TERM Definition Cognition

Dichotic listening task Listening to two messages one in each ear, participants attend to one
message
Attentional Paradox When you are talking to someone and overhear your name even when you
aren’t listening to them
Perceptual Load The difficulty of a task- we have limited capacity, and all must allocate, so any
capacity that is not allocated to the primary task is allocated to irrelevant
stimuli
Attentional Spotlight Attention focused on one area; this can be shifted without eye movement
Zoom lens Area of attentional field can be increased or decreased based on task
demands
Endogenous Internal cues which are controlled by the individual intentions and
expectations
Exogenous External cues which are from the environment and others around you
Hemispatial Neglect Loss of attention on one side of a visual field, the side which patients don’t pay
attention to is considered extinct
Feature Integration Theory Two stages in attention theory
Preattentive Stage: Processes physical features but cannot combine those
features, any pop out features are noticed
Focused Attention Stage: Combines physical features, illusionary conjunctions
can occur
Illusionary conjunctions Random combinations of features which are not there
Serial Processing Can only process one thing at a time but in order
Parallel Processing Can process multiple items at the same time
Central Capacity Allocates resources to the task
Dysexecutive syndrome Caused by frontal lobe damage, causes cognitive, emotional and behavioural
symptoms such as difficulty planning and organising
Utilisation Patients who grasp and use any items they are presented with
Bottom-up processing Driven by the environment
Top-down processing Driven by own expectation and knowledge
Single cell recording Microelectrode records activity of a single neurone
ERPs Present same stimulus repeatedly then makes a pattern of electrical brain
activity
PET Brain scanning by measuring positrons
fMRI Imaging using blood oxygen
MEG Measures magnetic fields produced by brain activity
TMS Creating temporary brain lesions by running an electrical current next to the
skull
Computational Modelling Programming computers to model human cognition- expected to do well and
fail
Artificial Intelligence Programming computers that make intelligent outcomes that don’t mirror
human behaviour
Connectionist networks Arrangement of neurones in a network in order to create functions
Inattentional blindness Not noticing an object in the environment that should not be there
Change blindness Not noticing a change in the environment
Utilisation behaviour Medial frontal lesions cause patients to use and grasp any objects they see
even if it is inappropriate

Psychological refractory 2 stimuli are shown in quick succession, people notice the first stimuli more
period than the second this is thought to be because the first stimuli are still being
processed
Selective interference Type of resources that tasks requires determines if there is interference (e.g.,
2 audio tasks likely to interfere)
Threat superiority effect Quicker to notice a threatening stimulus
Divided attention Difficult to attend to 2 tasks at once- more so if the tasks are similar
Latent learning Acquisition of new knowledge but with no new behaviour
Operants Action operates on environment to bring change linked to a consequence
Compensatory reaction Body prepares from a conditioned stimuli (e.g., diabetics who inject insulin as
the needle goes in the body produces more sugar)
Contralesional Opposite side of the lesion
Ipselesional Same side of the lesion
Extinction Not being able to detect a stimulus in the environment
Double dissociations
Supervisory attention systems
When two related mental processes can function independently of each other
3 different levels of processing with differing levels of automacity:
-Fully automatic (controlled by schemas cannot be changed)
-Partially automatic (controlled by schemas but the steps of the process may
not be in order)
-Deliberate (new tasks)

Extinction When the conditioned stimulus is no longer there

Spontaneous recovery When an extinct stimulus reappears, and you must build the association again-
this is usually quicker than starting from scratch
Generalisation Same conditioned response to a similar stimulus
Discrimination Ability to separate generalised and actual stimuli
Contiguity Associations must be really close together- so that it is predictable that this
occurs at the same time
Primary memory store Information remains in the consciousness after it has been perceived
Secondary memory store Information about events leave consciousness and it must actively be recalled
Anterograde amnesia Inability to make new long-term memories, retain old LTM. STM is intact
Iconic store Visual store-lost by decay
Duration: around 500msec
Capacity: 12+ letters
Echoic store Auditory store-lost by decay
Duration:1-5seconds
Capacity: depends on the stimuli
Partial report Presentation of rows of letters. Told to recall a random row of letters
ISI Interstimulus intervals. The time between the two stimuli
EO Effective overlap. Less time between the stimuluses so processing and
memory are more likely to overlap
Short term store Gates conscious report, responsible for rehearsal and transfer to LTM. It is
important for language comprehension
Dual task paradigm Performing a secondary task whilst also focussing on a primary task
Overt rehearsal Out loud rehearsal
Phonological store Stores sound memory traces for a few seconds
Articulatory loop Rehearsing speech
Visuospatial sketchpad Learning the way around an environment. Planning and performing spatial
tasks
Central executive Decides whether you store or process the information
Elaboration effect Semantic orientating tasks, high elaboration led to better retention. Increases
associations between stimuli and context
TAP Transfer Appropriate Memory performance depend on extent to which processed are used at the
Processing time of learning are the same as with recall
Amnesia Previously learnt semantic information is preserved, acquisition of new
semantic knowledge is impaired
Semantic dementia Progressive loss of semantic knowledge
Alzheimer’s Working memory and declarative memory lost
It is autonoetic
Autonoetic (episodic) Aware of the memory and where it comes from
Noetic (semantic) Aware of the memory but don’t know where it comes from
Anoetic (procedural) Don’t know where the memory comes from and could not explain it without
actually doing the action, e.g., could not explain how to tie shoelaces can just
do it
Right occipital lobe resection Normal declarative memory but impaired perceptual priming
Declarative Episodic and semantic. Can recall a specific thing
Non-declarative Procedural
Perceptual Priming Shown stimuli close to the needing to be recalled stimuli
Decay Memory fades with time
Interference Memory traces are disrupted or displaced by subsequent/prior learning
Retroactive interference Later learning disrupts earlier learning. Memory decreases as the number of
intervening trial increases
Proactive interference Prior learning disrupts subsequent learning, performance declines over
successive trials with similar stimuli
Encoding specificity principle Retrieval success depends on informational overlap between encoding and
retrieval, content rather than processing, can be extrinsic or intrinsic
Intrinsic Features that are an integral part of the target stimulus
 Extrinsic Other features present at the time of encoding
Fixations Focussing on a particular word- usually lasts for 250ms
Saccades When eyes jump from one word to another word
Regressions Backwards eye movement, happens more when the sentence is more complex
Perceptual span 4 characters on the left and 12-15 characters on the right of the fixation point
Immediacy hypothesis Reader tries to comprehend the word as soon as it is encountered
Eye mind hypothesis No delay between looking at a word and the brain processing it
Syntax Order of words forming a sentence
Parsing Processing/understanding of the sentence
Sentence parsing Determining relationships between different elements of a sentence and
assigning them to syntactic categories
Local ambiguity Different interpretations of sentences whilst processing, the end meaning is
clear
Global ambiguity The whole sentence has different interpretations
Discourse Spoken/written language that is sentences long
Discourse processing Linking together units of text to form mental representations
Construction integration Surface form: The text itself
model Text base/propositional: Proposition formed from the text
Situation model: The situation referred to in the text
Logical inferences Based on formal rules- follow up from the meanings of words
Bridging inferences Helps us make coherent by linking new info to previously obtained info
Elaborative inferences Involved extending what is in the text to world knowledge, relying on semantic
associations
Phonemes Smallest units of sound e.g. ‘rice’ and ‘lice’
Morphemes Smallest units of meaning in language
Phonology Rules governing the sound of words and parts of words
Syntax Rules governing word order and meaning resulting in sentences
Semantics The meanings of words and sentences
Pragmatics The use of language as a function of content and social rules

DEVELOPMENTAL
TERM DEFINITION
Habituation A decrease in response to repeated exposure to the same stimuli- is testing
through sucking, heart rate and looking time
Affordances Learning the possibilities of actions to do with certain objects e.g., infants can
pick up small objects but not large objects
Synaptogenesis Increase in synaptic connections as either new neurones or more connections
between each synapse
Perceptual learning Infants use perceptual abilities to search for order and regularity in the world
(e.g., can detect standalone event with no learning but only through
experience will they associate things together e.g., glass breaking and
smashing sound)
Statistical learning Picking up information from the environment and forming associations in a
statistically predictable pattern (e.g., some things occur in a certain order)
Observational learning Infants imitate other actions- this can happen even when time has passed
Classical conditioning Associations
Instrumental conditioning Same as operant
Differentiation Extraction of a stable thing in a constantly changing environment
Extinction Infants learn that there are some situations where they have no control
Assimilation Creating new knowledge
Accommodation Adapting current knowledge
Discontinuities Hierarchal stages at set ages
A not B error Reaching for objects where they were originally presented not where they
were last shown
Differentiation Learning stable elements (e.g., parents face) in a constantly changing
environment
Social scaffolding Competent people providing framework, initially giving lots of support then
gradually removing it as the child becomes more confident
Guided participation More knowledgeable individuals organise activities in ways that children can
engage (e.g., primary school activities)
Private speech Children talking themselves through tasks- initially this is out loud and
eventually this becomes internal, but this can come back when tasks are
 particularly difficult
Behaviour regulation For children is controlled by other statements (from parents, teachers etc).
However, this becomes internalised as the child gets older
Mental functions Lower mental functions: Involuntary, innate, and biological responses to the
environment
Higher mental functions: Voluntary, consciously controlled responses to the
environment
Deferred imitation Repetition of other behaviours when time has lapsed
Symbolic representation The use of one object to stand for another
Lower mental functions Elementary mental abilities tied to biological processes
Higher mental functions Consciously controlled that come from voluntary attention, logical planning
and conceptual thought
Internalisation Eventually children can become independent
Cultural mediation Transmission of knowledge through social interactions
Intersubjectivity Mutual understanding that people share during communication
Joint Attention Process where social partners focus on the same thing in the external
environment
Social referencing Tendency to look to social partners for guidance on how to act in an
unfamiliar situation
Categorical hierarchies Dividing objects into categories starting from the broadest to the specific
object
Superordinate level Most broad level
Basic level Medium one in between
Subordinate level Specific
Casual relations Understanding why objects are the way that they are
Habituation Decrease in response to stimuli in infants it can be tested via: Heart rate,
sucking rate and looking
Optical expansion When an object takes up more space- assumed that it becomes closer
Pictorial representation Understanding that an image is just that- infants will reach and try to grab the
object in the image
Monocular/pictorial cues Perceptual cues can help someone identify the depth of something via one eye
alone
Stereopsis Visual cortex combines 2 differing neural signals, so combines 2 images into
one to work out where an object is in space
Scanning Stationary object and infants move eyes to examine the object
Tracking Following a moving object
Sensation Processing of basic information from the external world through sensory
receptors
Perception Process of organising and interpreting sensory information about objects,
events, and spatial layout
Social refencing Use of another’s reaction to judge an unfamiliar situation
Pre reaching movements Clumsy swiping movements in the general area of the object
Dynamic systems Confluence of many factors such as neural and physical factors
Babinski reflex When a baby’s foot is stroked their toes fan and curl out
Moro reflex If a baby is startled, they put their arms back and arch their backs
Rooting Babies turn their heads and open mouths when their cheek is stroked
Sucking Babies suck whatever is put in their mouths
Tonic neck reflex Infants head it moved and it stretches the arms and legs
Scale errors Toddlers will use miniature objects the same way they would use a full-size
object
Neural tube U shaped groove formed from the top layer of differentiated cells in the
embryo, this then becomes the brain and spinal cord
Placenta Semipermeable, exchanges materials between mothers and foetus’
bloodstream
Umbilical cord Contains blood vessels that travel from the placenta to the foetus
Placental membrane Barrier against some toxin agents
Amniotic sac A membrane filled with fluid where the foetus floats, also acts as a protective
buffer for the foetus and regulates the temperature
Dose response relation More exposure to tetragens increases the risk to having an effect
Tetragens Environmental agents which can cause harm during prenatal development,
many only causes harm during the sensitive period, so timing is a crucial factor
Sleeper effects Impact of tetragens may not be apparent until years later
State The infants’ levels of arousal and engagement with the environment, ranges
from deep sleep to intense activity
REM sleep
Non-REM sleep
Auto stimulation theory
Norm of reaction
PKU
MAOA
Heritability
Preattachment
Attachment in the making
Clear cut attachment
Reciprocal relationships
Instrumental
Expressive
Gender essentialist
statements
Prosocial Display Rules
Self-protective Display rules
Emotional display rules
Social smiles
Discrete emotional theory
Functionalist theory
What are emotions
Reactive aggression
Proactive aggression
Hostile/instrumental
aggression
Relational aggression
Empathy
Sympathy
Internal regulatory mechanism
Moral judgements
Social conventional
judgements
Personal judgements
Preconventional stage
(Kohlberg theory of moral
development)
Active sleep associated with dreaming in adults, occurs most during the first
few months
Deep sleep with no motor activity
REM sleep makes up for deprivation of external stimuli, this facilitates the
development of the visual system
All the phenotypes that can arise from a specific genotype depending on the
environment on where the organism lives
Defective gene on chromosome 12. Early diagnosis and restricted diet can
prevent cognitive impairment which can come from PKU
Gene has an inhibitory effect. Increased MAOA activity causes decreased
aggression. Men who experience severe childhood maltreatment are more
likely to engage in antisocial behaviour, effect was stronger for those who had
a relatively inactive MAOA gene
Statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a given
trait among the individuals in each population that is attributed to genetic
differences between individuals
0-6weeks. Infants’ innate signals which cause others to come and comfort
them, they do not care who the response is from
6weeks-8months. Signals to everyone but has a preference as to who they
want the response from
8months-1/2years. Infants actively seek contact with their preferred caregiver
and show distress when separated
1-2yrs. Child takes an active role in developing working relationships with their
caregivers.
Active, competitive, independent. Stereotypically ‘male’ traits
Emotional, gentle, empathetic. Stereotypically ‘female’ traits
e.g., ‘boys don’t cry’ ‘girls play with dolls’ Stereotype statements about a
specific gender
Used to protect another’s feelings
Used for personal gains
A groups informal norms about when certain social reactions are meant to be
displayed
Infants’ smiles (6-7 weeks) directed towards people
Emotions are innate and distinct from one another early on, each emotion is
packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial expressions
Emotions are not distinct from one another early in life and environmental
factors influence emotional development. Emotions are to promote action
from someone else
Physiological response: The physical effects of the emotions such as increased
heart rate, and stomach ‘butterflies’
Cognition: Subjective, conscious experiences the cognitive interpretation of
physiological arousal
Behaviour: Overt expression of our emotions, such as facial expressions
Emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression. People who show this are likely to
perceive other people’s motives as hostile and generate an aggressive
response to others
Unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need. People are like this tend to
anticipate more positive social consequences of aggression
Same as social
Excluding peers from social groups
Emotional reaction to another emotional state or condition that is similar to
the persons state or condition
Feeling of concern for another person in reaction to others emotional state or
condition often an outcome of empathy of others emotion
Conscience. Increases the individuals ability to conform with standards of
conduct accepted in their culture
Decisions that pertain to issues of right and wrong, fairness and justice
Decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social
coordination and social organisation
Decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main
consideration
Reasoning is self-centred, maximising rewards and minimising punishment
1) Obedience to authority: Motivated by avoidance of punishment
2) Instrument and exchange orientation: Focuses on the child’s own best

Conventional stage (Kohlberg
theory of moral development)
Post conventional stage
(Kohlberg theory of moral
development)
TERM
Door in the face
Foot in the door
Low balling
Compliance
Internalisation
Normative social influence
Information social influence
Sociocultural perspective
Binding factors
Responsibility
Situational factors
Price quality heuristic
Elaboration likelihood model
Bandwagon effect
Mere exposure effect
Perceptual fluency
Scarcity appeals
Impression management
Self-monitoring
interest or involves equal exchange between people
Centred on social relationships
3) Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal
conformity orientation: What is seen as socially acceptable? Important
to be seen as having empathy and being good to others
4) Social system and conscience orientation: Fulfilling one’s duties to
society and social group.
Focused on moral principles
5) Social contract or individual rights orientation: Upholding rules that are
in the best interest of the group
6) Universal ethical principles: Commitment to self-chosen ethical
considerations that reflect universal principles
Many people do not reach these stages
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION
Start with a high offer, then go with a lower offer
Start with a low offer, then go with a higher offer
Get people to agree to the original conditions then changing it to make it less
desirable
Change in outward behaviour and opinions
Change in both internal and outward behaviour and opinions
Going along with the group in order to appear ‘normal’
Going along with the group as you believe they know more information than
you do
Taught to obey authority figures and trust that authority figures are
legitimate
Psychological barriers to disobedience as well as the increase of punishment
for disobedience
Agentic shift- shift responsibility from the participant to someone else
Some places power are so strong so it prevents individual differences in
obedience from showing
When people think things are better because they are expensive (e.g., wine)
Dual process of persuasion. Central route-People scrutinize claims from the
advert and weigh up the pros and cons of the product (More likely if the
product is more expensive and the need it high). Peripheral route-People are
more likely to buy if it is a good colour (purple iPhone), celeb endorsement,
assumed knowledge of the advertiser
When people copy the behaviour of others just because everyone else
appears to be doing it (e.g., toilet paper)
When you are repeatedly shown something and then begin to like it (e.g.,
hating a song, radio repeatedly plays it so then you think you like it)
Idea that people are cognitively lazy and therefore like stimuli that are easy to
encode and process (e.g., when things are symmetric)
Some items are considered valuable, so more people buy this product in order
to appeal ‘individual’
Causes:
 Anticipatory regret (if I don’t do this now, I will regret it)
 Need for uniqueness (limited edition)
 Increased arousal: increased adrenaline
 Impaired cognition: Causes impulse spending to reduce adrenaline
Use of strategies to get others to see us in a positive light (particularly
common on social media)
Controlling how we present ourselves (state and trait self-esteem)
Strategic self-presentation
Self enhancement bias
Self-serving bias
Global self esteem
Domain specific self esteem
Trait self esteem
State self esteem
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Contextual self
Self-schema
Social categorisation
Social identity salience
Symbolic interactionism
Looking glass self
Social identity
Personal identity
Acculturation
Attribution bias
Stereotype rebound
Collectivist
Individualistic
4 factor relationship
breakdowns
Investment theory
Parental investment theory
Features of starting a
relationship
Dilution effect
Confusion effect
Natural selection
Confirmation bias
Illusionary correlations
-Agreeing with others’ opinions
-Being selectively modest
-Don’t look desperate
Self-reflection on positive aspects of self-more than negative aspects
Taking credit for success but denying blame for failure, ability to forget
negative feedback more easily and the belief than flaws are human, but
qualities are distinctive
Overall opinion on self, it is a scale between negative and positive
Self-esteem regarding one specific skill
Self-esteem relating to how you are as a person- it is lifelong
Self-esteem in a particular situation or time, it is short term
Behaviour is motivated by personal factors such as happiness
Behaviour is motivated by external rewards such as grades and/or praise
People behave and describe themselves differently depending on different
contexts, the multiple representations of self can become more salient
depending on the situation
Beliefs and ideas people hold about themselves
How we group ourselves
Different aspects of ourselves become more or less salient depending on the
situation
We are defined through our interactions with others
We see ourselves how we think others see us
Defining self-based on a group identity
Defining self-based on traits and close relationships
The process of internalising the rules and behaviour of another cultures
Tendency to explain someone’s behaviour by referring to their character
rather than the situation (e.g., They did well on the exam as they are
intelligent). This is not present in collectivist cultures
When instructed to suppress stereotypes, there is increased belief in these
stereotypes- common in individualistic cultures
Interdependent. Focus on the group’s goals. Adverts in these countries focus
on group activities
Independent. Focus on individual goals. Adverts in these countries focus on
individual activities
Withdrawal: Avoiding seeing the other person, this works for casual
relationships.
Manipulation: Creating lots of arguments so the other person breaks up with
you
Positive- tone strengths: Putting a positive spin on ending the relationship
Open Confrontation: Coming clean and saying the relationship doesn’t work
Have to get out what you put into the relationship.
Comparison levels: Comparing current satisfaction levels to previous partners
Comparison levels for alternatives: Comparing current relationship to other
possible relationships
Investments: Level of resources put into a relationship if high investment there
is more commitment
Costs associated with sex. Women have more investment so are usually
pickier with partners
Proximity: Being physically close to others to increase the chances of becoming
friends
Familiarity: Seeing a person more= more likely to become friends with
someone
Similarity: Little evidence that opposites attract. If someone if like you, more
likely to start a relationship with them
What makes humans socialable. Danger of a successful predator attack is
diluted when there are more people
What makes humans socialable. With increased group size and individual is not
as much of a target. Used for cooperative child rearing and cooperative
foraging/hunting
What makes humans socialable. Fundamental need to be socialable for
survival, so those who are more socialable survive and reproduce
Looking for information which confirms your already existing belief
Seeing a relationship between two variables even when there is not one (e.g.,
‘Muslim man arrested for acts of terrorism’ people will associate Muslims with
terrorism). This is more likely to occur when the events are doubly distinct
Out group homogeneity
Doubly distinct events
Prejudice
Stereotypes
Discrimination
Racial microaggressions
Heat hypothesis
Geographic regions approach
Time periods approach
Frustration-aggression
hypothesis
Hostile aggression
Instrumental aggression
Aggression
Violence
More likely to recognise people from their own race- ‘own race bias’. More
exposure to other races changes this
Infrequent and negative events so you are more likely to put these events
together
Negative feelings towards a member of a group because of their group
membership
Generalised belief about a particular group/class of people. Can be both
positive and negative. Positive stereotypes can also be bad as if someone
does not fulfil that role, they may not feel part of the social group
Actual violence or action with a negative impact on a minority group
Inattentional or attentional comments or behaviour that are hostile or
derogatory to minority groups
Aggression and heat are positively correlated
Compares violent crimes in hotter vs cooler region, there is a link between
hotter areas and violent crime
Compares crime rates in the same area over hotter and cooler times, violent
crimes are higher in the summer
Main parts:
1) All frustration leads to aggression and all aggression comes from
frustration
2) Frustration is the blockage of a goal directed activity
3) Aggression is driven by a goal to overcome the feeling of frustration-
catharsis
Aggressive behaviour motivated by the desire to express anger and hostile
feelings. The motive is to harm the target
Aggressive behaviour performed to reach a particular goal, as ends to a
mean. The motive is to reach a goal, with harm to someone being a side effect
of reaching this goal
Behaviour intended to harm or injure someone else. Aggression must be:
1) Aggressor must intend to harm/injure another person
2) Aggressor must have awareness of the adverse effects of the
behaviour
3) Target of aggression must want to avoid the harm
Carried out with the intention of physical harm, all acts of violence are
aggressive but not all aggressive behaviours are violent

Research Methods & Statistics

TERM DEFINITION
Point estimate Single value estimate of a population parameter
Interval estimate A range of possible values of a population parameter
Confidence interval Interval values for our population parameter together with specified level of
confidence
Use 1.96 z score to calculate as this is 0.025% above/below score
H0 Null hypothesis
H1 Research hypothesis
NHST Null hypothesis testing
1)Formulate H0 and H1 hypothesises
2)Collect data
3)Evaluate consistency between data and H0
-if data is inconsistent- REJECT the null
-if data is consistent-FAIL TO REJECT the null
4)Interpret step 3 decision based on hypothesis
P value The conditional probability associated with the sample statistic assuming that
the null hypothesis is true. It is NOT the probability that the null hypothesis is
true
Parent population Distribution of individual scores
Central limit theorem The bigger the sample size the closer the SDM will get to being normal, this is
true regardless of whether the parent population is normal or not
Sampling distribution mean Based on a group distribution usually from participants drawn at random from
(SDM) the parent population. This is the normal distribution; the mean is the same as
the parent population, but the standard deviation is different
Sampling errors The error associated with examining statistics calculated from a sample
rather than the population, occurs when the sample does not contain the
entire population. With a bigger sample, a large sampling error is LESS likely to
occur. With a smaller sample, a large sampling error is MORE likely to occur.
Uniform data Every outcome is equally likely
Bimodal data set 2 modes of data on different sides- comes from something in an experiment
has gone wrong
Probability Measure of how likely an event will occur
Conditional probability Probability of something happening based on a known or assumed event has
occurred
Histogram Shows frequency or proportion of each score, can see the mode and variation
of data
Scatterplot Shows correlation between two variables
Data summary IV can be numerical and categorical
Boxplot Shows median and quartiles
Necessary and sufficient Necessary: Must be present for the event to occur, but it does not act alone to
cause the DV
Sufficient: A condition or set of conditions that causes an event but is not
required for the event to occur
Mean Average of all data points. Pros: Provides estimate of average scores. Cons:
Affected by outliers
Median Middle number when numbers are ordered in size order. Pros: Not effected by
outliers. Cons: Does not reflect extreme score variation
Mode Most common number. Pro: Easy to calculate and understand. Con: Data set
can have multiple modes. Data is plural so ‘are’ not ‘is’
Range Biggest number-smallest number. Con: Doesn’t always change for different
distributions
Deviation How far away the score is from the mean, it is the variability and spread of the
data
Population Consists of all people who share a particular characteristic
Population parameter Quantity that describes a characteristic with respect to a specific variable.
This can be hard to obtain, e.g. all the people with a specific genetic condition
Sample Smaller amount of the population that are used in studies
Sample statistic Same as a population parameter but with the sample, can give an estimate of
the population parameter
Random sampling Everyone in the population has an equal chance of selection- uses a random
generator to pick the sample
Systematic sampling A list of names and every nth person is picked
Opportunity sampling Whoever is available at the time
Stratified sampling Proportional size groups within the population are picked in order to equally
represent the population, e.g. if the population is 70% white British, 3% Chinese,
15% POC etc then the sample will have the same proportion
Cluster sampling Researcher samples and entire group from the target population (often when
the characteristic is rare so the entire population with that characteristic is
quite small)
Snowball sampling Recruiting a small number of participants, then using those people to recruit
further participants
Reactivity Participants know that they are being observed so they alter their behaviour
-Demand characteristics
-Experimenter bias
Can be counteracted by using single- or double-blind trials
Extraneous variables Undesired variables that add error to the experiment can be limited by:
-Random allocation of participants
-Counter balancing
Confounding variables EV that disproportionately affects one level of the IV more than the others
-Adds a constant error
-Reduces internal validity
Selection Bias resulting from participant selection or allocation to IVs which influences
the DV. Quasi experiments have difficulty with this
History Uncontrolled events that occur between testing (e.g., covid)
Maturation Intrinsic changes in the participants characteristics between testing (e.g.,
ageing)
Instrumentation Changes in the reliability of measurement during the study
Precision Exactness (preciseness)
Accuracy Correctness (truthfulness)
True causation IV always results in the DV
Multifactorial causation DV is caused by many intertwining factors
Random error Chance fluctuations in results, this obscures the results
Constant error A bias is present and influences measurements systematically, this biases the
results
Test-retest If the test gives the same result at two different points in time
Internal consistency If items on a scale are correlated with one another
Split-half Stats method which measures test score consistency
Inter rater If 2 different people do the same test and get the same result
Parallel forms If the same person does different versions of the test, they should get the
same result
Content validity Long term validity. Does it measure everything in the construct
Face validity Long term validity. Does it measure what it is supposed to measure
Criterion validity Long term validity. Comparing to a measure already known to see if it
matches
Concurrent validity Long term validity. High correlation between 2 measures of the same thing
Predictive validity Long term validity. Can predict another variable measuring a different
construct
Construct validity Long term validity. Is there evidence that the construct exists
Divergent validity Short term validity. Lack of correlations with measured of different and the
same constructs
Convergent validity Short term validity. Correlates with measures of different and the same
construct
Between subjects Independent groups, random allocation. Each participant does one condition
Within subjects Repeated measures, requires counterbalancing. Each participant does both
conditions
Quasi Participants are pre-determined groups, difficult to establish cause and effect.
Matching individuals reduces chance results are due to other variables
Factorial Experimental designs with 2 or more IVs
Cross sectional Comparing groups of individuals from different age groups (e.g. comparing a
group of 3 year olds to a group of 5 year olds)
Longitudinal An individual is followed over a long period of time
Ordinal Data that is ranked or rated
Interval Data based on a standard measurement such as temperature
Nominal Data is separated into distinct categories
Ratio Intervals of equal amounts which are relative to each value, they have a true
zero point
Constructs Building blocks of theories, does not indicate how it can be measured.
Theoretical concepts made to serve as a causal or descriptive explanation
Variables Any characteristic that can assume multiple values, they must be
operationalised. It is an event or condition that can be measured
Fact A statement that is about a direct observation that is consistently repeated so
it is hard to dispute
Theory A collection of statements that together attempt to explain a phenomena
Hypothesis Clear observation making a specific prediction
Falsifiable Can be disproven
Rational Consistent with current information
Testable Can it accurately test the phenomena
Precisely stated Are all terms precisely stated
Parsimonious Is the explanation as simple as possible
Descriptive data Describes behaviour
Relational data Behaviour based on relationship with another behaviour
Methodological triangulation Multiple methods study one aspect
Methodological pluralism Multiple methods to study multiple aspects
Direct replication Replicating the study using the same stimuli, trials, participants
Conceptual replication Replicating the concept of the study but changing one aspect such as using
younger participants
Reproducible When the same results come from repeated analysis
Replicable Repeating the same experiment to see if the results are the same
Open access Unrestricted public access, results in more media coverage and public
knowledge
Replication crisis When studies are not replicated
Induction Evidence is taken from multiple observations using experimental methods to
draw conclusions
Bayesianism Predicting the probability of future events using past knowledge
Objective Free from bias
Empirical From observation
Pseudoscience When people claim something is scientific but there is no real evidence for this