Sedimentology (2006) 53, 789–823 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.2006.00793.

Periodic accumulation and destruction of aeolian erg sequences

in the Permian Cedar Mesa Sandstone, White Canyon, southern
Utah, USA
N IGEL P. MOUNTNEY
Earth Sciences and Geography, Keele University, Staffordshire, Keele ST5 5BG, UK
(E-mail: n.p.mountney@keele.ac.uk)

ABSTRACT

The Permian Cedar Mesa Sandstone represents the product of at least 12

separate aeolian erg sequences, each bounded by regionally extensive
deflationary supersurfaces. Facies analysis of strata in the White Canyon
area of southern Utah indicates that the preserved sequences represent erg-
centre accumulations of mostly dry, though occasionally water table-
influenced aeolian systems. Each sequence records a systematic sedimentary
evolution, enabling phases of aeolian sand sea construction, accumulation,
deflation and destruction to be discerned and related to a series of underlying
controls. Sand sea construction is signalled by a transition from damp
sandsheet, ephemeral lake and palaeosol deposition, through a phase of dry
sandsheet deposition, to the development of thin, chaotically arranged aeolian
dune sets. The onset of the main phase of sand sea accumulation is reflected by
an upward transition to larger-scale, ordered sets which represent the
preserved product of climbing trains of sinuous-crested transverse dunes
with original downwind wavelengths of 300–400 m. Regularly spaced
reactivation surfaces indicate periodic shifts in wind direction, which
probably occurred seasonally. Compound co-sets of cross strata record the
oblique migration of superimposed slipfaced dunes over larger, slipfaceless
draa. Each aeolian sequence is capped by a regionally extensive supersurface
characterized by abundant calcified rhizoliths and bioturbation and which
represents the end product of a widespread deflation episode whereby the
accumulation surface was lowered close to the level of the water table as the
sand sea was progressively cannibalized by winds that were undersaturated
with respect to their potential carrying capacity. Aeolian sequence generation
is considered to be directly attributable to cyclical changes in climate and
related changes in sea level of probable glacio-eustatic origin that characterize
many Permo-Carboniferous age successions. Sand sea construction and
accumulation occurred during phases of increased aridity and lowered sea
level, the main sand supply being former shallow marine shelf sediments that
lay to the north-west. Sand sea deflation and destruction would have
commenced at, or shortly after, the time of maximum aridity as the available
sand supply became exhausted. Restricted episodes of non-aeolian
accumulation would have occurred during humid (interglacial) phases,
accumulation and preservation being enabled by slow rises in the relative
water table. Subsidence analysis within the Paradox Basin, together with
comparisons to other similar age successions suggests that the climatic cycles
responsible for generating the Cedar Mesa erg sequences could be the product
of 413 000 years so-called long eccentricity cycles. By contrast, annual
advance cycles within the aeolian dune sets indicate that the sequences
themselves could have accumulated in just a few hundred years and therefore
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists 789
790 N. P. Mountney
imply that the vast majority of time represented by the Cedar Mesa succession
was reserved for supersurface development.
Keywords Aeolian, deflation, eccentricity cycle, erg, glacio-eustasy, super-
surface, Utah.
INTRODUCTION
Although preserved accumulations of aeolian
sand seas (ergs) are well documented from the
ancient rock record (e.g. Blakey et al., 1988), the
mechanisms by which developing erg systems
commence accumulation remain only relatively
poorly understood. The aim of this paper is to
develop a model that accounts for the temporal
evolution of an aeolian succession within an erg-
centre palaeoenvironmental setting. Specific
objectives are (i) to determine the mechanisms
that enable the onset of aeolian sand-sea con-
struction and accumulation, (ii) to understand
how aeolian dunes arrange themselves into regu-
lar and ordered trains of migrating and climbing
bedforms that generate sets of cross strata, (iii) to
determine the nature of the accumulation surface
that prevailed during erg accumulation, (iv) to
understand the mechanisms that enable the par-
tial destruction of aeolian erg accumulations
during periods of net deflation, and (v) to dem-
onstrate how bounding surfaces of likely annual
origin can be used to determine rates of dune
migration and accumulation. These objectives are
achieved through a combined sedimentological
and stratigraphic study of the erg-centre part of
the Permian Cedar Mesa Sandstone, a predomin-
antly aeolian succession exposed in south-eastern
Utah that underwent repeated phases of accumu-
lation and subsequent deflation in response to
cyclical changes in palaeoclimate (Loope, 1984,
1985).
BACKGROUND
Whilst studied examples of modern, active sand-
sea construction are numerous (e.g. Breed &
Grow, 1979; Sweet et al., 1988; Kocurek & Lan-
caster, 1999), few, if any, of these modern systems
are currently undergoing accumulation to the
extent that a widespread body of strata is being
generated (Kocurek, 1999). Yet thick accumula-
tions of aeolian strata that represent the products
of sand seas are widespread in the ancient rock
record and aeolian dune systems must undergo
episodes of accumulation and preservation when
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
suitable conditions are satisfied. Thus, it is
important to differentiate between episodes of
sand-sea construction and episodes of sand-sea
accumulation/preservation.
Sand-sea construction refers to the establish-
ment (and usually the subsequent migration) of
dune-scale bedforms and occurs as a function of
sediment supply, sediment availability and trans-
port capacity of the wind (Kocurek & Lancaster,
1999). However, these factors alone do not
determine whether a sand sea will undergo
long-term accumulation. Sand-sea accumulation
requires a vertical rise in the level of the
accumulation surface over time such that a body
of strata progressively forms. Based on the
principles of sediment conservation (Middleton
& Southard, 1984), this requires a downwind
decrease in sediment transport rate and/or a
reduction in the concentration of sediment in
transport over time (Fig. 1; Kocurek & Havholm,
1993). A downstream reduction in sediment
transport rate means that less sediment leaves
the downwind boundary of a system than enters
at the upwind boundary for a given time interval,
a condition that is most easily satisfied by a
downstream decrease in flow velocity and a
consequent downstream decrease in the potential
sediment carrying capacity of the flow. A tempor-
al reduction in sediment concentration may be
achieved through a reduction in dune size over
time, given that the bedforms themselves are
considered to represent sediment that is in
transport (Rubin & Hunter, 1982; Kocurek &
Havholm, 1993; Kocurek, 1999).
Current ideas accounting for the mechanisms
that enable accumulation to take place in aeolian
systems are based largely on the development of a
series of conceptual models (Kocurek & Havholm,
1993; Kocurek, 1999), summary explanations of
which are given here. Accumulation in dry
aeolian systems, where the water table is not in
contact with the accumulation surface, is most
easily envisaged to occur as a consequence of a
downwind deceleration in wind strength to the
point where the potential sand carrying capacity
of the wind equals the actual sand-carrying
capacity. For areas where the sediment surface
is already fully covered with dunes, this results in
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah
A tion is promoted by adhesion in damp
B change in the nature of the stabilizing agent.
Fig. 1. Application of the sediment conservation
equation to aeolian systems. (A) Dune migration rate
determines the sediment transport rate (q); average
dune height determines the concentration of sediment
in transport (c). (B) Possible solutions to the sediment
conservation equation by sign alone, defining fields of
accumulation, bypass and erosion. After Kocurek
(1999).
accumulation, with the dunes decreasing in size
downwind (Wilson, 1971; Rubin & Hunter, 1982).
This situation most commonly arises because of
airflow expansion and deceleration into topo-
graphic basins or downwind deceleration as the
pressure gradient decreases (Kocurek, 1999).
Alternatively, a temporal reduction in flow con-
centration may result from a temporal reduction
in wind speed at a fixed point, resulting in a
reduction of dune size as sediment in transport is
transferred to the accumulation.
By contrast, accumulation in wet aeolian sys-
tems, where the water table or its capillary fringe
is in contact with the accumulation surface, may
occur for alternative reasons. First, migration of
dunes into an area with a rising water table
results in a downwind reduction in sediment
transport rate because dune-size decreases as
bedform flanks are overrun by rising water table.
Secondly, a regional rise in water table will result
in a temporal reduction in sediment concentra-
tion as the dunes become smaller and accumula-
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
791
interbedform areas within the capillary fringe of
the water table (Kocurek, 1999). Similarly, accu-
mulation in stabilized aeolian systems may also
occur as a consequence of a downwind spatial
change in the nature of the stabilizing agent
(vegetation, surface crust, etc.) or of a temporal
As set out in the introduction to this paper, a
major goal of this study has been to test these
concepts through the detailed sedimentological
and stratigraphic study of the Permian Cedar
Mesa Sandstone, a predominantly dry and
unstabilized, though occasionally water table-
controlled and partly stabilized (vegetated),
erg-centre succession.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Cedar Mesa Sandstone is a Permian (Wolf-
campian) age succession that crops out over an
area of 8000 km2 in the Needles and Grabens
Districts of Canyonlands National Park and in the
Monument Upwarp of south-eastern Utah (Figs 2
and 3; Hintze, 1980; Huntoon et al., 1982; Hintze
et al., 2000). The unit, which forms part of the
Cutler Group of the Paradox foreland basin,
attains a maximum thickness of 400 m immedi-
ately west of the Monument Upwarp but is
thinner (ca 200 m) in Canyonlands National Park
(Stanesco & Campbell, 1989; Blakey, 1996;
Nuccio & Condon, 1996; Condon, 1997). Early
interpretations of the Cedar Mesa Sandstone
ascribed it to an aeolian dune origin (McKnight,
1940; Baker, 1946) and, although Baars (1962,
1979) and Mack (1977, 1978, 1979) proposed that
the succession was at least in part the product of
shallow marine littoral processes, Loope (1981,
1984) argued convincingly for a predominantly
non-marine aeolian erg and erg margin origin
within the main outcrop belt. In particular, the
presence of numerous extensive rhizolith hori-
zons is strong evidence for a continental deposi-
tional setting (Loope, 1980, 1988). Based on
analyses of foreset dip azimuths from cross-
bedded sets of aeolian dune origin, prevailing
palaeowind direction across much of the Cedar
Mesa erg system is inferred to have been towards
the south-east, though local variations do occur
(Poole, 1962; Loope, 1984; Peterson, 1988; Stan-
esco & Campbell, 1989).
Through regional-scale mapping and correla-
tion, Loope (1981, 1985) demonstrated that
the Cedar Mesa succession was effectively sub-
792 N. P. Mountney
White Canyon
The Needles
Lake Powell
Hite
Triassic
Moenkopi Formation (and other Triassic strata)
White Rim Sandstone Organ Rock
Formation
Permian
Cedar Mesa Sandstone
Penn.
Lower Cutler Beds
SW
Fig. 2. Schematic north-east–south-west cross-section illustrating lithostratigraphic relationships within the Per-
mian Cutler Group and the unconformable relationship of the group to overlying Triassic-age units. Extensive
deflationary supersurfaces within the Cedar Mesa Sandstone are shown schematically by dashed lines.
divided into a series of separate, vertically
stacked aeolian erg sequences, each bounded by
a distinctive and laterally continuous supersur-
face of regional, erg-wide extent. These supersur-
faces were considered to have been generated as
the end product of successive deflationary epi-
sodes in which the aeolian accumulations were
repeatedly eroded down to the level of the water
table (cf. Stokes, 1968) by winds that had become
undersaturated with respect to their potential
sand transporting capacity. Loope (1985) pro-
posed that these repeated episodes of erg accu-
mulation and subsequent deflation were likely to
have been the result of regionally extensive
cyclical changes in climate, possibly driven by a
glacio-eustatic mechanism. Whilst difficult to
demonstrate unequivocally, this hypothesis is
supported by the occurrence of cyclic episodes
of sedimentation within several other successions
of late Pennsylvanian-Permian age across the
western United States (e.g. Rankey, 1997).
Most recent studies of the Cedar Mesa Sand-
stone have focussed on the examination of
detailed stratigraphic relationships in palaeo-
erg margin settings. Along the north-eastern
palaeo-erg margin, in the vicinity of Canyon-
lands and Indian Creek, the system is inter-
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
Uncompaghre
Castle Valley
Shafer Basin
Indian Creek
Hinge
Moab
Undifferentiated
Cutler
Pre-Cambrian
basement
NE
preted as a lateral (i.e. along-wind) erg margin
(Fig. 3), where facies of aeolian dune, interdune
and sandsheet origin interdigitate with fluvial
sheet and channel facies of the undifferentiated
Cutler Group (Langford & Chan, 1988, 1989;
Mountney & Jagger, 2004). The fluvial systems
are interpreted as having drained south-west-
wards into the erg margin area from the
Uncompaghre Highlands that bounded the Para-
dox Basin depocentre to the north-east (Camp-
bell, 1980; Stanesco & Campbell, 1989; Dubiel
et al., 1996; Condon, 1997). Stratigraphic rela-
tionships in this region are complex and indi-
cate episodic fluvial incursions into the erg
margin, resulting in the generation of numerous
bypass (flood) supersurfaces of localized extent
that occur in addition to more regionally exten-
sive deflationary supersurfaces (Langford &
Chan, 1988, 1989). In a study of the downwind
erg margin in the southern part of the outcrop
belt, Langford & Chan (1993) documented the
nature of downwind facies transitions. Here,
aeolian dune facies exposed along White Can-
yon pass down-palaeowind into sandsheet and
sabkha facies south of Natural Bridges National
Monument (Fig. 3; Murphy, 1987; Stanesco &
Campbell, 1989; Huffman & Condon, 1993).
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 793
110o30’ 110o15’ 110o00’ 109o45’ 109o30’
Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata

Moab Fluvial

line
? Fluvial-dominated erg margin

ore
o o
38 30’ Shafer 38 30’
Shallow

osh
Basin Aeolian-dominated erg margin
marine

lae
shelf Erg centre

f pa
(only seen in
sub-surface) Mixed aeolian sandsheet and dunes

Island
Fluvial
no
?
itio

in
Aeolian sandsheet

the Sky
pos

Aeolian Lockhart

Gr
sandsheet

ee
Basin
Fluvial- Shallow marine shelf

nR
ate

dominated

ive
r
erg margin
xim

o o
38 15’ Dunes & Ind 38 15’
sand-
ian
Cr
Fluvial transport direction
ee
pr o

sheet k
? Aeolian transport direction
Ap

Aeolian Canyonlands
Major river courses
sandsheet Aeolian-
dominated Main roads
r
ive

The erg margin

oR

Grabens
Dunes & Study locations
ad
lor

sand- The
(data presented in this study)
Co

o sheet Needles o
38 00’ 38 00’
Other study locations
Erg (data not presented in this study)
rp

Hite
Crossing
wa

Rock
Canyon
centre
Up

Dark Canyon
nt

N
me
nu

UTAH
Wh

Mo
ite
Ca
ny

37o45’ 37o45’
on

0
ll
we

km
Po

Cheese-
ke
La

Box
Mile 75

Natural
Bridges Dunes &
sandsheet

110o30’ 110o15’ 110o00’ 109o45’ 109o30’

Fig. 3. Geological map depicting the limit of outcrop of the predominantly aeolian Cedar Mesa Sandstone and
contemporaneous age fluvial deposits of the undifferentiated Cutler Group in south-eastern Utah. Within the area of
outcrop, various Wolfcampian-age palaeogeographic sub-environments encountered within the Cedar Mesa Sand-
stone and its transition zone with the undifferentiated Cutler Group are shown. The approximate depositional limit
of strata of shallow marine shelf origin to the west of the Colorado River is derived from borehole records (Condon,
1997; Baars, 2000). Geological map based on Hintze (1980) and Hintze et al. (2000). Palaeogeographic summary based
in part on earlier maps by Stanesco & Campbell (1989), Langford & Chan (1993), Dubiel et al. (1996) and Huntoon
et al. (2000).

Little detailed work has hitherto been carried Bridges National Monument in the south-east
out to assess the mechanisms that enabled the (Fig. 3). The base of the Cedar Mesa Sandstone is
periodic accumulation and destruction of the erg not exposed along this transect and most localit-
sequences within the palaeo-erg centre region. ies reveal only the uppermost 100–120 m of the
succession. Sedimentary logs were constructed
detailing vertical relationships between sedimen-
DATA AND METHODS tary facies types. Ten separate aeolian erg
sequences (A–J) and their bounding deflationary
Seventeen localities were studied within the erg supersurfaces were identified and correlated by
centre region of the Cedar Mesa Sandstone along visual tracing along the length of the transect.
a 70 km long transect from Lake Powell in the Continuous outcrop along White Canyon enabled
north-west, through White Canyon to Natural individual erg sequences and bounding super-
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
794 N. P. Mountney
surfaces to be traced unbroken for distances up to
10 km. In situations where access limitations
precluded direct observation, the same sequences
could be identified further along the transect with
confidence because several had a distinctive
thickness and character.
Localities at Rock Canyon, White Canyon (Mile
75 of Highway 95) and Natural Bridges (Fig. 3)
were chosen for more detailed investigation
because they are characterized by accessible, well
exposed, laterally extensive and planar cliff faces
oriented either parallel or perpendicular to the
north-west to south-east palaeowind (Figs 4–6).
At these locations, a series of two-dimensional
panels depicting sedimentary architecture were
drawn in order to document: (i) detailed lateral
and vertical facies relationships within individ-
ual erg sequences, (ii) any differences in lateral
and vertical facies relationships between separate
aeolian erg sequences, (iii) the geometry of
various aeolian dune, interdune, sandsheet and
non-aeolian architectural elements and (iv) the
nature and form of the deflationary supersurfaces,
together with any associated characteristic fea-
tures.
In constructing these panels, horizontal and
vertical distances were measured using a tape
measure and angular relationships were deter-
mined using a levelling instrument following the
procedure used by Kocurek et al. (1991b) and
Mountney & Howell (2000). Additional spatial
positions were determined using a handheld GPS
receiver, which was considered to be accurate to
within 2 m, while vertical elevation was deter-
mined using a barometric altimeter, accurate to
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
1 m, and by sighting from a base station of known
position and elevation.
SEDIMENTARY FACIES
Comprehensive lithofacies descriptions of the
Cedar Mesa Sandstone are given by Loope
(1984) and Langford & Chan (1993) and only a
summary review of those facies encountered in
the erg centre study region is given here.
Aeolian dune facies association 1
Large-scale, fine-grained, well-sorted, trough and
planar cross-bedded sandstones arranged into
sets of varying scale and type are the most
abundant lithofacies, accounting for 70% of the
succession (Fig. 7A). Large-scale trough cross-
bedded sets are 2–10 m thick, up to 12 m wide
and may exhibit 2–6 m of erosive relief on their
bases. Foresets vary from near-straight to moder-
ately curved in plan view (usually concave down-
palaeowind), in which case they usually infill
troughs in a symmetrical manner about the trough
axes. In sections parallel to palaeotransport,
foresets are inclined at angles of up to 26°, though
the lower parts of sets are filled with broad,
sweeping toesets that approach the set base in an
asymptotic manner (Fig. 7B). Low-angle inclined
toesets are dominated by translatent wind-ripple
laminae (Hunter, 1977, 1981), though clear exam-
ples of inverse grading are rare because of the
uniformity of the grain-size. Wind-ripple laminae
interdigitate up-dip with tongue- and wedge-
Fig. 4. Large scale planar- and
trough-cross bedded aeolian dune
sets exposed in the vicinity of Rock
Canyon near Hite Crossing, south-
ern Utah. Person for scale.
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 795

A White Canyon, Mile 75

North Rim

SH SI SJ

SG

SF

SE

SD
SD

SC
SA SB

Architectural panels
Architectural panel sequences A-J - North Rim
Sequence G - South Rim (Figures 8, 9, 10 & 11)
(Figure 12)

Fig. 5. The upper 120 m of the Cedar Mesa Sandstone as exposed on the northern rim of White Canyon at Mile 75.
The architectural data panels depicted in Figs 8–12 were constructed from this locality. Note the prominent flat
benches (highlighted) which represent the levels of major deflationary supersurfaces and afford access to the outcrop.
SA-SJ refer to sequences. There is at least one additional thin but poorly exposed sequence above SJ.

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
796 N. P. Mountney

Fig. 6. Large-scale trough-cross

bedded aeolian dune sets exposed
at Natural Bridges National Monu-
ment. Aeolian dune units and
interdune migration surfaces (high-
lighted) can clearly be seen to climb
off the prominent deflationary
supersurface seen at roughly one-
third height in the photo. Field of
view is approx. 400 m wide.

shaped grainflow strata that are 3–5 cm thick, up
to 8 m wide and which can be traced up the
foreset slope for 3–6 m (Fig. 7C). In the higher
parts of the sets, grainflow units are interlaminat-
ed with 1–5 mm thick grainfall laminae.
Aeolian dune facies association 2
Small-scale trough and planar cross-bedded
sandstone sets (0Æ2–2 m thick) account for 15%
of the succession (Fig. 7D). Trough-shaped sets
have scoured bases, troughs being < 3 m wide
and filled with foresets that are often tightly
curved and infill the trough bases in a variety of
styles, either symmetrical or asymmetrical about
the axes. Foresets within small planar sets can
be traced laterally along strike for up to 12 m
before the sets thin and pinch out. Foresets
within both the trough and planar cross-bedded
sets are inclined up to 22° and are dominated
by translatent wind-ripple laminae (60%),
whilst grainflow and grainfall laminae
account for 35% and 5% of the association,
respectively.
Aeolian interdune facies association
A range of interdune facies accounts for 6% of
the succession and occurs within elongated and
lens-shaped units that are surrounded by aeo-
lian dune facies of associations 1 and 2. Hori-
zontal and low-angle inclined wind-ripple strata
(Fig. 7E) indicative of deposition on a dry
substrate dominate these units and are often
transitional with the basal parts of overlying
large-scale cross-bedded aeolian dune sets.
Other, less extensive interdune units are char-
acterized by red sandy siltstones with wavy and
crinkly lamination (Fig. 7F), together with adhe-
sion-rippled surfaces (cf. Kocurek & Fielder,
1982), contorted bedding, a range of bioturba-
tion structures, calcrete nodules, and small

Fig. 7. Characteristic lithofacies in the central Cedar Mesa Sandstone. (A) Large-scale trough cross-bedded aeolian
dune sets observed in a section parallel to original bedform migration direction (NW–SE). Note the numerous
reactivation surfaces. Rucksack for scale. (B) Asymptotic base of aeolian dune set underlain by near horizontal wind-
ripple strata representative of a dry interdune succession. Lens cap for scale. (C) Intertonguing relationship between
aeolian dune grainflow and grainfall strata representative of dune slipface deposits and low-angle inclined wind-
ripple strata representative of dune plinth and dry interdune deposits. The wind-ripple strata onlap onto reactivation
bounding surfaces, which themselves arose through partial erosion of the lower lee slope, probably in response to
periodic lee-side turbulence. Lens cap for scale. (D) Small-scale trough cross-bedded sets with numerous sharp-based
truncation surfaces. Lens cap for scale. (E) bedding plane surface exposing aeolian ripple forms characterized by
straight crestlines and high wavelength:amplitude (ripple index) ratio. Lens cap for scale. (F) Large rhizolith seen in
plan view on an exposed deflationary supersurface plane. The prominent dark coloured rim is concretionary
(probably siderite). Lens cap for scale. (G) Bedding plane surface revealing intense bioturbation within an aeolian
sandsheet unit lying immediately above a deflationary supersurface. Lens cap for scale. (H) Nodular calcrete
palaeosol. Lens cap for scale.

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 797

A B

C D

E F

G H

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
798 N. P. Mountney
calcified plant root casts. Together, these fea-
tures indicate accumulation in a damp, possibly
water table-controlled setting (Kocurek, 1981;
Huntoon et al., 2000; Mountney & Jagger, 2004).
Aeolian sandsheet facies association
Aeolian sandsheet facies account for 6% of the
succession and are arranged into 1–3 m thick
units of low-angle inclined wind-ripple strata
that form broad sheets, often exceeding several
hundred metres in lateral extent. Sandsheet
units are observed to encase small cross-strati-
fied aeolian dune sets of association 2 and in
places are gradational with them. In some
places, sandsheet facies exhibit extensive bio-
turbation and contain numerous small-scale
plant root casts, trace fossils and small calcified
rhizoliths.
Non-aeolian facies association
Although a varied range of non-aeolian facies
types is evident, they are almost exclusively
associated with the supersurfaces that define the
base of each sequence and they only account for
3% of the succession. Facies types include bio-
turbated, planar-laminated, red-brown silty-sand-
stones (Fig. 7G; Huntoon et al., 2000) that in
places exhibit small-scale contorted bedding and,
rarely, thin (< 5 cm thick) and laterally discontin-
uous bedded chert horizons and sand-filled
desiccation cracks. Additionally, red-brown, cal-
careous nodular palaeosol units up to 1 m thick
and several tens of metres in lateral extent occur
immediately above some supersurface horizons
(Fig. 7H). Large-scale calcified rhizoliths, up to
3 m long, are common within the studied suc-
cession and extend downward from the super-
surfaces into cross-stratified aeolian dune strata
(association 1) of the underlying erg sequence
(Loope, 1988).
SEDIMENTARY ARCHITECTURE
Sedimentary data are presented in the form of a
series of amalgamated panels that detail the
architecture of ten stacked erg sequences (A–J)
over a lateral extent of 700 m (1200 m for
sequence G) and a vertical extent of 120 m
(Fig. 5). The panels presented (Figs 8–12) are all
from locality Mile 75 in White Canyon, which is
considered to be the representative type section
for erg centre succession.
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
Supersurfaces and associated non-aeolian
architectural elements
Description
The ten individual erg sequences studied are
each bounded at both their top and base by
laterally continuous and extensive bounding
surfaces, most of which are planar and horizon-
tal over distances in excess of several tens of
kilometres. The lateral extent and continuity of
these surfaces was first noted by Loope (1985)
who traced an individual surface over an area of
at least 225 km2. Subsequently, Langford &
Chan (1993) performed the first large-scale
correlation of these major bounding surfaces in
the White Canyon region, where they were
traced from Lake Powell in the north-west to
beyond Natural Bridges in the south-east, a
distance of almost 80 km. They recognized that
many of the surfaces, including those bounding
the bases of sequences C, D, E and G, covered
areas up to 1000 km2 (Langford & Chan, 1993,
p. 119 and their fig. 6). The surfaces are very
easy to recognize, trace and correlate between
the 17 localities visited as part of this study
because intense carbonate cementation has
meant that they have weathered to form prom-
inent flat benches that run along the side walls
of the canyons (Fig. 5). In many places, the
surfaces are also immediately overlain by thin
red sandy-siltstone horizons which contrast
markedly with the white aeolian sandstones.
The surfaces themselves sharply truncate the
uppermost aeolian dune units in the underlying
sequence. Only in a few places do surfaces
exhibit local relief up to 1 m, for example
between the 650 and 700 m mark at the base
of sequence C (Fig. 9) and the 620 and 700 m
mark at the base of sequence E (Fig. 10). In
these places, shallow depressions formed imme-
diately above the surfaces are filled with 0Æ5–
1 m thick, flat-topped palaeosol units with
abundant calcrete nodules and plant root casts.
Examples of 0Æ1–0Æ2 m deep, 2 cm wide desic-
cation cracks penetrating down from the surfa-
ces are rare, but where observed (e.g. sequence
E, Fig. 10), they occur in groups with crack
spacings of 0Æ2–0Æ3 m. Most of the surfaces are
overlain by homogeneous to poorly laminated
red-brown silty-sandstone beds up to 0Æ5 m
thick that exhibit abundant bioturbation and
which contain numerous sandstone pseudo-
morphs after desert rose gypsum. The most
prominent feature associated with the surfaces
is the widespread and abundant occurrence of
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 799

←315 o
135o→
A Sequence H
SS

Figure 11
100 100
Sequence G

90 90

SS
80 80
Sequence F
SS

Sequence E
70 70

Figure 10
60 SS 60

Metres
Metres

Sequence D

50 50

40 SS 40
Sequence C

30 30
SS

Figure 9
Sequence B Boulder
20 20

10 10

0 Sequence A SS Alluvium on canyon floor 0

0 100 200 300 Metres 400 500 600 700

←315 o
135o←
SS
100
B 100
Sequence G

Figure 12
Metres
Metres

90 90

82 SS 82

0 100 200 300 Metres 400 500 600

Panel data above were collected from the opposite side of the valley to the
other sequences. The panel has been mirrored to maintain continuity

Legend
Facies Sedimentary structures
Grainflow strata Fluvial/lacustrine Scour Pit or Nodules
Cross-bedding
(dune foreset) sandstone blowout Cavities
Inclined wind-ripple Contorted Desiccation Ghost gypsum
Fluvial mudstone cracks (section)
strata (dune plinth) bedding crystals
Grainfall strata Non-marine Desiccation Invertebrate
Wind-ripple strata
(dune foreset) limestone cracks (surface) Crawling traces

Sandsheet and dry Vertebrate

Chert Wavy lamination Large burrows footprints
interdune flat
Pioneer
Damp interdune Lacustrine mudstone Adhesion ripples Small burrows vegetation

Rootlets Climax
Wet interdune Calcrete palaeosol Planar lamination
vegetation

Flame structure Rhizoliths Massive

R

Symbols
Cross-bed Sequence SS Supersurface
20>224 SC Identifier I Interdune migration surface
dip-azimuth
Bounding surface Supersurface S R Superimposition or reactivation surface
12>162 SS Identifier Cross strata
dip-azimuth

Standard set of symbols used in figures 8–20.Not all symbols are used in every figure.

Fig. 8. Stratigraphic architecture of erg sequences and their bounding supersurfaces at Locality Mile 75, White
Canyon. (A) Architecture of sequences A–H as exposed on the north wall of the canyon. (B) Architecture of sequence
G as exposed on the south wall of the canyon. For clarity, only the most prominent reactivation bounding surfaces are
shown. See Fig. 5 for location of panels.
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
 800

o o
←315 135 ←
40 40
SS
N. P. Mountney

38 24>132 24>130
38
Sequence
R 24>148 R R R R R
R
CR 24>120 R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R 20>138 R R 24>162 R R R R
36 22>150 20>148 24>140 36
24>140 24>152
24>152 24>152 22>142 22>150 20>160
24>140 24>138
22>132 24>136 20>142 22>140 20>148 22>154
n = 51 20>150
34 24>124 20>128 34
24>134 20>146
24>116
24>126 22>130 22>134 20>128 20>120 24>120 24>140 24>120 22>136 24>144
22>146 24>136 22>150
32 22>138 20>150 24>150 22>152 32
22>140 24>150 20>156 20>120 24>134 20>122
24>132 22>134 24>148 20>160 20>166
22>140
24>136
30 20>130
8 20>166 22>138
24>144 20>162
22>168 24>150
22>138 22>132 24>136
20>148 20>162 30
24>120
20>110 22>162 20>170 22>180 20>172
n=42 7 22>188 20>188
22>160 22>168
22>148 24>136 22>160 24>142
18>084 22>156 22>172 20>168 22>188
28 20>072 20>080 20>170 20>160 22>180 28
20>160 20>170 20>124 n = 22 20>178
24>148 22>182 20>200 22>106 18>160 20>170
22>156 20>180 20>152 20>184 18>190 20>202
22>168 18>108 20>188 18>166 20>182
20>114 16>120 6 16>184 20>178
26 26
5 SS
24 R R R R R R R R R R R R R R 24
R R R R 4 R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R
22 24>122 22
3 24>124
20 boulder 20
22>130

18 Sequence B 24>128
2 18
Metres

Metres
20>138
16 n=6 20>136 16
24>154

14 24>148 14
24>148

12 24>142 12
24>150
10 10
n=9 24>152
8 1 24>156
8

6 6
24>150

4 4
24>132
24>120
24>120 22>126
2 2
20>118
24>116 24>138
24>124
20>140
0 n = 17 24>124 24>122 0
20>120 22>136 24>120 24>136
20>128 24>132
–2 alluvium on canyon floor –2
Sequence A 24>144 24>132 24>120
SS
–4 R R R R R R –4
R R

n=3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700
Metres

1 Compound co-set characterised by 3 Intense bioturbation and rhizolith 5 Small-scale cross-bedded aeolian dune 7 Laterally extensive damp and dry
regularly spaced, downwind dipping development along supersurface, sets with highly varied foreset dip- interdune unit showing drying upward
planar superimposition surfaces which especially where thin palaeosol units azimuth and trough axes orientations. trend. Truncates underlying aeolian
define sets that themselves contain are developed. 6 Large-scale cross-bedded aeolian dune dune sets, implying temporary
more steeply inclined reactivation 4 Thin dry aeolian sandsheet developed sets with regularly spaced reactivation cessation of dune climb.
surfaces. directly above supersurface and surfaces that cut down into underlying 8 Small wet interdune units developed in
2 Large-scale sets with regularly spaced, characterised by near-horizontal wind- wet interdune strata. See Fig. 16E for scoured bases of trough-shaped
scoop-shaped reactivation surfaces. ripple lamination. detail. aeolian dune sets.

Fig. 9. Detailed stratigraphic architecture of erg sequences A, B and C and their bounding supersurfaces at Locality Mile 75, White Canyon, north wall. For
clarity, only the most prominent reactivation bounding surfaces are shown and thin units of dry interdune strata present in the basal parts of many dune sets are
not shown. See Figs 5 and 8 for location of panels and key.

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
 ←315o 135o→
80 SS 80

78 R
Sequence
R FR R R R R R R R R R R R R R 78
n=6 n=5
76 76

74 8 SS 74
24>144
n=5 24>186

72 Sequence
R R E R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
72
22>166 R R R R R R R R R R R
7 R R R
R R R R R R R R
70 70

68 n=6 24>118 24>136 68

22>120 22>130
20>146
24>124
24>126 20>142
66 22>138 20>144 22>130 66
24>120 22>110 R R 22>122 R R R R R R R R R
24>116 R R R R R R R R R R
24>110 24>134 20>120 22>144
24>120
64 22>120 64
20>120 20>166 24>132
22>156 n = 21 20>120
n = 25 5 24>130 6
62 22>120 20>144 22>120 22>138 22>144 62
24>110 20>122
20>124 18>120 20>110 24>120 22>120 20>110
20>140 22>128 20>128 20>136 18>128 18>126
24>124 22>164
60 18>092 16>112 60
18>114
18>110

58 SS 58

Metres
Metres

56
R
Sequence
R DR R R
4R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
3 R R R R
56

54 54

52 n = 16 2 52

50 24>144 22>124
50
22>142 20>156
18>142 22>124
48 48
24>130
22>130 22>112
24>130 24>136
46 20>136 22>146 46
n = 22 22>144
22>136
24>120
22>128 22>136
44 22>130 44
22>146 24>148 24>138
20>148 n = 15 20>144
22>136 22>150 22>124 20>158
42 22>142 42
20>156 20>150 18>146 20>156
20>140 22>128 22>166 20>156 20>124 20>166
20>166 22>124 20>140 18>156 20>142
20>148
20>166 18>180 20>150 20>136 18>164
40 1 18>160 18>168 40
18>168

38 SS 38
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700
Metres

1 Downwind climb of interdune migration 3 Supersurface directly overlain by a thin 5 Thin palaeosol unit developed within 7 Supersurface directly overlain by dry
surface off basal supersurface. but laterally extensive unit of red-brown dry-damp interdune unit and aeolian sandsheet prior to the
Estimates of mean climb angle and silty sandstone with desiccation cracks, characterised by calcrete nodules, establishment of small aeolian dune
mean set thickness indicate the interpreted as the product of localised bioturbation and small rootlets. sets.
migration of dunes with downwind fluvial reworking of aeolian deposits. 6 Soft sediment-deformed bedding 8 Large-scale cross-bedded aeolian dune
wavelengths of ~300 m. 4 Dry aeolian sandsheet overlying re- confined to individual aeolian dune sets. sets scour into and largely erode
2 Large dry interdune sandsheet which worked aeolian strata reflects progress- Deformation most intensely developed underlying small-scale cross-bedded
truncates underlying aeolian dune sets. ive drying of accumulation surface. in grainflow-dominated units. aeolian dune sets.

Fig. 10. Detailed stratigraphic architecture of erg sequences D, E and F and their bounding supersurfaces at Locality Mile 75, White Canyon, north wall. For
clarity, only the most prominent reactivation bounding surfaces are shown and thin units of dry interdune strata present in the basal parts of many dune sets are
not shown. See Figs 5 and 8 for location of panels and key.
Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
801
 802
N. P. Mountney

←315o 135o→
106 106

104
Sequence H 104

102 102

100 22>184
100
20>180 20>180 22>186 22>200 SS
20>136 24>150
Sequence G 22>126 8
98 R R R 20>140 R R R R R R R R R R R 20>090 R 22>180 R R R R R R R R 98
20>136 24>132 20>144 22>108 R R R R
20>158 22>166 22>128 20>112 22>132 20>144
20>120 20>122
22>160
24>126 20>120 20>140 24>132
96 20>120 20>140 22>148 24>136 7 26>120 96
20>140 20>128
22>150 20>128 20>128 24>110
24>156 24>136
94 20>130 18>138 24>108 n = 154 94
20>140 20>144 20>140
24>114
22>136 20>140 22>140 22>144
20>124 20>128 22>144
92 20>130 20>098
92
20>140 24>120 20>122
22>148
Metres

Metres
20>128 22>100
20>146 18>128
90 16>132 90
24>150 20>140

20>140 n = 54 20>140
88 22>136 20>158 88
20>144
20>142 20>162 6
20>122 20>130 18>136 22>154 24>150 22>150
86 24>156 24>138 86
22>140 18>220 24>130 18>156 22>162
20>122 16>200 20>160
20>160 18>172 20>170 18>180
84 20>108 20>144 n = 37 84
20>136 20>140 24>150
24>148 22>108
22>200 20>150 20>164 5 20>160 4
24>160 16>080
82 20>120 24>128 22>178 20>144 20>200 82
3 20>128 20>160 20>088 20>132 20>162
22>128 20>182 22>222
20>114 18>102 20>148 22>150 20>162
16>220 18>110 20>148 20>160
22>200
80 80
SS
R R R R R R R R R R R 2 R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R R R R R
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700
Metres
1 Thin horizon of fluvially-reworked 3 Small damp interdune unit which 5 Downwind-climbing cross-bedded 7 Thin wet interdune unit characterised by
aeolian sandstone directly overlying exhibits an intertonguing relationship aeolian dune set with regularly spaced red-brown, soft sediment-deformed silty
supersurface. with wind-ripple and grainflow strata in reactivation surfaces, implying periodic, sandstone. See Fig. 16G for detail.
2 Small-scale aeolian dune sets form the overlying dune set. See Fig. 16D for possibly seasonal, wind reversals. See 8 Large-scale cross-bedded aeolian dune
tightly-curved trough cross-bedded sets, detail. Fig. 16B for detail. sets climbing directly off basal
axes of which exhibit a broad range of 4 Downwind-climbing thin dry interdune 6 Large-scale aeolian scour cutting down supersurface. Sandsheet and small-
orientations. Troughs scour into each unit between large-scale aeolian dune several metres into underlying aeolian scale aeolian dune sets are absent in
other resulting in complex architecture. sets, implying narrow interdune corridor. dune deposits, possibly a ‘blowout’. this part of Sequence H.

Fig. 11. Detailed stratigraphic architecture of erg sequences G and H and their bounding supersurfaces at Locality Mile 75, White Canyon, north wall. For
clarity, only the most prominent reactivation bounding surfaces are shown and thin units of dry interdune strata present in the basal parts of many dune sets are
not shown. See Figs 5 and 8 for location of panels and key.

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
 o o
←315 135 →
100 24>190
SS 100
22>134

R
Sequence
R G R R R R R R R R R R R R R 24>082 R R R 20>152 R R 24>176 R R R 20>170 R
R R 98
98 24>130 22>160 24>150
22>138 20>148
20>170
20>136 24>170
22>164 24>152 20>154 96
96
24>112 24>120
24>180 22>162 24>144 24>136
94 20>160 94
24>120 24>168 24>130
20>140
22>142
92 24>150 22>142 20>138 92
24>144
24>158 24>148 20>138 22>128 24>160
22>142 20>138
90 24>088 90
24>134 24>138 22>120 22>164
22>138 6
24>110 24>144 20>104
Metres

Metres
88 24>136 24>154
88
24>120 24>154 22>148
22>136 20>126
24>126 20>138
22>126 24>088 20>098 20>160 22>160 18>140 20>138
86
n = 245 24>154 86
22>140 22>138 24>150 22>140
20>110 22>142 24>124 14>088
24>140 24>170 22>134
22>088 22>140 20>124 24>100
20>120 22>128 84
84 20>110 22>120 24>120
1
5 18>078 22>120 18>160 20>180
18>088 22>142
18>098 20>088 20>100 18>158
18>112 20>150 20>088 18>082 4 82
82 16>098 16>152 14>068 24>120
20>110 20>150
20>198 16>120 18>068 18>158
14>068 14>090 18>098
80 SS 80

R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R 3 R 2 R R R R R R R

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600
Metres Architecture depicted on this panel was collected from the southern rim of White Canyon. metres
The panel has been mirrored to maintain continuity with the other panels which
were collected from the northern rim.

1 Small-scale aeolian dune sets climbing 3 Chaotically arranged small-scale 5 Large-scale aeolian set with regularly
directly off basal supersurface. Aeolian aeolian dune sets transform downwind spaced reactivation surfaces in section
sandsheet units are absent. into larger-scale, more regularly oriented parallel to transport direction.
2 Small-scale aeolian dune sets observed ordered, climbing aeolian dune sets, 6 Large-scale aeolian dune sets form
in sections perpendicular to transport signifying establishment of equilibrium broad, open troughs in sections
are characterised by tightly curved bedform conditions. oriented perpendicular to transport
troughs that scour into each other, 4 Steeply climbing large-scale aeolian direction, implying the migration of
resulting in complex set architectures. dune sets with reactivation surfaces. bedforms with sinuous crestlines.

Fig. 12. Detailed stratigraphic architecture of erg sequence G and its bounding supersurfaces at Locality Mile 75, White Canyon, south wall. For clarity, only the
most prominent reactivation bounding surfaces are shown and thin units of dry interdune strata present in the basal parts of many dune sets are not shown. See
Figs 5 and 8 for location of panels and key.
Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
803
804 N. P. Mountney
calcified rhizoliths and associated calcrete
cementation. Individual rhizoliths are up to
0Æ15 m in diameter (typically 0Æ01–0Æ05 m) and
penetrate downward from the surfaces up to
3 m into underlying aeolian sandstone units,
often resulting in the development of a distinc-
tive mottled appearance. The intensity of rhizo-
lith development is greatest immediately
beneath the surfaces where the high calcium
carbonate content within the host sediment has,
in places, generated distinctive karstic weather-
ing on exposed bedding surfaces.
Interpretation
These extensive surfaces are the erg-wide defla-
tionary supersurfaces described by Loope (1985).
Their great lateral extent and planar nature sup-
ports their interpretation as products of regional-
scale erg deflation. Their occurrence in association
with extensive large-scale rhizoliths (Loope, 1988),
zones of intense carbonate cementation, pseudo-
morphs after gypsum, desiccation cracks, calcrete
palaeosols and bioturbated silty-sandstones indi-
cates that deflation most likely occurred to within
the capillary fringe of the water table (Stokes, 1968;
Fryberger et al., 1988; Havholm & Kocurek, 1994).
Alternatively, such features may also arise as the
product of the repeated temporal ponding of
rainwater during and following high-intensity
precipitation events in cases when the infiltration
capacity of the substrate was temporarily exceeded
(Picard & High, 1973).
Modern desert deflation surfaces with abun-
dant calcareous rhizoliths are best developed in
the shallow vadose zone immediately above the
phreatic zone whereby the preserved root traces
extend down to the level of the water table from
where the plants would draw up water (Seme-
niuk & Meagher, 1981; Semeniuk & Searle,
1985).
The very limited occurrence of distinctive
sabkha deposits in association with the super-
surfaces in the Cedar Mesa is in marked contrast
to their widespread occurrence in other well-
documented aeolian erg successions including
the Jurassic Page and Entrada Sandstones (Cra-
baugh & Kocurek, 1993; Havholm et al., 1993;
Carr-Crabaugh & Kocurek, 1998). In both these
Jurassic examples, supersurfaces with associated
sabkha deposits are best developed in those parts
of the erg systems that are considered to have
occupied positions adjacent to palaeo-shorelines.
The influx of saline marine pore-waters that
penetrated inland through the process of ground-
water recharge and their subsequent evaporation
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
from nearshore, water table-controlled deflation-
ary supersurfaces (Chan & Kocurek, 1988) ex-
plains the occurrence of sabkha accumulations in
these examples. By contrast the erg-centre parts of
the Cedar Mesa erg systems occupied positions
several tens of kilometres inland from the
postulated palaeo-shoreline and thus ground
water would have remained relatively fresh
(Kocurek et al., 2001), as is common in many
modern hyper-arid dune-fields (Lancaster, 1990).
Sandsheet architectural elements
Description
Architectural elements composed predominantly
of low-angle inclined wind-ripple strata are com-
mon in the basal 3 m of most of the sequences
overlying the supersurfaces. Units are 1–3 m
thick and are continuous laterally for distances
ranging from 100 to 1500 m in directions both
parallel and perpendicular to the prevailing sand
transport direction (e.g. sequence E, Fig. 10). In
some instances, 0Æ2–0Æ5 m thick cross-stratified
aeolian dune sets, with highly variable foreset
dip-azimuths are observed encased within the
sandsheet elements. These only rarely extend for
more than 30 m metres in downwind extent
before pinching out (Fig. 13). In places, the low-
angle laminated sandsheet units either overlie or
merge laterally with a variety of non-aeolian units
including palaeosols (see above).
Interpretation
These units represent the product of aeolian
sandsheet accumulation with the more steeply
inclined cross-stratified units representing isola-
ted aeolian dune development. The well-sorted,
fine grain-size of the sand suggests that the
sediment supplied to generate the sandsheets
had been subject to extensive aeolian transport
prior to its deposition (Kocurek & Nielson, 1986).
The widespread occurrence of continuous sand-
sheets at the base of many of the sequences
suggests that either sand supply was too limited
for extensive dune construction or that sand
availability was restricted during the early stages
of accumulation (Loope & Simpson, 1992; Ko-
curek & Lancaster, 1999; Kocurek, 1999). That
said, the presence of sandsheets characterized by
predominantly wind-rippled strata signifies that
the accumulation surface was essentially dry and
that the water table and its capillary fringe lay
beneath the surface and played little part in
influencing the style of sedimentation at this time
(Kocurek, 1981).
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 805

31

04
5
o

5
o
Isolated damp interdune
ponds characterised by
desiccation cracks,
bioturbation and gypsum

22

13
5
o

5
o
pseudomorphs and m
sporadically developed
between small-scale
aeolian dune sets.

I
I
I

I
I

I
R R
R
R
R

I
R

I
R

R
I
I I S
R SS S R

I
R Small scale aeolian dune
Interdune flats often I I
R
sets dominated by low-
R
I
developed between to moderate-angle
small scale aeolian R R inclined wind-ripple strata
dune sets. with relatively thin
R
grainflow tongues.
R

Small, cross stratified aeolian R

R
dune sets encased within
R
R
R Small-scale trough cross-
horizontally laminated, wind- R
R
SS stratified aeolian dune sets
rippled dry sandsheet units. R
R R characterised by tight radius
R R R
of curvature with trough axes
Thin sets of aeolian strata scour R
R R
R R
that exhibit a varied range of
into one another resulting in S orientations in plan view.
R S R

preservation of only the toesets R R

of the original bedforms. R R R

R Thin horizon of reworked aeolian

Palaeosol units preferentially strata immediately overlying
developed in slight topographic deflationary supersurface
depressions of restricted extent characterised by extensive
(300 × 300 m maximum). bioturbation and desiccation cracks.

Fig. 13. Summary model depicting architecture of aeolian sandsheet and small-scale aeolian dune elements. The
dune sets probably accumulated at very low angles of climb and repeatedly scoured into one another, preserving only
thin toe sets of limited lateral extent.

upwind with the lower angle-inclined sandsheet

Architectural elements composed of small-
deposits on which they often rest (e.g. sequence
scale aeolian dune sets
E, Fig. 10). Where the sets are arranged into more
Description regular trains, they tend to increase in size and
Architectural elements composed of small-scale become more regularly spaced and more uni-
trough cross-stratified aeolian dune sets are com- formly oriented in a downwind direction. For
mon in the lower 2–6 m of most of the erg example, sets in sequence G (Fig. 12), exhibit
sequences. Within the troughs, steeply inclined considerable variation in foreset azimuths at the
foresets dominated by grainflow laminae merge 380 m mark but progressively adopt a more
down-dip with lower-angle inclined wind-ripple regular and uniform arrangement over a 150 m
laminae towards the set bases. Foresets tend to be distance to the south-east.
curved in plan view and for the most part are
concave to the south-east, though exceptions to Interpretation
this are common. These units either rest directly The varied range of foreset-dip azimuths, together
on the supersurfaces that bound the base of the with the small set size and the varied nature of
sequences or, more commonly, overlie either non- the bounding surfaces that truncate the sets
aeolian or aeolian sandsheet units. The trough indicates that the dunes responsible for their
cross-bedded sets exhibit a varied range of foreset generation were not arranged into regular trains
azimuths and numerous erosive bounding sur- (Rubin, 1987a; Paola & Borgman, 1991). The lack
faces truncate sets at a variety of inclinations and of lateral continuity of the sets in orientations
in a variety of orientations (Fig. 12). Individual perpendicular to the inferred prevailing palaeo-
sets can rarely be traced for more than 10–20 m in wind direction indicates that the bedforms were
orientations either parallel or perpendicular to likely to have been of restricted along-crest
the inferred mean sand transport direction. extent. The presence of troughs filled by curved
Trough cross-bedded dune sets commonly merge foresets indicates that the bedforms possessed
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
806 N. P. Mountney
rather curved crestlines (Rubin, 1987a). Thus, the
dunes are most likely to have been relatively
small barchans or barchanoid ridges, many with
crestlines arranged oblique to the net sand
transport direction. The predominance of low-
angle inclined wind-ripple strata (80%) over
grainflow strata (20%) within the bases of most
sets indicates that many dunes either lacked a
significant active lee-side slipface or that such
features did not commonly extend to the base of
the slope and were therefore not typically pre-
served. Sets of low-angle wind-ripple strata indi-
cate that successive dunes were separated
by small dry interdune hollows (Mountney &
Howell, 2000).
The apparent lack of order to these small sets
merits further consideration. Their varied inter-
nal architecture, together with their small pre-
served thickness and rather limited lateral extent
indicates that accumulation occurred via a very
low angle of climb such that dune toesets were
only sporadically preserved as they migrated. The
dunes most likely underwent multiple episodes
of localized accumulation and subsequent
reworking, ultimately resulting in the preserva-
tion of rather thin sets with numerous bounding
surfaces. This implies a slow rate of creation of
accumulation space and probably signifies dune-
field construction over a protracted time period
during which only very limited accumulation and
preservation occurred. Modest changes in palaeo-
wind direction throughout this time, which
would have resulted in changes in bedform
migration path, could be one explanation for the
rather varied foreset azimuths observed in the
sets.
Although the general lack of a highly ordered
arrangement to the sets within these units makes
it difficult to observe relationships whereby suc-
cessive dunes would have climbed over one
another in a systematic manner, there are some
instances, particularly in the upper parts of the
units, where sets become larger and more regu-
larly arranged (Figs 12 and 13). Thus, it seems
likely that the bedforms underwent a temporal
transition from rather disorganized forms to more
regularly arranged forms aligned into trains (cf.
Mader & Yardley, 1985).
Architectural elements composed of simple
large-scale aeolian dune sets
Description
Architectural elements composed of larger-scale
dune sets (3–10 m thick and several hundred
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
metres in lateral extent) dominate the middle and
upper parts of each erg sequence. Sets, which are
both planar and trough cross-bedded, are delin-
eated by prominent bounding surfaces that can
often be traced for distances in excess of 500 m.
In sections oriented parallel to the inferred sand
transport direction, these bounding surfaces can
often be observed to climb in a down palaeowind
direction (to the south-east). For example, pro-
minent bounding surfaces in sequence G (Fig. 12)
rise 6 m relative to the basal supersurface over a
downwind distance of 300 m, indicating a down-
wind angle of climb of 1Æ1°. Estimates of angle of
climb from elsewhere in the succession range
from 0Æ3° to 1Æ5° (mean ¼ 0Æ8°). Clear examples of
bedform climb relative to basal supersurfaces can
also be seen in sections exposed at Natural
Bridges (Fig. 6).
Internally, cross strata within the middle and
uppermost parts of the sets are predominantly
composed of alternating grainflow and grainfall
laminae. These merge with lower-angle inclined
wind-ripple strata in the lower parts of the sets,
commonly in an intertonguing relationship.
Additionally, sets of cross strata are regularly
punctuated by inclined bounding surfaces that
dip at angles of 10°–20° in orientations parallel to
sub-parallel to that of the foresets (Fig. 14). These
bounding surfaces have low angle, sweeping
basal parts that form shallow depressions by
cutting down into underlying wind-rippled strata
(e.g. 380 m mark in sequence C, Fig. 9). Further
up-slope, these bounding surfaces steepen until
they merge with steeply inclined grainflow–
grainfall strata in the middle part of the sets,
typically 3–4 m above the basal set boundary
(Fig. 7C). These bounding surfaces, which are
very common in all the erg sequences studied, are
often regularly spaced every 3–5 m in orienta-
tions parallel to sand transport (e.g. between 0
and 280 m in sequence G, Fig. 12). Where
observed in plan view, they are gently curved
(concave downwind) and can typically be traced
along strike for 10–12 m. Architectural elements
composed of these large dune sets are often
transitional with the smaller sets in the upper-
most parts of the underlying small-scale dune
units (e.g. between 360 and 520 m in sequence G,
Fig. 12).
Whilst architectural elements composed of
large-scale aeolian dune units usually extend to
the top of each erg sequence, the internal archi-
tecture of these units is difficult to study in the
uppermost 3–4 m of the sequences because of
disturbance and homogenization of the sandstone
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 807

31

04
5
o

5
o
0 5

22

13
5
o

5
o
Dry interdune m
depressions form
elongate ribbons in

I
plan view sections.

R
I

I
R
R

R
R

R
R R

R
R
I

I
I
R

R
R
I Individual
R
I grainflow tongues

R
I extend 6–10 m
R R along strike before
Some aeolian R pinching out.
dune sets are R
I
characterised R
by thin lenses R Sets form broad, open troughs
of bioturbated I R in sections perpendicular to
damp interdune sand transport direction. Floors
strata at their of troughs are filled with low
Reactivation surfaces with R
base. angle-inclined wind-ripple
regular downwind
R strata.
spacings are immediately R
overlain by moderately
inclined wind-ripple strata. R I R Grainfall strata confined to
I
upper halves of larger scale
R aeolian dune sets. Grainflow
Grainflow tongues merge down dip R and wind-ripple strata
with low angle-inclined wind-ripple
dominate in lower parts.
strata in dune toesets. Indicates
episodic sand avalanching into
dune plinth regions.

Fig. 14. Summary model depicting architecture of simple large-scale aeolian dune elements.

structures by rhizoliths emanating down from the when sand was transported as wind ripples
overlying deflationary supersurfaces. over the dune flanks, probably in response to
along slope-oriented winds (Sweet & Kocurek,
Interpretation 1990; Sweet, 1992), before avalanche sedimen-
The prominent bounding surfaces defining the tation re-commenced (Fig. 14). The downwind-
large-scale dune sets which can be traced for dipping bounding surfaces within these sets are
several hundred metres parallel to palaeowind examples of a type of reactivation surface
are interdune migration surfaces. The downwind generated as a consequence of episodic partial
climb of these surfaces at an average angle of 0Æ8°, erosion of the lee slope of the bedforms (cf.
together with a mean set thickness of 3–6 m, Allen, 1974; Brookfield, 1977; Fryberger, 1993).
indicates bedforms with downwind spacings of The upward-steepening of these erosive modifi-
200–400 m (cf. Kocurek, 1981), similar to or cation surfaces suggests aeolian scour emanating
slightly larger than values determined for parts from the base of the lee slope. These differ from
of the north-eastern erg margin area of the Cedar the ‘classic’ reactivation surfaces observed in
Mesa Sandstone (Mountney & Jagger, 2004). Bed- the upper parts of many modern bedforms,
forms of this scale would either have been large which arise through partial erosion of the
simple dunes or small slipfaced draa. Following bedform brink region following changes in wind
the work of Wilson (1972), bedforms of this scale pattern. Reactivation surfaces in the lower parts
were once considered to be uncommon because of of the Cedar Mesa dune sets probably arise from
a postulated aerodynamic instability that limited episodic changes in the pattern of lee-side
dune size. However, numerous examples of turbulence associated with changes in prevail-
transverse and oblique bedforms of the size ing wind direction and/or strength (Brookfield,
inferred from the Cedar Mesa are known from 1977; Hunter & Rubin, 1983; Rubin & Hunter,
satellite images of modern erg systems such as the 1983). The regular downwind spacing (3–5 m)
Eastern Namib Sand Sea. of these surfaces suggests that changes in wind
The repeated intertonguing of ripple strata pattern were driven by regularly repeating cli-
with grainflow–grainfall strata indicates periods matic events, the most likely explanation being
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
808 N. P. Mountney
seasonal changes in wind direction and/or
strength (Chan & Archer, 1999, 2000; Loope
et al., 2001). The concave shape of these sur-
faces in plan view could indicate scour hollows
or blowouts at regular intervals along the dune
crests.
Architectural elements composed of
compound large-scale aeolian dune co-sets
Description
In places within the succession, large-scale
aeolian dune units take the form of very large
compound co-sets of cross strata, up to 16 m
thick, with rather complex internal architectures.
These co-sets are bounded both above and below
by laterally extensive, very low-angle inclined
bounding surfaces, whilst internally these co-sets
are delineated by a hierarchy of other bounding
surface types. For example, sequence B is dom-
inated by one very large co-set comprised inter-
nally of inclined bounding surfaces dipping at
6°–10° with a mean orientation towards 155°, ca
25° clockwise, relative to the mean cross strata
dip-azimuth for the succession as a whole
(Fig. 15). These surfaces are planar and can be
traced down-dip throughout the entire thickness
of the co-set to a point where they downlap onto
the higher order surface defining the co-set base.
Thus, these surfaces define tabular sets, each 1–
2 m thick, which are themselves composed of
planar or, rarely, very open (broad) trough cross-
stratified sandstone packages. Cross-strata within
these units are composed predominantly of grain-
flow strata with thin intervening grainfall lam-
inae; wind-ripple strata are confined to the basal
few centimetres of the sets. Additionally, these
cross-stratified tabular sets also contain a further
type of bounding surface, examples of which are
inclined at angles of 16°–20°, with orientations
parallel to sub-parallel to that of the cross strata
that they bound (Fig. 15).
Other large-scale but simpler dune sets up to 8–
10 m in thickness are evident in the upper part of
sequence B (Fig. 9). Internally, these contain
downwind-dipping bounding surfaces that ex-
tend throughout the entire thickness of the sets
and, in places, have scoured out broad trough-
shaped hollows into the underlying strata.
Interpretation
Elements composed of large-scale compound
cross-bedded co-sets are the product of the
migration of draa-scale bedforms over which
smaller dunes migrated obliquely (cf. Brookfield,
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
Superimposition surfaces generated by dune migration over a
larger parent bedform (compound draa)
R
R
I
R
I
S
S
S
S
R R R S
R
S R R R R
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S I
I
SS
R 0
m
Fig. 15. Example architecture of large-scale compound
aeolian dune elements. The planar superimposition
bounding surfaces were generated by dune migration
over the lee slope of a larger parent bedform (a com-
pound, slipfaceless draa).
1977; Kocurek, 1991, 1996). The extensive bound-
ing surfaces that delineate the 16 m thick co-sets
are draa migration surfaces. The low-angle in-
clined, downwind-dipping planar bounding sur-
faces are superimposition surfaces generated by
the migration and climbing of dunes on the lee
slope of a slipfaceless draa-scale bedform. The
difference in orientation between these bounding
surfaces and cross strata elsewhere in the succes-
sion signifies that the dunes migrated obliquely
across the draa lee slope (Rubin & Hunter, 1983;
Rubin, 1987a,b), the along-slope component of
migration probably occurring as a consequence of
secondary winds blowing along the lee slope, as
documented for large modern bedforms (Breed &
Grow, 1979; Havholm & Kocurek, 1988) and from
other ancient settings (Mountney et al., 1999).
The planar shape of the bounding surfaces indi-
cates that the superimposed dunes had relatively
straight crestlines, whilst extension of the sur-
faces to the base of the co-set indicates that the
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah
superimposed dunes populated all of the lower
flanks of the draa. The occurrence of grainflow
strata indicates that the superimposed dunes
possessed active slipfaces, whilst the restricted
occurrence of wind-ripple strata suggests that the
dunes were closely spaced on the draa flanks
such that they lacked extensive interdune or
plinth areas. The bounding surfaces inclined at
16°–20°, with similar orientations to the cross
strata represent the product of episodic modifica-
tion (reactivation) of the lee slopes of super-
imposed dunes (Kocurek, 1991, 1996).
The bounding surface that delimits the base of
the large compound co-set in sequence B (Fig. 9)
is inclined at an angle of ca 0Æ3° relative to the
underlying supersurface, which, given an average
preserved set thickness of 16 m, suggests a
downwind bedform wavelength of ca 3000 m,
an estimate that is similar in size to many modern
slipfaceless draa that support superimposed
dunes.
The large-scale dune sets with internal reacti-
vation surfaces observed at the top of sequence B
are significantly thicker than those encountered
in other sequences. The bounding surfaces that
delimit these sets are inclined at an angle of 0Æ6°,
relative to the supersurface. Given an average
preserved set thickness of 9 m, this equates to a
downwind bedform wavelength of ca 860 m.
Thus, these sets represent bedforms that were
significantly larger than their counterparts recor-
ded in other sequences and they probably repre-
sent examples of slipfaced draa.
Dry and damp interdune architectural
elements
Description
Whilst the middle and upper parts of each erg
sequence are dominated by large-scale cross-
stratified aeolian dune units, a variety of inter-
dune units sometimes also occur in these parts of
the succession and are readily distinguished by a
range of characteristic facies types. Units com-
posed predominantly of near-horizontal, wind
ripple strata are typically 0Æ5 m thick, though
occasionally attain thicknesses of up to 1 m. In
orientations parallel to palaeowind, these units
are typically 50–300 m in extent and lens shaped,
pinching out at their upwind and downwind
margins such that they are completely enclosed
by large-scale aeolian dune strata (e.g. sequence
G, Fig. 11). These units often demonstrate an
interfingering relationship with the toesets of
overlying aeolian dune units (Fig. 16).
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
809
Units composed of wavy, crinkly and, rarely,
soft sediment deformed strata are relatively com-
mon but rarely exceed 1 m thickness and usually
have lateral extents < 200 m. These units either
merge into the wind-ripple-dominated interdune
units described above (e.g. sequence E, Fig. 10) or
are completely enclosed by large-scale aeolian
dune strata (e.g. sequence C, Fig. 9). Units often
exhibit various types of small-scale intertonguing
with overlying aeolian dune units (Fig. 16).
Additional sedimentary structures sometimes
observed in these units include small rhizoliths
(0Æ1–0Æ3 m long), zones of weak-to-moderately
intense bioturbation and poorly-to-moderately
developed calcrete nodules arranged into layers
to form a crude palaeosol (e.g. sequence E,
Fig. 10). Rare indenter marks probably represent-
ing the poorly preserved trackways of vertebrate
organisms have been noted from both types of
interdune units.
Interpretation
The two types of interdune architectural units
represent dry and damp interdune elements,
respectively. The intertonguing of dry interdune
strata with overlying aeolian dune strata indicates
interdune sedimentation that was synchronous
with dune migration and accumulation (Mount-
ney & Thompson, 2002). This, together with the
enclosed nature of the units indicates the pre-
sence of discrete dry interdune hollows or
corridors rather than laterally extensive sand-
sheet areas (Ahlbrandt & Fryberger, 1981; Mount-
ney & Jagger, 2004).
Sets characterized by wavy, crinkly and de-
formed strata reflect sedimentation influenced by
damp surface conditions, an interpretation sup-
ported by the presence of rhizoliths, bioturbation
and calcrete nodules. This argues either for the
localized occurrence of the water table at the
accumulation surface or within the capillary
fringe, or for the ponding of rainwater during
periods of intense precipitation when the infiltra-
tion capacity of the substrate was temporarily
exceed. The intertonguing of damp interdune
units with overlying aeolian dune units demon-
strates that damp interdune sedimentation was, at
times, coincident with dune migration (Pulver-
taft, 1985; Mountney & Thompson, 2002). The
occurrence of indenter marks indicative of verte-
brate locomotion produced by several types of
animals, both as part of this study and from
elsewhere in the Cedar Mesa succession, indi-
cates that sufficient moisture existed at or near
the surface to support a relatively sophisticated
810 N. P. Mountney
A B
Grainflow tongues passing down-dip into wind-
rippled dune plinth and dry interdune strata.
Dune toeset gradational into underlying dry interdune unit implies
synchronous migration of dunes adjoining dry interdunes.
Erosive basal boundary of dry interdune unit truncates under-
lying dune set and represents an interdune migration surface.
Asymptotic dune toeset represents low angle dune plinth.
C D
Dune toeset advance into damp interdune;
drying-upward interdune succession.
Grainflow strata intertongues with wind ripple strata.
Could imply damp to dry transition from centre to margin of
interdune flat at time of accumulation.
Could imply water rise that keeps pace with accumulation in
climbing interdunes or water table fall in non-climbing interdunes.
E F
Cyclical scour of dune units into damp interdune
units (often developed with a regular spacing).
Sharp-based dune scour into underlying damp interdune strata.
Aeolian scour requires a dry substrate and therefore implies a
slight water table fall prior to scour of the formerly damp surface.
Possible result of seasonal water table fluctuation: dry months
enable scouring, damp months enable interdune sedimentation.
G H
Contorted bedding confined within damp/wet
interdune, overlying dune unit mostly undeformed.
Wind-ripple strata at base of dune set onlap onto margins of
flames and show growth folding, dune foresets undeformed.
Interdune laminae possibly contorted due to elevated pore
pressure induced by dune advance.
Requires high water table at time of dune advance.
Grainflow strata Trace fossils
Wind ripple strata
Burrows
Wavy laminated strata Rootlets
Contorted strata
Fig. 16. Summary model depicting various types of architectural relationship between aeolian dune and interdune
units.
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
Wind-ripple strata encroaching up dune lee
above reactivation surfaces.
Intertonguing between dune and dry interdune units.
Encroachment of wind-ripple strata up dune lee slope above
reactivation surfaces implies an episodic reduction of dune lee
slope angle and the construction of low angle dune plinths.
May reflect seasonal or more frequent wind reversals.
Damp interdune climbing downwind in front
of advancing dune (low angle of climb).
Intertonguing of dune and damp interdune strata.
Angular relationship between interdune laminae and bounding
surface defining base of damp interdune unit.
Dune migration synchronous with damp interdune sedimentation.
Water table rise enables accumulation in climbing interdunes.
Brittle failure and deformation of dune toeset
strata (grainflow and wind-ripple strata).
Brittle failure and extensional collapse of inter-laminated strata.
Permeability contrast between stratification types restricts
infiltration rate and capacity following rainfall event.
Increase in pore water pressure reduces critical angle of repose
and induces failure near base of dune lee slope.
Contorted and deformed bedding spanning
multiple dune-interdune units.
Grainflow strata more contorted than wind ripple strata due to
looser packing structure.
Original laminae may still be evident in contorted beds.
Fluidisation and de-watering may result in homogenisation.
Implies relative water table rise shortly after dune accumulation.
Dune migration
0 5
m
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah
food chain (Loope, 1984; Lockley & Marsden,
1993; Stanesco et al., 2002). The presence of soft
sediment-deformed sets implies a relatively high
water table soon after deposition (McKee et al.,
1971; Doe & Dott, 1980; Horowitz, 1982).
The presence, in many of the sequences, of
spatially separated interdunes that occupy the
same stratigraphic horizon (e.g. at 34 m in
sequence C, at 42 and 55 m in sequence D, at 66
and 70 m in sequence E, and at 86 and 94 m in
sequence G) indicates the coeval existence of
interdune areas between adjacent dunes. Further-
more, the fact that in most of these examples, the
interdune elements climb up through the strati-
graphy in a downwind direction demonstrates
that they undertook migration and accumulation
that was contemporaneous with dune advance.
DEPOSITIONAL MODEL
Each of the erg sequences preserved within the
Cedar Mesa Sandstone exposed in the vicinity of
White Canyon is characterized by combinations
of architectural elements that occur in a predict-
able manner, indicating that a systematically
varying set of controlling factors determined the
nature of dune field construction, the arrange-
ment of dunes into ordered trains of bedforms,
the onset of accumulation and the subsequent
partial deflation of that accumulation. This sec-
tion examines the likely nature of these factors
and accounts for how they acted to control
sediment accumulation and deflation.
The 10 erg sequences studied within the erg
centre region of the Cedar Mesa Sandstone are
each bounded at both their base and their top by
extensive and planar supersurfaces that represent
the end product of regional erg deflation events
which occurred in response to palaeowinds that
became undersaturated with respect to their
potential sand-transporting capacity (Loope,
1985). The onset of supersurface generation
would have commenced with progressive erg
cannibalization (Fig. 17A) resulting in the develop-
ment of low relief, deflationary aeolian sand-
sheets.
A number of factors indicate that a near-surface
water table controlled the nature of the substrate
for a considerable time period prior to the onset of
renewed aeolian accumulation. The development
of palaeosol units characterized by intense nod-
ular calcrete horizons indicates evaporation of
moisture from the shallow sub-surface. The inti-
mate association with the supersurfaces of hori-
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
811
zons characterized by abundant rhizolith
development, intense bioturbation and the pres-
ence of pseudomorphs after gypsum favours the
presence of a damp surface over a protracted
period. Intense lithification of the sandstones
immediately underlying the supersurfaces
through the precipitation of carbonate cement is
related to the uptake of ground water by plants
and rhizolith development through carbonate
precipitation around root structures (Loope,
1988).
Although supersurfaces in many other aeolian-
dominated successions are typically character-
ized by sabkha deposits (e.g. Fryberger et al.,
1988), they are largely absent from the Cedar
Mesa succession. This indicates that, during
formation of the Cedar Mesa supersurfaces, the
ground water did not become hypersaline, prob-
ably because the climate that prevailed at this
time was relatively humid and rates of surface
evaporation did not exceed rates of ground water
recharge via precipitation or local fluvial input.
The thin, bioturbated sets of red, fine-grained,
commonly wavy-laminated, sandstones that over-
lie the supersurfaces represent damp aeolian
sandsheet deposits that were subject to local
reworking, possibly by localized fluvial runoff
or by subtle fluctuations in the water table level
giving rise to shallow water, transient (ephe-
meral) ponds across the region (Fig. 17B). The
absence of extensive fluvial facies characterized
by mixed sandstone–mudstone lithologies and
erosively based channels, which are common in
the erg margin areas (Langford & Chan, 1988;
Mountney & Jagger, 2004), suggests that fluvial
incursions of extra-dune origin did not penetrate
into this central region of the erg system.
In most of the erg sequences studied the
lowermost deposits of aeolian origin are thin
sandsheets of wind-ripple strata that usually pass
upward and sometimes merge laterally into
small-scale, cross-bedded sets of aeolian strata.
The cross-bedded dune sets are typically rather
poorly arranged with both trough axes and mean
foreset dip-azimuths exhibiting a range of orien-
tations and showing a variety of abrupt cross
cutting relationships (Fig. 13), indicating low
angles of bedform climb in response to only
limited accommodation availability (Fig. 17C).
The thin nature of the trough-cross bedded sets,
their lateral association with sandsheet deposits
and the high number of erosive bounding surfaces
at this stratigraphic interval all indicate that the
system at this time did not undergo steady,
continuous accumulation. Rather, the toesets of
812 N. P. Mountney

A Onset of erg deflation Damp

interdune
unit 50
m
31

04
5
o

5
o
22

13
5
o

5
o

R Water
R
R
table
R

R
R
R

R R

R R
R

Deflationary
R
R
R
R
R

supersurface R
R
R
R
Deflation to
R
R

R R
water table generates
R
damp interdune ponds
Small-scale aeolian R
R
R

sets preserved between R

R
R
R

larger-scale troughs R

R
R
R

R
R

R R
R
Bioturbation and
Blowouts and
R
R
R
R vegetation development
scour pits
R
R
R
R
R
concentrated in interdune
R

R
R
corridors
R R

Dunes being cannibalized R

by winds that are undersaturated

R
R

Dunes partially
with respect to their potential R R

R
R stabilized by
carrying capacity R

R
R
vegetation
Dunes no longer
climbing

B Climax of erg deflation

Desiccation cracks, bioturbation
(Super Surface Development) and rare gypsum pseudomorphs indicate
subtle water table level fluctuations
Extensive, flat lying
Shallow, ephemeral lakes deflationary surface
capture localised runoff

R
R
R

R
R
R
R
R
R
R R

R
R
R
R
R

R
R R R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R R
R
R R
R R
R
R R R
R R
R R
R R
R
R R
R
R

R
R R

Remnant dunes
R
R R
R
R R
R
R R
R
R R
undergoing deflation
Widespread
R
R
R
R R R
R

vegetation R
R
R
R

R
R

colonisation R

R R

R
R

Calcrete palaeosols R
R

developed in localised
R
R
R
R Large-scale trough
topographic depressions
R
R
R

R
R
cross-bedded sets
R

R R
R
R
R
R
R

Deflation to level
R
R
R
R
R

of water table R
R

R R

R
R
Bioturbation and rhizolith
Truncation of
R

R R
development concentrated
formerly climbing R
R
at level of developing
R

dune sets R
R supersurface

Fig. 17. Summary depositional models for the erg centre region of the Cedar Mesa Sandstone. (A) Onset of regional
erg deflation. (B) Climax of regional erg deflation, deflationary supersurface development. (C) Re-establishment of erg
system, non-climbing dune development and migration. (D) Onset of erg accumulation. (E) Climax of erg accumu-
lation, development of compound draa with superimposed bedforms (e.g. erg sequence B). See text for explanation.

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 813

Re-establishment of
C aeolian dune system Vegetation confined to
isolated damp interdune
areas as climate becomes
increasingly arid

R
R
R

R
R
R
R
R
R
R R

R
R
R
R
R

R
R R R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R R
R
R R
R R
R

R
R
R
R
R
R
R Supersurface
R
R

R
R
R

R
characterised
R

R
R

R
R
by abundant
R R

R R
R R
R
R

R
bioturbation
and rhizolith
R
R
R
R
R R R

Predominantly dry R
R
R

R
R
development
R

sandsheet surface R

R R

develops as water table R

R
R

begins to fall R
R
R

Establishment and growth

R
R
R

R
R
R
of isolated barchan and
R
R
R
barchanoid ridge dunes
Sand sea construction characterised R
R
R
R
R

by non-climbing dune growth and R

R
R
R
R

expansion to cover sandsheet surface R

R

R
R

R R

R Localised areas of
Thin palaeosols R
R

damp interdune
immediately overlie R

R
R

sedimentation
supersurface R

R
R

Development of climbing Rare occurrences of isolated

D
erg system damp interdune ponds

Interdune hollows
reduced to narrow dry
interdune depressions
between dunes

R
R
R

R
R
R
R
R
R R
R R
R
R
R
R
R
R

R
R R R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R R
R
R R
R R
R
R R R
R R
R R
R R
R
R R
R
R

R
R R

R
R

R R
R
R
Small-scale aeolian
R

R
R
R
R
R

R
R

dune sets preserved

R

R
R
R
R
R
R beneath and
Relative rise of water
R

R
R R
between troughs of
table due to ongoing basin
R

R
R
R

larger-scale sets
subsidence, despite arid R

R
R

climatic regime R
R
R
R

R
R R

Growth of dunes
R
R
R
Development of
R

and arrangement
R
R
R
R
R

large-scale, sinuous-
into regularly spaced
R
R
R
R
crested transverse
bedform trains
R
R

R
dune ridges
R

R R

Positive angle of R
R

dune climb R

R R

R
R
R

Small-scale sets reflecting

R
R

Supersurface
earlier phase of sand sea
construction

Fig. 17. Continued.

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
814 N. P. Mountney

Compound climbing Narrow dry interdune

E depressions
draa development between dunes

R
R
R

R
R
R
R
R
R R
R R
R
R
R
R
R
R

R
R R R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R R
R
R R
R R
R
R R R
R R
R R
R R
R
R R
R
R

R
R R
R
R R
R
R

R
R R
R R Very occasional
Dry aeolian
R
R
R
R

R R
R
development of
system R
R
R R
R
R

R
R R
damp interdune
R

R
R
ponds
Water table well R
R
R

below level of R
R
R
R

accumulation R

R
R
R
R

surface R

Superimposition R
R
R
R
R

surfaces R
R
R
R
R
R

R
R Open troughs preserved
Development of compound
R R
in sections perpendicular
to dune migration
R
R

draa characterised by transverse R

dunes migrating over larger R

R
R

slipfaceless parent bedform R

R
R

Positive angle of
dune climb

Fig. 17. Continued.

the small dunes accumulated sporadically and sets undertake a gradational transformation into
dune cannibalization and reworking was com- a small number of better organized, larger-scale
mon, a situation that is indicative of systems that trough cross-bedded sets (Fig. 18D). This implies
are sediment-supply limited (Loope & Simpson, the gradual downwind spatial evolution of small,
1992; Kocurek & Lancaster, 1999). isolated barchan dunes into ordered trains of
Many of the erg sequences studied exhibit an transverse or oblique bedforms as the dune fields
obvious transition in their lowermost 3–6 m developed and externally sourced sediment sup-
whereby small-scale, apparently disorganized ply increased. The onset of bedform climbing (i.e.
trough cross-bedded aeolian dune sets become accumulation) signifies that aeolian dunes had
progressively better arranged into more regularly grown to a size such that they covered the
ordered sets in a downwind direction (Figs 10 accumulation surface and that interdune flats
and 18). In some sequences, small-scale sets are had been reduced to isolated interdune hollows
replaced up-succession by larger, more ordered (the transition from metasaturated to saturated
sets (Fig. 18A). Elsewhere, small-scale sets are sand surface conditions in the terminology of
preserved between the erosively based troughs of Wilson, 1971). The broad, open nature of the
larger-scale sets (Fig. 18B). In some sequences large-scale trough cross-bedded sets, together
small-scale sets are largely absent and larger-scale with the occurrence of some planar cross-bedded
sets climb off the basal supersurface, initially at sets and only a narrow range of trough axes
very low angles (Fig. 18C). Most commonly, orientations and foreset dip-azimuths indicates
however, many of the small-scale sets pinch out that the bedforms migrated under the influence of
and are truncated, whilst some begin to establish a dominantly unimodal wind regime which blew
themselves and are clearly observed to increase in consistently to the south-east. The bedforms had
thickness and climb up through the stratigraphy open sinuous and, in some cases, straight crest-
in a downwind direction. Thus, a large number of lines oriented transverse to this migration direc-
disorganized, small-scale trough cross-bedded tion (Fig. 17D). The occurrence of dry and damp
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 815

A Small-scale sets
SS

Large-scale sets

Small-scale sets
SS

Small-scale trough cross-bedded dune sets overlain by

larger-scale dune sets (e.g. Sequence C, Figure 9).

B Small-scale sets
SS

Reactivation
surfaces Large-scale sets
Scallop-shaped
set bases

Small-scale sets
SS

Small-scale sets preserved between troughs of larger-scale

sets (e.g. Sequence G, Figure 12).

C
SS Sandsheet

Large-scale sets

Sandsheet
SS

Planar cross-bedded dune sets climbing off sandsheet above

basal supersurface (e.g. base of Sequence D, Figure 10).

D Small-scale sets

SS Sandsheet

Large-scale sets

Small-scale sets

SS Sandsheet

Planar cross-bedded dune sets becoming larger and better

organised downwind (e.g. 300-500 m in Sequence G, Figure 11).
Fig. 18. Summary models depicting gross-scale sequence architecture documented from the central part of the Cedar
Mesa erg system. All sections oriented parallel to the prominent sand transport direction. Note the various styles of
bedform climbing off the basal supersurfaces (SS). For clarity, only major bounding surfaces are depicted, cross-strata
are omitted. Scale is grossly vertically exaggerated.

Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
816 N. P. Mountney
interdune elements in these parts of the preserved
erg sequences indicates that trains of migrating
bedforms were sometimes separated by more
open, low-relief interdune corridors, which pro-
vided a haven for plant and animal life.
Whilst the majority of the erg sequences pre-
serve simple sets of cross strata, one erg sequence
(B) records a thick compound co-set of cross strata
characterized by planar superimposition surfaces
indicative of the oblique migration of straight-
crested dunes across the front of a larger draa
scale bedform (Figs 15 and 17E). The develop-
ment and accumulation of slipfaceless draa bed-
forms that are large enough to support
superimposed dunes probably represents the
culmination of bedform evolution within the erg
systems of the Cedar Mesa Sandstone. The
apparently rare occurrence of large-scale, com-
pound co-sets indicative of such large bedforms
suggests that sediment supply to the system only
occasionally reached levels capable of generating
draa-scale bedforms.
All the erg sequences studied are capped
by horizontal, regionally extensive deflationary
supersurfaces indicating that the conditions of net
accumulation which enabled the build-up of the
erg sequences periodically switched to conditions
of net erosion characterized initially by a period of
erg cannibalization (Fig. 17A) and deflation down
to the water table, prior to the onset of the
development of the next erg sequence.
DISCUSSION
The depositional model for the Cedar Mesa
Sandstone presented in the previous section
demonstrates that phases of aeolian construction,
accumulation and subsequent partial deflation
occur in a predictable, systematic manner within
the erg centre region of the succession. Discus-
sion of the nature of the underlying controls that
act to determine the nature of sedimentation is
here presented in the form of a generic sequence
stratigraphic model (Fig. 19).
Stratigraphic cycles are recognized within a
variety of sedimentary successions of Permo-
Carboniferous age across much of North America
and it is now generally accepted that many of
these cycles are the product of glacio-eustasy that
acted to control both sea-level and climate
through Milankovitch-style orbital forcing (Wan-
less & Shepard, 1936; Dickinson et al., 1994).
Within Virgilian- and Wolfcampian-age strata of
the Paradox Basin, cycles of supposed glacio-
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
eustatic origin are well developed within the
Lower Cutler Beds, a mixed shallow marine and
non-marine aeolian succession that conformably
underlies and, in places, interdigitates with the
Cedar Mesa Sandstone (Fig. 2; Chan & Langford,
1987; Chan & Kocurek, 1988; Loope et al., 1990;
Rankey, 1997). Analysis of palaeosols within the
Lower Cutler Beds indicates relatively high-
frequency fluctuations between drier, dustier
and windier conditions during lowstand (i.e.
glacial) periods and wetter conditions during
highstand (i.e. interglacial) periods (Soreghan
et al., 2002). Episodes of accumulation and defla-
tion of the Cedar Mesa erg sequences are also
considered to have been driven by regionally
extensive climatic cyclicity that operated in tan-
dem with eustatic sea-level fluctuations within
the coastal realm that bound the Cedar Mesa ergs
to the north-west (Loope, 1985; Stanesco &
Campbell, 1989). Phases of aeolian sand sea
construction and accumulation are thought to
have occurred during regressive intervals when
shoreline retreat would have exposed shelf sands
as a likely aeolian sand source and north-westerly
winds would have blown that sand inland
(Jagger, 2003). In his original interpretation,
Loope (1981) argued that deflation would have
occurred during subsequent transgressive inter-
vals, although, based on analysis of sand trans-
port rates from modern aeolian systems, Loope
(1985) argued convincingly that deflation was
likely to occur during lowstand times when the
climate was still arid but after the upwind sand
supply had been exhausted.
The detailed stratigraphic evidence presented
in this paper allows additional complexity to be
incorporated into this model, in particular the
timing of erg construction, accumulation, defla-
tion and erg destruction (Fig. 19). The revised
model presented here employs a simple sinu-
soidally varying climate curve that tracks be-
tween phases of relative humidity and aridity
with a regular periodicity (Fig. 19A). This curve
can also be used as a proxy for eustatic sea-level
within the coastal and marine realm that lay to
north-west of the erg, with humid phases equa-
ting to sea-level highstands. A potential aeolian
sediment supply would have been generated
during humid climatic phases when fluvial sys-
tems flowing into areas adjacent to the Uncom-
paghre Hinge to the north-east of the Paradox
Basin were at their most active (Mountney &
Jagger, 2004) and when littoral currents swept
sediment across the shallow marine shelf.
However, this supply would have been both
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah 817

a
a
A Time

Humid Humid Humid Climatic cyclicity

Arid Arid Arid

B
Sediment Transport Sediment
+’ve supply capacity availability Controls on erg construction

0
Generation of supply Generation of supply Generation of supply Sediment supply
Zero Increasing availability Decreasing Zero Increasing availability Decreasing Zero Increasing availability Decreasing Sediment availability
Low Rising High Falling Low Rising High Falling Low Rising High Aeolian transport capacity

aCa Dune Angle Absolute Controls on erg accumulation

+’ve coverage of climb water table

0
–’ve
No dunes Construction 100% cover Destruction No dunes Construction 100% cover Destruction No dunes Construction 100% cover Dest. Aeolian dune coverage
Zero angle of aeolian dune climb Accum. Defl. Zero angle of aeolian dune climb Accum. Defl. Zero angle of aeolian dune climb Accum. Defl. Angle of dune climb
High Falling Low Rising High Falling Low Rising High Falling Low Absolute water table level

D Resultant architecture
Time represented by dry aeolian system accumulation
Time represented by deflationary supersurface
Relative
Time represented by water table-controlled accumulation
water table SS
Time represented by bypass supersurface R R R R R R R

Sequence Z
Accumulation
line
Thickness of accumulation

SS
Subsidence R R R R R R R

Sequence Y
line
Large-scale sets

Small-scale sets

Sandsheet
SS
R R R R R R R

Sequence X
SS
R R R R R R R
Fig. 17C

Fig. 17D
Fig. 17A
Fig. 17B

Fig. 17E

Fig. 19. Model for aeolian sand sea construction, accumulation, deflation and partial preservation as determined by
the interplay of the fundamental controlling parameters of sediment supply, sediment availability, the transport
capacity of the wind, water table level and basin subsidence over time. See text for explanation.

availability and transport limited (cf. Kocurek & umes of sand would be made available for aeolian
Lancaster, 1999) at the climax of the humid phase transport as sea levels fell in the coastal area to
(Fig. 19B). As the climate began to shift towards a the north-west, with the water table inland from
more arid regime, the previously high water table the coast falling as a response to this (Kocurek
would begin to fall and the availability of fluvially et al., 2001). As aridity increased, vegetation
supplied sediment for aeolian transport would cover would have diminished, increasing sedi-
increase (Kocurek, 1998). Additionally, large vol- ment availability still further. A regional increase
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
818 N. P. Mountney
in wind strength associated with compression of
the equatorial atmospheric circulation cell would
be expected during the arid phase as a conse-
quence of the build up of polar ice, as has
occurred during Pleistocene arid/glacial phases
(Kocurek et al., 1991a; Kocurek, 1998). Tropical
north-westerlies blowing towards a low pressure
zone across the equator (Loope et al., 2004)
transported the available sediment supply inland
from the coastal belt. Aeolian sand sea construc-
tion commenced as the climate became increas-
ingly arid, initially adjacent to the coastal belt
before proceeding south-eastwards as the dune
front migrated. Sand sea construction employed a
lagged sand influx that may have been either
availability or transport limited (cf. Kocurek &
Lancaster, 1999; Fig. 19B and C). Only once
sand sea construction had proceeded to 100%
dune coverage would accumulation commence
(Wilson, 1971) and the angle of dune bedform
climb would become positive. Initial angles of
dune climb would have been low with relatively
small bedforms repeatedly truncating one another
and preserving only thin, small-scale sets. The
maximum angle of dune climb, as represented by
large-scale dune sets, would have probably coin-
cided with the timing of maximum aridity when
both sediment availability and transport capacity
were at their maximum and when the sediment
supply had yet to be exhausted (Fig. 19B and C).
A change from a positive to a negative angle of
climb would have signalled the switch from
accumulation to deflation and would have been
coincident with exhaustion of the upwind sedi-
ment supply, most likely whilst sea-level was still
low and climate was still relatively arid, accord-
ing to the sand transport calculations of Loope
(1985). The switch from accumulation to defla-
tion would not have occurred synchronously
across the sand sea. Rather, aeolian deflation
would have initially commenced as sand supply
became exhausted at the upwind coastal sand sea
boundary and the deflation front would have
migrated progressively inland (downwind) over
time (Langford & Chan, 1993). Deflation would
have lowered the accumulation surface until it
came into contact with the water table which
would have limited the availability of sand for
further transport. Partly denuded dune forms may
potentially have prevailed during the ongoing
deflation event (Talbot, 1985), though vegetated,
damp or wet aeolian sandsheets lying at or close
to the level of the water table would have
eventually replaced the dunes and would have
culminated in supersurface development. As the
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
climatic regime became less arid, so extensive
vegetation colonized the surface and calcrete
palaeosol horizons developed. The transition to
an increasingly humid climate resulted in a slow
rise in water table, encouraging the development
and preservation of thin non-aeolian succes-
sions within lacustrine ponds and as palaeosols.
Thus, the accumulation of thin sedimentary
horizons preserved immediately above the super-
surfaces would have been water table-controlled
(Fig. 19D; Loope, 1988), though the relatively
humid nature of the climate at this time would
not have been favourable for sabkha sedimenta-
tion, as is commonly associated with super-
surfaces in other aeolian-dominated successions
(Carr-Crabaugh & Kocurek, 1998).
Repeated climatic cycles would have given rise
to multiple aeolian erg sequences, each separated
by deflationary supersurfaces. In his analysis,
Loope (1985) suggested that, for each cycle, sand
sea construction, accumulation, deflation and
destruction could have all occurred within a
30 000 years period, whereas a complete cycle
(including times of bypass) may have spanned ca
400 000 years (Heckel, 1980). Thus, whilst the
preserved sequences are dominated by aeolian
strata, aeolian activity may have prevailed for
only a small fraction of the elapsed time.
Based on comparison of 17 cycles of supposed
glacio-eustatic origin from the Lower Cutler Beds
which conformably underlie the Cedar Mesa
Sandstone, with cycles described by Soreghan
(1990, 1991) from the Pedregosa Basin of southern
Arizona, Dickinson et al. (1994) tentatively estim-
ate the duration of the Lower Cutler Beds cycles
to be 353 000 to 471 000 years (median value of
412 000). The most likely driver for this cyclicity
is the so-called long eccentricity cycle orbital
parameter (Berger, 1977; Imbrie & Imbrie, 1980),
which probably had a mean periodicity of
413 000 years during Permo-Carboniferous times
(Maynard & Leeder, 1992). Because the sedimen-
tary cycles prominent within the Lower Cutler
Beds pass conformably and gradationally up into
the sedimentary cycles within the Cedar Mesa
Sandstone, it is reasonable to assume that these
aeolian-dominated cycles were also driven by the
413 000 years long eccentricity cycle.
The near-ubiquitous occurrence of regularly
spaced reactivation surfaces, every 3–5 m in a
down palaeowind direction, within the Cedar
Mesa erg sequences indicates a periodic causal
mechanism that is most easily explained by
annual fluctuations in wind behaviour. The
geometry and spacing of these reactivations is
 Permian erg accumulation and destruction, Utah
very similar to that described from modern dunes
of a similar size. For example, dunes on the
Oregon Coast (Cooper, 1958) have a mean wave-
length of 300 m and are characterized by annual
advance cycles that are the product of downwind
dune advance at a rate of 3Æ8 m year)1 (Hunter
et al., 1983). Thus, the notion of an annual origin
for the reactivation surface-bounded packages
within the Cedar Mesa dune sets is reasonable.
If this is the case, then an average dune advance
rate of 4 m year)1 at an average angle of climb of
0Æ8° would accumulate a 20 m thick erg sequence
in just 358 years and the erg sequences could
potentially have accumulated very quickly
indeed. This estimate does not provide any
indication of the time required to construct the
dune field prior to the onset of climbing. Neither
does it account for the duration over which the
erg accumulated to an unspecified higher level
before being partly deflated at the end the accu-
mulation episode. Whatever these values, it
seems likely that the period of time represented
by the erg sequences is only a very small propor-
tion of the period of time represented by the
deflationary supersurfaces.
Most aeolian cycles within the lower and
middle parts of the Cedar Mesa succession are
18–22 m thick, as are cycles in the upper part of
the underlying Lower Cutler Beds succession.
Assuming that the cycle duration is indeed
413 000 years, a typical cycle thickness of 20 m
would imply a time-averaged subsidence rate of
0Æ048 mm Ka)1, a value that is in close agree-
ment with published subsidence curves for the
Paradox Basin (Nuccio & Condon, 1996), which
suggest a Virgilian- and Wolfcampian-age sub-
sidence rate of 0Æ040–0Æ050 mm Ka)1 in the
Lisbon Valley part of the basin, 50 km north-
east of the study area. By contrast, the upper-
most four cycles at the top of the Cedar Mesa
succession (not shown on the detailed panels)
are only 4–8 m thick (average ¼ 6 m), which,
assuming that the cycle duration is again
413 000 years, implies a time-averaged subsi-
dence rate of 0Æ015 mm Ka)1. Similarly, pub-
lished subsidence curves (Nuccio & Condon,
1996) also suggest a reduction in subsidence
rates across the Paradox Basin towards the end
of Wolfcampian times, in part due to the onset
of net denudation of the Uncompaghre Moun-
tains and in part because of the overtopping of
peripheral bulge of the, by then, filled foreland
basin (Barbeau, 2003). Thus, if sequences within
the Cedar Mesa Sandstone were indeed driven
by climatic cycles with a regular periodicity,
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
819
then a reduction in preserved sequence thick-
ness towards the end of Wolfcampian times
would be expected as the rate of creation of
accommodation space decreased. An alternative
end-member explanation to this would be for
the rate of accommodation creation to remain
constant but for the periodicity of the cycles to
decrease. As a mechanism responsible for gen-
erating accommodation space (Howell & Mount-
ney, 1997), long-term subsidence was crucial in
enabling aeolian sequence preservation by
allowing the accumulation to pass below the
relatively rising water table (Fig. 19D).
CONCLUSIONS
The Cedar Mesa Sandstone represents the pre-
served product of at least 12 separate aeolian erg
accumulations, each bounded by deflationary
supersurfaces. The detailed sedimentology with-
in each erg sequence within the Hite, White
Canyon and Natural Bridges regions indicates
accumulation of a predominantly dry, though
occasionally water table-influenced, aeolian sys-
tem within an erg centre setting. Periods of
aeolian erg construction commenced with the
growth of small, sinuous-crested transverse dunes
that progressively grew to cover a low-relief
aeolian sandsheet. Aeolian bedform accumula-
tion commenced once the bedforms had grown to
a point whereby formerly extensive interdune flat
areas had been reduced to isolated interdune
depressions. Initial angles of climb were low and
bedforms repeatedly scoured into one another,
resulting in the accumulation of relatively thin
sets. Over time, the accumulating bedforms
increased in size and arranged themselves into
regularly ordered trains of sinuous crested trans-
verse ridges with downwind wavelengths of
300–400 m. Periodic (probably seasonal) wind
reversals generated regularly spaced reactiva-
tion surfaces. Erg-centre bedforms occasionally
developed into compound slipfaceless draa
which supported smaller superimposed dunes.
Erg sequence development was terminated by
deflation of the accumulation down to (or close
to) the level of the water table, resulting in the
generation of regionally extensive deflationary
supersurfaces characterized by abundant rhizo-
lith development, bioturbation and pedogenesis.
The progressive cannibalization of the dune fields
by winds that were undersaturated with respect
to their potential transport capacity culminated
in complete sand sea destruction and the
820 N. P. Mountney
establishment of a dune-free, low-relief surface.
Whilst major fluvial systems did not apparently
penetrate into the erg centre region, minor fluvial
reworking of remnant aeolian sandsheet deposits
was widespread. Small-scale water table level
fluctuations resulted in the development of tran-
sient (probably ephemeral) shallow ponds.
Construction, accumulation, deflation and
destruction of the aeolian erg sequences is con-
sidered to be directly attributable to cyclical
changes in climate and related to changes in
eustasy that characterize many Permo-Carbonif-
erous age successions. These changes are likely to
have been glacio-eustatic in origin. Aeolian erg
construction occurred during phases of increas-
ing aridity and falling sea-level. Upwind expo-
sure of a former shallow marine shelf area
provided a time-lagged sediment supply, whilst
a falling water table and reduced vegetation
coverage made that sediment available for trans-
port inland. Tropical north-westerly winds
strengthened as pressure gradients steepened in
response to changing atmospheric circulation
patterns, resulting in an increase in sand-trans-
port capacity. Aeolian erg accumulation occurred
at the climax of climatic aridity, whilst the onset
of erg deflation, which culminated in complete
erg destruction, commenced shortly afterwards as
the upwind sand supply was exhausted. Protrac-
ted periods of non-aeolian activity predominated
during humid (interglacial) climatic phases when
water table level was high and the winds were
slacker.
While difficult to test unequivocally, glacio-
eustatic cycles driven by the 413 000 years long
eccentricity orbital parameter are likely to have
been responsible for generating the Cedar Mesa
erg sequences. If the regularly repeating reactiva-
tion surfaces present throughout most of the
aeolian sets formed on a seasonal basis then each
20 m thick erg sequence is likely to have accu-
mulated over a period of just a few hundred years,
whilst the supersurfaces that separate the ergs
represent major diastems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by The Nuffield Foun-
dation. The author is grateful to Stephen Cain,
Alison Jagger and Oliver Jordan for accompani-
ment during field data collection, and to Peter
Haughton, David Loope and Richard Steele for
their constructive reviews.
Ó 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation Ó 2006 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 53, 789–823
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