-I characteristics of given LED are studied by graph (as shown Fig.2).

Calculated

Threshold Voltage Vth = ________V.

Forward Resistance Rf = _______Ω.

Viva Voce

1. What is forward biased diode?

2. What are p-type and n-type semiconductors?

3. Define threshold voltage.

4. What is depletion layer?