GEN CHEM

Entropy and Spontaneous Processes

Spontaneity - is a property of a process to occur without an external input of energy
● Spontaneous process - proceeds without external input.
● Nonspontaneous process - requires energy to proceed.

Example of Spontaneous Process:

Melting of ice at 25’C
Diffusion of gases
Vaporization of a liquid to a gas at a temperature above its boiling point
Dissolution of a solute in a solvent
Diffusion of gases in a mixture.

Entropy - denoted by S.
●a thermodynamic property that describes energy distribution in the microscopic energy levels of a
system.
● loosely translates to “disorder” or “randomness”.
● higher entropy = more disordered.

Microstates - denoted by W.
●Specific arrangement of particles in a system.

Boltzmann Equation for Entropy

○ S is the entropy,
○ kB is the Boltzmann constant of 1.38✕10−23 J/K.
○ W is the number of microstates.

Relationship between Spontaneous and Entropy

Melting - solid to liquid
Vaporization - liquid to gas
Sublimation - solid to gas
Dissolution - solid to ions/particles

Making Qualitative Predictions about Entropy Change

Entropy (S) - translated as the measure of “disorder” or “randomness” in a system.
Entropy is a state function.
Since S is a state function, we can just determine the entropy difference between final and initial
state.

Changes in entropy may be caused by:

1. change in temperature
2. phase change
3. chemical reaction

During Phase Changes

Phase transitions leading to a more disordered arrangement of particles lead to an increase in
entropy.
○ melting/fusion (solid to liquid)
○ vaporization (liquid to gas)
○ sublimation (solid to gas)

During Temperature Changes

Increase in temperature results in particles gaining more thermal energy. This results in an increase
in entropy.

During Chemical Processes

● increase in number of gas molecules results in increase in entropy.
● more gaseous products = more disordered final state.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Snorkeling
Snorkeling - is a great way to enjoy the coolness of the water and explore the underwater world
especially for adventurous travelers.
A snorkel is considered a device that allows you to breathe at the surface while your face is in the
water. The snorkel is made of a string, the mouthpiece and the barrel.

Benefits of Snorkeling
• helps a person's overall fitness;
• increased in oxygen absorption, which definitely helps aerobic health;
• provides outstanding cardiovascular training as it raises the rhythm of the heart and strengthens
the heart muscle;
• works out the quadriceps, hamstrings, thighs, knees, hip flexor, neck muscles, and shoulders
when swimming;
• improves the capacity of the lungs.

Basic Equipment in Snorkeling

Equipment for snorkeling has undergone many developments. It was refined and more
characteristics were added and different designs were placed to the market.
The snorkeling equipment, goggles and fins are the main gears. The floating jacket and rash guard
are other necessary appliances.

Mask
In enjoying the world underwater, the mask acts as a visual aid. Both underwater views can fade or
be obscured without the mask.

Tips for Choosing a Mask

Step 1: Choosing the Mask
It is important to be aware of the characteristics of your face, like the shape of the face and nose.
The mask has to be chosen well based on the features of your face.

Step 2: Mask Testing

Wear the face mask without a harness. Look in a mirror to see where the skirt of the mask lies.

Step 3: Perform the suction test

When the mask is on the face, allow the strap to rest on the cover. Press the mask on your face
gently. Inhale a tiny amount of air from your nose and suck it into your face after then relax your
hands. If it stays on your face for a few seconds, then it is a perfect fit.

Step 4: Put the Mask on Fully

Test the mask over your head with its strap. It should not sit on the ears because this will create
irritation and pain. The brace should be high behind the head. The brace will both trigger leakage if
it is loose and too tight. When you remove the mask and when the mask leaves the red line across
your forehead, it isn't for you.

Step 5: Snorkel-Mask Fitting

Place the snorkel in your mouth with the mask strapped correctly to see if the seal happens. Some
may not suit it, but the shape of your face can be different and the seal of some masks can be
broken.
Classic Snorkel - is the sturdy tube and the mouthpiece. This can also bend to a certain form.
Modern Snorkel - is more convenient than the classical snorkel due to the flexible tube below the
strap attachment point. The adjustable pipe makes it possible for the top and mouthpiece to rotate
at various angles to match the face.
Splash Guard - prevents sprinkled water and sprays from accessing the tunnel rapidly.
Dry Valve - is a special valve above the tube that prevents water (and air) from approaching the
tube when a wave is generated.
Snorkeling Fins - anything passing through the fans is being resisted or "pushed aside." That's
exactly what
fins do.
When one uses the swimming fins, the speed and effectiveness in swimming matters the most.
They provide the locomotion required for easy propagation in the water. Fins save more energy and
thus encourage the snorkeler to go further.

Two general types of fins are the full feet or closed fin, and the open fin
or adjustable fin.
The full foot fins are like slip- on- shoes that protect the heel. It is simpler to use, versatile and
effective in surface swimming. These are common for dives in warm water.
The adjustable fins have flexible braces which are open to protect the foot. These fins are also
used for diving boots. They're decent options when you dive in freezing water, so the boots prevent
the feet from getting cold. In addition, the flexible fin has a stiffer blade than the full-foot fins and can
be used with a more forward thrust.
Recently, in both full foot and in open heel fins, traditional or paddle-bladed fins and split fins have
formed a new subclassification.

The fins have a single full blade while the divided fin is in the web, splitting the pad into two rigid
long blades. The fins have a single full blade.

Snorkel Vests - are small and inflatable that boost floating on water. This makes a human use less
energy as he or she moves around.
Skin Protection - snorkeling could take some time to be under the sun. In order to protect your skin
against the heat of the sun, a biodegradable sunscreen can be used. A longer-sleeved rash guard
may also be used.
Swimming Cap - the swimming cap is used to protect the hair and the ears away from the snorkel. It
also helps to avoid the scalp burning on a warm day.
Mask Defogger - the defogger helps you in avoiding fogging in the mask. Make sure you pick one
which is non-toxic, biodegradable, and without alcohol to support yourself and the aquatic life. The
cheapest method used for defogging can be achieved by combining baby shampoo with water and
cleaning the surface by using 12-18 drops.

Canoeing and Kayaking

Canoes and Kayaks - kayaking and canoeing require paddling and force to move forward.
The deck of kayak is enclosed whereas the deck of the canoe is open.
In the early days, both boats were designed to meet daily economic necessities: canoe to transport
people and goods, and kayaks to hunt marine life. The original boats often contained the same
source of materials.
The emergence of the word “canoe” occurs from the Carib and the word “kenu” has the literal
meaning of dugout. Originally, the canoe is composed of massive trunks of trees. For months, the
trunks had dried, and then the medium portion had been burnt. After that the burned section of
shells had been scraped clean.
The most popular design of the canoe was introduced by North American Indians, in which the
structure was constructed from wooden ribs. The frame was coated with the light barks of birch
trees and, occasionally, elm trees, or cedar trees.
The basic parts of a canoe and a kayak are shown in these images. But for each boat, there are
some differences. The weight, width, or beam of the boats, bottom outline, or the sides or profile of
the boats show several discrepancies. The benefits and drawbacks of each style are present in
each boat. Ultimately, boat preference depends on the kind of action you do.
Choosing a Paddle
The paddles - are vital equipment when a person is choosing a boat for sailing. Single-blade
paddles are generally used in a canoe and double-bladed paddles are used in Kayak.

● As with boats, paddles are also available in various types. Choosing the paddle type depends on
the characteristics and physique of a person, boat size, and choice for stroking.
● Longer kayaks and larger paddles are required.
● A shorter, lighter paddle is better if a person has a slender physique, so he or she does not over-
exert themselves. As a rule, the shortest paddle to hit the water correctly is the fastest.
● The canoe paddle is also measured while standing. Place the paddle vertically. Hold your handle
or T-grip to see if the length of the paddle is at the nose level.
● Wider blades will speed you up but they will give more resistance and hence great pressure is
required.
● Curved blades boost each stroke's strength.

Activities for Kayaks or Canoes

You may use a canoe or kayak at a variety of events. It includes relaxed sports such as
birding or fishing and highly demanding activities on the rivers of whitewater.
 Sea kayaking takes place in clear waters, like the sea or the bay. Sit-on-top or decked designs
are used in kayaks.
 The stream is paddled by white water kayaking or canoeing. A flatboat helps the boat to spin
across the sea and to take the quickest maneuvers. Running downhill from one stage to
another normally involves pedaling downhill from many miles.
 Flatwater fun is a comfortable canoe or kayak where you can enjoy a relaxed paddle on the
quiet shore, ocean, or lake and enjoy bird watching or sight-seeing.
 Sailing is where the sail is fitted for a canoe or a kayak.
 Surf kayaking is where kayaking is normally equipped like a fin rather than a surfboard.
 Marathon running is a long race on a kayak or canoe down the water.

Other Equipment Needed for Kayaking or Canoeing

Depending on the paddle operation, the exact equipment varies a bit. But apart from the
boat and paddle, the basic equipment is as follows:
● A PFD is a personal floatation device like a life belt or jacket, which can help you float while the
boat is capsizing.
● A helmet, particularly for paddling in a cliffy area, which protects the head.
● Air and water-temperature-based suitable garments. For cold water, it is advised to go for wet
suits or lined nylon coats and trousers. Footwear must be lightweight canvas shoes or robust
sandals on the river.
● A rehydration water bottle. It has a short string or a seam such that it can be firmly cut and stuck
to the boat, especially when the boat is capsized.
● Heat-protection gears such as sunscreen or caps.
● Extra clothing and energy feed such as protein snack backs.
● Emergency whistle.
● Disaster emergency relief bag and duct tape.
● For kayaking, a spray skirt is required.
Sea kayaking involves additional equipment as it is carried out in open waters. The following
are the equipment:
● Portable flashlight that can easily float on water.
● Bilge pump and rescue equipment.
● Compass to get an idea about the direction.
● Spare paddles in case some damage occurs to the paddles.
● Distress signals equipment such as orange smoke sticks and red flares in case of an emergency
situation.

Difficulty Levels of Kayaking and Canoeing

Sea kayaking, canoeing, or the Whitewater rapids are a challenge for more adventurous people.

The waves in the open sea give the kayakers diverse perspectives. The kayaker attempts to smash
the waves and face the waves rolling. The challenge in sea kayaking is determined by the wind,
tides, current, tidal rips, crossing length, and coastal conditions. The following explains the difficulty
thresholds for kayaking on the Water, taken from the book Sea Kayaking (Harbord, 2004):
The rapids in the river have a different challenge because there is a different steep present in each
area. The rivers are assessed on the technique and level of ability needed to cross the water. The
International Scale of River Difficulty is an international method used in America to assess the
problem of a stretch of river or one rapid. As defined in the US Whitewater Safety Code, the
international scale is as follows:

International Scale of River Difficulty

In the Philippines, Cagayan de Oro River has been classified as Class III, with Class IV rapids in
some areas. Chico River in the province of Kalinga has Class III, IV, and V rapids.

Health Benefits of Paddling

Canoeing and kayaking are sports of medium to moderate levels of activity. Paddling exercises the
heart and lungs and thus improves physical endurance, stamina and stability. The health benefits
are:
● improved health and lungs condition
● improved muscle strength and stamina in the back, sides, shoulders and chest
● development of the strength of the torso and leg as the power for canoe or kayak primarily results
from a torso and leg pressure.