RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory System – is made up of the organs in the body that help us breathe.
Respiration - is a life process common to both plants and animals. In this process there is an exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
Phases of Respiration
1. External Respiration - is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood. This involve the lungs
2. Internal Respiration- is the exchange of gases between the cells of the body and the blood.
Breathing- is the mechanical process that helps get air in and out of the lungs. It consists of two stages:
1. Inhalation (Inhale)- the intake of air
2. Exhalation (Exhale)- breathing out of the air.
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT/SYSTEM
1. Nose - Serve as the main entrance of air going to our body.
Nostril – they are the pair of passage way separated by a bony structure called “Septum”. Inside the right and
left nasal cavities are the coarse hair that filter and trap any microorganisms or dust particles
2. Pharynx- Serves as passage way of air and food. On its sides and roof are collections of lymph glands: the tonsils -
this gland pick up and destroy bacteria. The Pharynx forms both entrance to both respiratory and digestive tract.
3. Larynx - Also called as the magic harp or voice box because this allows us to talk, cry, sing and laugh.
Adams apple- this is the thyroid cartilage of the larynx that is only
visible in men
4. Trachea - Is in our neck below our larynx. It is also called as wind pipe. It is
a tough muscular tube supported by rings of cartilage
5. Bronchi (Bronchus singular) - Are two smaller pipes from our trachea.
One leads to our right lung and the other to our left lung.
6. Bronchioles- a hair like tubes in the respiratory tract when our bronchi
rebranch
`- Cluster of microscopic balloon like an air sacs. Each alveolus is surrounded by
tiny blood vessels or capillaries. Their walls are thin and moist that is why
gases can easily diffuse across the membrane of the alveolus.
What is the importance of Respiratory System?
Help us to become alive. Oxygen is necessary for life to exist. Without it, the cells in the body would not be able to
release the energy in food for power, and they would die within minutes. When you inhale air, your respiratory system
gets oxygen. When you exhale, carbon dioxide is released.
When you breathe in, or inhale, the diaphragm muscle contracts. Inhaling moves the diaphragm down and
expands the chest cavity. Simultaneously, the ribs move up and increase the size of the chest cavity. There is now more space
and less air pressure inside the lungs. Air pushes in from the outside where there is a higher air pressure. It pushes into the
lungs where there is a lower air pressure. When you breathe out, or exhale, the diaphragm muscle relaxes. The
diaphragm and ribs return to their original place. The chest cavity returns to its original size. These is now less space and
greater air pressure inside the lungs. It pushes the air to the outside where there is a lower air pressure.
Guide Questions:
Q1. How do the heart and the lungs work together?
Answer: The heart pumps the blood that transports the inhaled oxygen to every cell of the body. Carbon dioxide is given
off in the process and is carried by the blood to the lungs and is released through exhalation
Q2. What takes place when you inhale and exhale?
Answer: Gas exchange happens when we inhale and exhale. We take in the oxygen, and emit carbon dioxide
Q3. What does blood deliver to every part of the body?
Answer: The blood delivers nutrients, oxygen, and other chemicals that are absorbed by the body.
Q4. Why is oxygen important to your body?
Answer: Oxygen is important to our body because it processes the nutrients in the cell to make energy
Q5. How will you describe the sequence of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and blood flow in your own words?
Answer: Oxygen enters the respiratory system through inhalation and then it enters the blood stream to be circulated
throughout the body. Carbon dioxide from the tissues enter the blood, then to the lungs where it is exhaled.
How respiratory and circulatory system works together?
Answer: Air first enters your lungs and then into the left part of your heart. It is then driven by your heart into the
bloodstream, all the way through your body. The heart pumps blood, which transports essential nutrients, oxygen, and
other chemicals to every cell in your body. Once it reaches the cells, oxygen processes the nutrients to release energy.
Carbon dioxide is given off during this process. The blood delivers carbon dioxide into the right portion of your heart, from
which it is pumped to the lungs. Carbon dioxide leaves your body through the lungs when you exhale.
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Circulatory System - is the life support structure that nourishes your cells with food and oxygen. It also carries away
the waste products. The circulatory system can be compared to a complex arrangement of highways, avenues and lanes
connecting all the cells together into a neighborhood. Sequentially, the community of cells sustains the body to stay alive.
Components of Circulatory System
I. Blood - A fluid tissue consisting of plasma and cells that circulates in the blood vessels. Blood is not red in reality, it is a
clear, pale yellow liquid almost like water. Our blood consist of the liquid part called plasma and the solid components
called Blood cells

Components of the blood

A. Liquid Component:
Plasma - a liquid that carries the cells and the platelets which help blood clot. It comprises 50 to 60 % of our blood. The
clear yellowish liquid part is called “Serum”. It also contains useful things like carbon dioxide, Glucose, amino acids,
Proteins, Minerals, Vitamins, Hormones, waste materials like urea.
B. Solid Component:
Red Blood Cells – are very small biconcave disc that is round and thinned out in the center. It is also Blood
called as ERYTHROCYTES. It can change shape to an amazing extent, without breaking, as it squeezes Vessel
single file through the capillaries. Contain hemoglobin, a molecule specially designed to hold oxygen
and carry it to cells that need it. It also gives RBC a red color. Red blood cells formed in our bone
White
marrow, a young RBC like any other cell have nucleus. As it matures, it’s nucleus disappear and then Blood
leave the bone marrow and passes into your blood stream where it serve. Its main function is 1. to
deliver oxygen to our body tissues and cells 2. to pick up the unnecessary wastes and carbon dioxide from Plate
Red Blood
our cells. Our red blood cells also contain proteins that determine blood type. These are antigens that Cells lets
are found on RBC membranes. It produces agglutination whenever different blood type of blood is
mixed.
Agglutination- a mass or group formed by the union of separate elements
White Blood Cells- Also known as leucocytes. They circulate in the blood stream and have nothing to do with delivery
of food and oxygen. Their job is to protect our body against foreign- invading substances, particularly bacteria. Leucocytes
are true cells having their own nuclei. Sometimes the nuclei are big; sometimes there are more than one.
They occur in different varieties under two general groups: 1. Phagocytes- engulf foreign substances
2. Lymphocytes produces antibodies to attack body enemy (Bacteria).

Platelets- are also known as thrombocytes and considered as the smallest blood cells. It can produce tiny fibrinogen
fibres to form a net. This net traps other blood cells to form a blood clot.
Blood Clotting- begin when a blood vessel injured.
Blood comes into contact with the tissue around the injury. Several
substances, such as calcium and protein combine or unite to trap the red blood
cells and white blood cells to form a mesh. This clot then plugs the leak caused by
the wounds. It also becomes the foundation on which the new tissue will be built
to heal your wounds.
Blood Types
1. A ( +, - )
2. B ( +, - )
3. AB ( +, - )
4. O ( +, - )
REMEMBER! Our blood is made with four main ingredients: red blood cells
(erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), platelets (thrombocytes)
and plasma.
Blood vessels –carry the blood throughout the body
Three types of blood vessels
1. Arteries - carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues, and organs of the body. The arteries
nearest to your heart are large. As they get farther from the heart, they rebranch and rebranch like a tree. They divide and
split into smaller and more numerous called arterioles.
2. Veins – carry deoxygenated blood to the heart. The large and thicker walled blood vessels are called veins. Blood in our
veins appears to be darker because it has lost oxygen. Unlike in our arteries, blood moves slower in our veins because your
blood is under little pressure.
3. Capillaries - the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the smallest arteries to the smallest veins - the actual
site where gases and nutrients are exchanged. The word capillary is derived from the Latin word “Capillus” meaning hair.
Capillaries are thin, delicate tubes that are only one-cell thick. They are so thin that a hair strand is even wider than ten of
them placed together side by side. Furthermore, capillaries are slightly greater in diameter than red blood cells that are
why only single red blood cells can pass through these vessels. Lastly, capillaries are found in every part of our body, and
the collection of capillaries is called capillary bed.
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART
FOUR CHAMBERS INSIDE OUR HEART
*The upper thin walled chamber (Atria)- collecting chambers of the heart
 Right atrium (RA)- collect blue venous deoxygenated blood from the body
 Left Atrium (LA)- Receive red oxygenated blood from our lungs
*The lower thick walled chamber (ventricles)- pumping chambers of the heart
 Right Ventricle (RV)- pumps blue venous blood out of our heart going to the lungs for oxygenation.
 Left Ventricle (LV)- pumps oxygenated blood out of your heart to all parts of the body and it is larger than right
ventricle
VALVES OF THE HEART
These valves do not actively open or close; they move only in response to pressure from the blood
 Tricuspid valve- between right atrium and right ventricle
 Bicuspid valve- between left atrium and left ventricle
Septum- a muscular wall that divides our heart into its right and left sides. This septum also prevents the crossing of
blood from one side to another, blood that passes the right side of our heart is deoxygenated while that which passes the
left of our heart is oxygenated
Superior Vena Cava (SVC)- is located at the upper part of the heart and brings blood to your head and arms
Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) is located at the lower part of the heart and brings blood to the lower part of your body
Pulmonary Artery (PA)- carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of your heart to the lungs
Pulmonary Vein (PV)- brings back oxygenated blood from your lungs to the left atrium of your heart
Aorta- is the largest artery in our heart, it has number of branches that carries blood from the heart to be distributed by
branch arteries through the body
How does the heart work?
The heart is a hollow muscular organ, about the size of your fist, which is located in the center of your chest between
the lungs. It is a double pump that pumps on the left and right sides. Every side is divided into two chambers, the atrium and
the ventricle, each of which has left and right portion, totaling to four chambers altogether. The top chamber is the atrium
(plural: atria). The bottom chamber is called the ventricle. The valve acts as one way door, allowing blood to flow either
forward into the next chamber, or out of the heart. The heart propels the blood, which carries all the vital materials and
removes the waste products that we do not need.
THREE TYPES OF CIRCULATION
1. Pulmonary Circulation- the movement of blood from the heart, to the lungs, and back to the heart
2. Coronary Circulation- the movement of blood through the tissues of the heart
3. Systemic Circulation- the movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body, excluding the lungs
“CIGARETTE SMOKING IS DANGEROUS TO YOUR HEALTH”
Cigarette smoking harms nearly every organ in the body, causing many illnesses and affecting health in general.
Negative effects of smoking on circulatory system
1. increased heart rate and blood pressure 3. arteriosclerosis
2. coronary heart disease 4. Vascular diseases
Negative effects of smoking on respiratory system
1. chronic bronchitis
2. emphysema
3. asthma
4. cough
5. colds
6. tuberculosis
7. lung cancer
There are many bad effects of smoking related to health, social and psychological
level which can harm the life of a person in great detail. For smoking people grow the tobacco tree whose leave which are
mostly smoked or chewed and sniffed for many different effects. Smoking which involves tobacco which then contains a
certain chemical known as nicotine. Nicotine is highly addictive chemical, and a smoking person can become a slave of
nicotine for very long time if he/she is not cautious a first time. Tobacco other than nicotine contains nineteen different
cancer causing chemicals, and together these chemical are called tar. People smoke for different reasons such as they
want to produce a sense of being well, to boost their mood, and to improve short term concentration and memory.
 Smoking is major health risk, but still people give different reasons for smoking most of these justifications are not
very reasonable. Smoking is mostly starts at young age because teenagers think that if they start smoking they will be
considered as mature, but of course they are wrong and causing serious health risk for themselves. Smoking by many is
way to relax, but it comes with greater health risk for damaging the brain. Smoking is very bad habit thus it should be
quitted by people, smoker don’t risk their lives but lives of other which inhale the smoke (Greaves, 2002).
Human body is very vulnerable to harmful effects of smoking, and it can harm our heart, lungs, blood circulation,
bones, stomach, mouth, eyes, skin, reproduction and fertility. Smoking effect on heart and lung in very serious manner, in
case of heart nicotine raises blood pressure and blood gets clot easily. Carbon monoxide raids the blood of oxygen and
causes development of cholesterol deposits in artery walls. In case of lungs smoking causes chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD) which is group of disease that includes asthmatic bronchitis and emphysema. Chronic obstructive
pulmonary diseases (COPD) are well known as silent killer diseases. Most of smokers don’t know that they are affected by
it until it is too late to save them. There is no cure for such type of diseases and almost fifteen percent of smokers develop
chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD). Harm to blood circulation start at by smoking, and veins and arteries get
hard, narrow, and also get coated by fat deposits. This can then lead to problems such as cold skin, ulcer, cramps, pain and
blockages in veins which can cause a stroke and heart attack. Smoking makes bones weak and breakable, and women need
to be careful because they are more likely to suffer by osteoporosis than non-smokers. Smoking can harm stomach, eyes
and skin. Stomach damages can affect vital organs in the body, and increase the chance of stomach cancer. There are even
more danger for eyes such as eye diseases related to Graves’ ophthalmopathy, glaucoma and cataract. Worst thing which
can be done by smoking is causing a permanent blindness. Smoking lessens the amount of oxygen for the skin. This can
mean that skin start to age more quickly and making you look like dull and grey. Smoking effect on reproduction and
fertility are very serious. Smoking can increase risk of feebleness, and can damage sperm by reducing sperm count and
casing testicular cancer.
Cigarette smoking harms nearly every organ in the body, causing many illnesses and affecting health in general.
The negative effects of smoking on circulatory system include increased heart rate and blood pressure, coronary heart
disease, arteriosclerosis, and vascular diseases. The respiratory diseases caused by smoking are chronic bronchitis,
emphysema, asthma, cough, colds, tuberculosis, lung cancer, and other respiratory infections
The leading causes of death around the world are diseases affecting the respiratory and circulatory systems can
be prevented. However, they can be prevented simply by having a lifestyle that promotes wellness. Circulatory and
respiratory diseases begin to develop with unhealthy living. The symptoms of these illnesses must not be neglected and
appropriate cure must be given immediately.
The best way to prevent diseases in the respiratory and circulatory systems is to have a healthy lifestyle, which
includes balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate rest, proper hygiene, and avoiding vices such as cigarette smoking and
alcohol drinking. Circulatory and respiratory disease can easily be detected with regular health check-up and physical
screening.
Several lifestyle choices can affect a person’s risk for developing respiratory and circulatory diseases. Negative
lifestyle weakens your system while healthy lifestyle leads to complete wellness. Vices, stressful environments, and
unhealthy eating habits can cause various diseases, specifically of the respiratory and circulatory systems.
PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
1. Mendelian Inheritance (Complete Dominance)
- inheritance of traits controlled by a single gene with two
alleles, one of which may be dominant to the other.
- It involves only two alleles (either dominant or recessive)
- Examples include phenotypic traits in Mendel Pea plant
experiment (color of pea, pod and flower, plant size,
position of flowers, pea and pod shape) and other human traits such as tongue rolling, widow’s peak, and
earlobes)
*In the Mendelian patterns of inheritance, the effects of the recessive
gene are not observed when the dominant gene is present.
2. Non-Mendelian Inheritance
- Any pattern of inheritance in which traits does not segregate in
accordance with Mendel's laws.
- The two alleles are neither dominant nor recessive
- It may involves multiple alleles or polygenes
- Examples include pink
R
Carnation flowers, Roan cattle, Erminette chickens and many other human traits such as
wavy hair, blood type, eye and skin color and sex-linked traits. R
R R
Punnett Square- the method by which one can determine the possible genotypes and W R R
W
phenotypes when two parents are crossed W W
W
W R R
INCOMPLETE DOMINACE PATTERN OF INHERITANCE
W W
Incomplete Dominance occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is
somewhere in between the phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant allele does not occur. Neither allele is
dominant over the other. This results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the
dominant and recessive phenotypes. Example: Flower color in four o’clock plant.
 When a pure red-flowered four o’clock plant is crossed with a pure white flowered four o’clock plant, the offspring
will produce neither red nor white flowers. Instead, all flowers will be pink.
Note: In incomplete dominance, it is only the phenotype that is intermediate. The red and white alleles remain
separate and distinct. Half the gametes of the pink four o’clock carry the allele for red and half carry the allele for white.
Therefore, the genotypic ratio also becomes the phenotypic ratio.
*Alleles always remain separate and distinct even in incomplete dominance.
Genotype- combination of alleles that an individual possesses for a specific gene Homozygous- an individual inherits
identical forms of a particular gene from each parent. (Ex: BB- Pure black)
Phenotype- organism’s observable characteristics
CODOMINANCE PATTERN OF INHERITANCE
Codominance occurs when both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote offspring,
exhibiting the traits of both parents.
Examples:
1. Roan fur in cattle (RW = red & white hairs together)
*Cattle can be red (RR = all red hairs), white (WW = all white hairs), or roan (RW = red &
white hairs together).
Genotypic percentages -are determined based on the fact that each of the 4
offspring boxes in Punnett square is 25% (1 out of 4); 50% (2 out of 4); 75% (3 out of
4) and 100% (4 out 4).

MULTIPLE ALLELES
Allele-is one of a pair of genes that appear at a particular location on a particular chromosome and control the
same characteristic, such as blood type or color blindness.
Genotype-are described as homozygous if there are two identical alleles at a particular locus and as
heterozygous if the two alleles differ.
Meaning of Multiple Alleles:
The word allele is a general term to denote the alternative forms of a gene or contrasting gene pair that denote
the alternative form of a gene is called allele. Multiple Alleles pertain to the traits regulated by more than two alleles.
Characteristics of Multiple Alleles:
1. The study of multiple alleles may be done in population.
2. Multiple alleles are situated on homologous chromosomes at the same locus.
3. There is no crossing over between the members of multiple alleles. Crossing over takes place between two different
genes only (inter-generic recombination) and does not occur within a gene (intragenic recombination).
4. Multiple alleles influence one or the same character only.
5. Multiple alleles never show complementation with each other. By complementation test the allelic and non-allelic genes
may be differentiated well. The production of wild type phenotype in a trans-heterozygote for 2 mutant alleles is known as
complementation test.
6. The wild type (normal) allele is nearly always dominant while the other mutant alleles in the series may show
dominance or there may be an intermediate phenotypic effect.
7. When any two of the multiple alleles are crossed, the phenotype is of a mutant type and not the wild type.
8. Further, F2 generations from such crosses show typical monohybrid ratio for the concerned character.
Examples of Multiple Alleles:
1. Wings of Drosophila: In Drosophila wings are normally long. There occurred two mutations at the same locus in
different flies, one causing vestigial (reduced) wings and other mutation causing antlered (less developed) wings. Both
vestigial and antlered are alleles of the same normal gene and also of each other and are recessive to the normal gene.
2. Coat Color in Rabbit: The color of the skin in rabbits is influenced by a series of multiple alleles. The normal color of
the skin is brown. Besides it there are white races called albino and Himalayan as the mutant races. The Himalayan is
similar to albino but has darker nose, ear, feet and tail. The mutant genes albino (a) and Himalayan (ah) occupy the same
locus and are allelic. Both albino and Himalayan are recessive to their normal allele (+).
3. Self-Sterility in Plants: The genes causing self-sterility in plants probably produce their effects by controlling the
growth rate of the pollen tubes. In compatible combinations, the pollen tube grows more and more rapidly as it
approaches the ovule, but in non-suitable ones, the growth of the pollen tube slows down considerably, so that the flower
withers away before fertilization can take place.
4. Blood Groups in Man: Several genes in man produce multiple allelic series which affect an interesting and important
physiological characteristic of the human red blood cells. The red blood cells have special antigens properties by which
they respond to certain specific components (antibodies) of the blood serum.
Large number of persons has been classified in to these four groups by
means of the agglutination test and the distribution of blood groups in
the offspring of parents of known blood groups has been studied. The
evidence shows that these blood properties are determined by a series of
three allelic genes IA, IB and i, as follows: `
 IA is a gene for the production of the anti-gin A. IB for antigen B, and i for neither antigen. The existence of these
alleles in man and the case with which the blood groups can be identified have obvious practical applications in blood
transfusion, cases of disputed percentage and description of human populations.
MULTIPLE ALLELES (ABO Blood Type)
Blood Types: What to Know
While everyone’s blood is made up of the same basic parts, there’s actually a lot of variety in the kinds of
blood that exist. There are eight different blood types, and the type you have is determined by genes you inherit from your
parents.
The Different Blood Types
There are four major blood groups and eight different blood types. Doctors call this the ABO Blood Group
system. The groups are based on whether or not you have two specific antigens -- A and B:
 Group A has the A antigen and B antibody.
 Group B has the B antigen and the A antibody.
 Group AB has A and B antigens but neither A nor B antibodies.
 Group O doesn’t have A or B antigens but has both A and B antibodies.
o Blood type is controlled by three alleles A, B, O
o is recessive, two O alleles must be present for a person to have type O blood.
o A and B are codominant. If a person receives an A allele and a B allele, their blood type is AB.
Punnet square is a square diagram that is used to predict the phenotype of a particular cross or breeding experiment.
Crosses involving blood type often use an I to denote the alleles
SEX CHROMOSOMES AND SEX DETERMINATION
The sex chromosomes
females have two X chromosomes while males possess an XY
pairing. This XY sex-determination system is found in most mammals
as well as some reptiles and plants.

 There are
46
chromosomes in human (23 pairs)
 The 22 pairs are autosomes which are somatic cells or
body cells and the 2 pairs are sex chromosomes.
 Females are XX, and males are XY
 Each ovum contains an X chromosome, while a sperm may
contain either an X or a Y chromosome.
 Spermatogenesis-a process producing two types of sperm cells, x-bearing and y-bearing cells
 Oogenesis-is a process producing only one type of ovum or egg cell, only x- bearing cells
SEX LINKED GENES
A particularly important category of genetic
linkage has to do with the X and Y sex chromosomes. These
not only carry the genes that determine male and female
traits but also those for some other characteristics as well.
Genes that are carried by either sex chromosome are said to
be sex-linked.
Men normally have an X and a Y combination of sex
chromosomes, while women have two X's. Since only men inherit Y chromosomes,
they are the only ones to inherit Y-linked traits. Men and women can get the X-linked ones since both inherit X
chromosomes.
X-linked recessive traits that are not related to feminine body characteristics are primarily expressed in the
observable characteristics, or phenotype, of men. This is due to the fact that men only have one X chromosome.
Subsequently, genes on that chromosome not coding for gender are usually expressed in the male phenotype even if they
are recessive since there are no corresponding genes on the Y chromosome in most cases. In women, a recessive allele on
one X chromosome is often masked in their phenotype by a dominant normal allele on the other. This explains why women
are frequently carriers of X-linked traits but more rarely have expressed in their own phenotypes.
There are about 1,098 human X-linked genes. Most of them code for something other than female anatomical
traits. Many of the non-sex determining X-linked genes are responsible for abnormal conditions such as hemophilia ,
Duchenne muscular dystrophy , fragile-X syndrome , some high blood pressure, congenital night blindness, G6PD
deficiency, and the most common human genetic disorder, red-green color blindness. X-linked genes are also responsible
for a common form of baldness referred to as "male pattern baldness".
 If a woman is a carrier of an X-linked recessive allele for a disorder and her mate does not have it, their boys will have
a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder. None of their girls will have it, but half of them are likely to be carriers.
If a man has an X-linked recessive disorder and his mate does not carry the allele for it, all of their girls will be
carriers. None of their boys will in herit the harmful allele. Only girls receive X chromosomes
from their fathers.
SEX-LIMITED TRAITS
Sex limited inheritance refers to the inheritance of traits that are expressed only in either
the male or the female offspring due to their expression being influenced by differences in the
anatomy of males and females.
Sex-limited traits are generally autosomal, which means that they are not found on the X
or Y chromosomes. The difference here comes in the expression of the genes in the phenotype of the individual. Sex-
limited traits are expressed in only one gender. In cattle, for instance, lactation is expressed in females but never in males.
Both male and female cattle however possess a gene pair for lactation.
SEX-INFLUENCED TRAITS
Sex-influenced trait is a trait controlled by a pair of alleles found on the autosomal chromosomes (pairs 1
through 22) but its phenotypic expression is influenced by the presence of certain hormones. Sex-influenced traits can be
seen in BOTH sexes, but will vary in frequency between the sexes, or in the degree of the phenotypic expression. Pattern
baldness in humans (sometimes called “male pattern baldness,” though the condition isn’t restricted to males). This gene
has two alleles, “bald” and “non-bald.” The behaviors of the products of these genes are highly influenced by the hormones
in the individual, particularly by the hormone testosterone.
In the presence of high levels of testosterone, the baldness allele has a very powerful influence. In the presence of
low levels of testosterone, this allele is quite ineffectual. All humans have testosterone, but males have much higher levels
of this hormone than females do. The result is that in males, the baldness allele behaves like a dominant allele, while in
females it behaves like a recessive allele.
BIODIVERSITY AND TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
BIODIVERSITY – refers to the variety of life on Earth that consist of many millions of distinct biological species, the
diversity of genes of species, together with the places where they are found such as deserts, forest and coral reefs.
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
GENETIC DIVERSITY – pertains to the variations of genes within a species, the difference in genetic make-up
(genotype) between distinct species or the variability in the genetic makeup of a given species.
SPECIES DIVERSITY – pertains to the variety, as well as the relative abundance of species within a region.
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY – is the variation among groups of organisms in different physical settings. Different settings
favor different communities of species.
INDEX OF DIVERSITY – is a measure of diversity which takes into account the number of species present, as well as the
relative abundance of each species. As species richness and evenness increase, so diversity increases.
Index of diversity = No. of species x number of runs
No. of species
A healthy biodiversity provides a number of natural services for everyone.
Ecosystem services Biological Services
 Protection of the different resources of water - Food
 Protection and soil formation - Medical Resources
 Storage and recycling materials - Pharmaceutical drugs
 Absorption and breakdown of pollution - Ornamental plants
 Contribution of climate stability - Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
 Maintenance of ecosystem - Diversity of genes, species and resources
Social Benefits
 Research, education and monitoring
 Recreation and tourism
Why Is Biodiversity Important? Who Cares?
According to The Convention about Life on earth, at least 40% of the world’s economy and 80% of the needs of the
poor are derived from biological resources. In addition, the richer the diversity of life, the greater the opportunity for
medical discoveries, economic development, and adaptive responses to such new challenges as climate change.
According to Dr. Terrence Gosliner, the leader of the 2011 Philippines Biodiversity Expedition, the Philippines
was regarded as one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world. This means that the country is one of the world’s
biologically richest but the most threatened ecosystem.
POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY
POPULATION – pertains to the number of organisms of the same species living in a certain place.
POPULATION DENSITY – is a measure of the number of organisms that make up a population in a defined area.
Population Density = no. of individuals
size of the area
COMMUNITY – also called biological community, in biology, an interacting group of various species in a common location
LIMITING FACTORS – these are environmental conditions that keep a population from increasing in size and help
balance an ecosystem.
In the natural world, limiting factors like the availability of food, water, shelter, and space can change animal and
plant populations. Other limiting factors, like competition for resources, predation, and disease also impact populations.
Humans can impact animal and plant populations. When humans develop land for houses and buildings, they cut
down trees and change animal and plant habitats.
Other natural factors are Predator/prey relationships play a big role in animal populations. If the balance between
predator and prey is changed, populations are changed
CARRYING CAPACITY – the maximum population size an environment can support.
THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND EXTINCT SPECIES
THREATENED - any species that is likely to become an endangered and declines so fast within the foreseeable future
throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
ENDANGERED – it is when species’ population becomes extremely low that only few remain and it is possible to become
extinct.
EXTINCT – species that no longer in exist.
EXTINCTION – means that the last individual belonging to particular species is gone forever.
SOME ENDANGERED SPECIES OF ANIMALS IN THE PHILIPPINES
1. Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) - Also called the monkey-eating eagle, the Philippine eagle is native to the
southern Philippines.
2. Philippine Freshwater Crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) - Locally known as Mindoro crocodiles, they are
endemic in the Philippines. The Philippine freshwater crocodile is quite small compared to other crocodiles, growing to
about four and a half to five feet long and weighing approximately 15 kg.
3. Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) - Also known as the Mindoro dwarf buffalo, the Tamaraw is the only known
bovine that is indigenous to the Philippines.
4. The Philippine Tarsier (Carlito syrichta) - This small primate is another endangered species endemic in the
Philippine islands. This species was once widespread throughout Southeast Asia.
5. Philippine Cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia) - Locally known as Kalangay, Katala or the red- vented cockatoo,
the Philippine cockatoo is indigenous to the Philippines.
Endangered species continue to struggle for a safe place to live on this planet. Rhino hunting is up in South Africa
and elephant poaching remains at unsustainable levels, these are just to name a couple of examples. In fact, over the
lifespan of just two human generations, half of the world's wildlife has disappeared according to the World Wildlife Fund.
We are in the time of rapid technology advancement and also in the field of communication. It means that now is
the time to embrace social media any other information outlet and use it as an advantage to promote and support
campaigns on conservation of our wildlife.
NATURAL CAUSES OF EXTINCTION
1. EXTREME HEATING AND COOLING OF THE EARTH - The change in the global temperature caused by number of
factors affects biodiversity. Some species are not used to severe weather conditions or prolonged dry or wet seasons.
Species find it difficult to look for food and the long dry weather condition lead to diseases and epidemics.
2. CHANGES IN LANDSCAPE - Various phenomena change the condition of the species habitats. For example, the melting
of the snow and glaciers due to global warming can alter the salinity of the surface water where some marine forms a life
are dependent.
3. ACID PRECIPITATION - Changes in the pH of the habitat can disturb bodies of water and cause the death of species.
Gases in the atmosphere – sulfur dioxide, nitric oxides and chloride ions emitted by volcanic activities are absorbed by the
clouds and then fall on land and water as acid precipitation. The chemical substances can alter the chemical composition of
the soil and water making them suitable for some life forms.
4. DISEASES / EPIDEMIC - As the landscape of the habitat changes and the effect of the climate change, species
sometimes lost their immunity to disease. They become vulnerable to diseases, which can cause death and their eventual
extinction.
5. METEOR IMPACT/COSMIC RADIATION - Meteors strike the surface with great force. The impact of the crashing
meteorite can be felt in a large areas and the place of the impact destroyed. As in the case of what happened in the past
that led to the extinction of dinosaurs. Cosmic Radiation form from other space and it has been theorized that mutation can
weaken the gene pool of the species making them vulnerable to agents of extinction.
6. SPREAD OF INVASIVE SPECIES - New species invade other territories. These new species have same requirements s
those of the original species. Competition sets in and since the invasive species are more efficient in utilizing the resources
in the area than the resident species, the original species is eliminated.
LOCAL AND GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES THAT CONTRIBUTED TO SPECIES EXTINCTION
DEFORESTATION
One of the country’s environmental problems is the rapid rate at which trees are cut down. In the Philippines, the
major causes of deforestation are: Kaingin farming; Illegal logging; Conversion of agricultural lands to housing project; and
Forest fires. As a consequence of cutting down trees, the following effects could take place: Soil erosion; Floods; Decrease
in wildlife resources that will eventually lead to extinction
WILDLIFE DEPLETION
As human population gets bigger, huge space is needed for shelter, for growing crops, and for industries.
Deforestation is one of the major causes of the disappearance of wildlife species. If they cannot find enough space, many
will die or become extinct. Some species may become endangered, or in the verge of becoming extinct. In other cases, some
animals may be threatened.
WATER POLLUTION
A major problem in lakes, rivers and ponds is eutrophication. It happens when the concentration of organic
nutrients that comes from domestic garbage and thrown in bodies of water, increases rapidly. It is supposed to be a slow
process, but man’s activities hasten it up
Another effect of water pollution is mass death of fish, or ‘fish kill’. It usually happens when there is an increase in
concentration of organic nutrients in bodies of water. This condition causes algal bloom and growth of aquatic plants.
When the algae die, they sink to the bottom and the process of decomposition proceeds. This process uses up oxygen and
as a result, aquatic animals die due to lack of oxygen.
Bodies of water are also polluted with toxic wastes, untreated sewage, and fertilizer run- offs from farm lands. One
class of dangerous chemicals present in water is PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl). PCBs are toxic wastes produced in the
making of paints, inks and electrical insulators. Through the process of biological magnification, the PCB becomes
concentrated in the body tissues of water organisms. Biological magnification is the buildup of pollutants in organisms at
higher trophic levels in a food chain. Fish living in contaminated ecosystems contain built up high concentration of PCB.
The fish were not killed by the chemicals, but they stored them in their tissues.
AIR POLLUTION
Pollutants can enter the air as gases, liquids, or solids. Cars burn fuel and produce harmful gases–carbon dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. Harmful pollutants present in the air. Carbon dioxide acts like a blanket over the Earth,
holding in the heat that would otherwise radiate back into space. The trapping of heat by gases in the earth’s atmosphere
is called greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural process. But as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases,
greenhouse effect also intensifies–this will lead to global warming. Global warming is an increase in the earth’s
temperature from the rapid buildup of carbon dioxide and other gases. This, in turn, could change the world climate
pattern.
DESTRUCTION OF COASTAL RESOURCES
Coral reefs and coastal mangrove forests in the Philippines serve as breeding grounds and nurseries of marine
fishes. But due to man’s activities, coastal areas are getting destroyed through the years. Some of these activities include
the following: Deforestation, agricultural activities, and mining activities; Dynamite fishing and muro-ami; Coastal areas’
conversion to beach resorts; residential areas; Overharvesting.
ACID PRECIPITATION
Acid precipitation is commonly known as acid rain. Rainwater is normally acidic, because carbon dioxide is
normally present. Other pollutants mostly sulfur and nitrogen oxides make rainwater even more acidic, with a pH of 5.6 or
lower. Emissions from factories and from exhaust of motor vehicles are some examples of pollutants. Acid rain can be
harmful to living things. It causes yellowing of leaves of trees and cause leaves to fall.
People are nature’s steward. It is our moral responsibility to protect our companion on Earth. Since we are now
aware on the different issues that cause extinction affecting biodiversity, let us now promote awareness and foster
conservation. We can do it in simple ways at home and in the community such as proper waste disposal and keeping clean
surroundings.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is a process by which photoautotrophs convert light
energy into chemical energy which later is used to fuel cellular activities. The
chemical energy is stored in the form of sugars which are created from water and
carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis is represented by the generalized equation below:
Raw Materials Products
carbon dioxide Sugar(glucose)
Water O xygen
Sunlight
chlorophyll
STRUCTURE and FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS INVOLVED IN
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
As producers in the biosphere, plants possess leaves that enable them to
perform photosynthesis.
Figure 1. Internal Structure of a Leaf
At cross section, a leaf has three major parts:
 upper and lower surface layers of cell, the epidermis
 the vein made of vascular tissues
 the middle layer of cells, the mesophyll
Epidermis – a protective layer of cells covering the entire leaf which is
coated with a waterproof, waxy material called cutin.
Stomata - are found on the lower surface of the leaf that allows the entrance of carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis.
They also serve as exit point for the oxygen produced during photosynthesis.
Vascular tissues: Veins support the leaf and are filled with vessels that transport food, water, and minerals to the plant.
Xylem – for the transport of water and minerals
Phloem – for the transport of food
Mesophyll - a layer of cells that comprises most of the interior of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of
epidermis
Palisade mesophyll is made up of compactly arranged cells usually located near the upper surface. This allows better
access to light and prevents excessive loss of water. With numerous chloroplasts, the palisade mesophyll performs the
bulk of photosynthesis.
Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely arranged and located near the lower epidermis. Gases like carbon dioxide are
dissolved in water and stored in the large intercellular spaces of the spongy mesophyll. Thin walls of the mesophyll cells
facilitate rapid passage of water and carbon dioxide, both of
which are reactants in photosynthesis.
Chloroplast – an organelle found in the cells of green plants
and photosynthetic algae where photosynthesis takes place
Figure 2. Structure of a Chloroplast

Structure of the Chloroplast:

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which have an
outer membrane and an inner membrane. Stacks of thylakoids called grana form a third membrane layer.
PARTS OF A CHLOROPLAST
 Outer membrane – It is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small molecules and ions, which diffuses
easily. The outer membrane is not permeable to larger proteins.
 Intermembrane Space – It is usually a thin intermembrane space about 10-20 nanometers and it is present
between the outer and the inner membrane of the chloroplast.
 Inner membrane – The inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to the stroma. It regulates passage of
materials in and out of the chloroplast.
 Stroma- Stroma is an alkaline, aqueous fluid which is protein rich and is present within the inner membrane of
the chloroplast. The space outside the thylakoid space is called the stroma.
 Thylakoid System- The thylakoid system is suspended in the stroma. The thylakoid system is a collection of
membranous sacks called thylakoids. The chlorophyll is found in the thylakoids and is the sight for the process of
light reactions of photosynthesis to happen. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana. Each granum
contains around 10- 20 thylakoids.
The Importance of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere. Oxygen is a very important gas to living things and to their
environment. Photosynthesis requires sunlight, carbon dioxide, and other biological materials. Plants absorb carbon
dioxide from the air, which in turn can help reduce global warming. Photosynthesis produces glucose, which is a major
source of food for all heterotrophic organisms (organisms that cannot make their own food). This feature of
photosynthesis is very important because it provides these organisms with the energy they need for their daily activities
STOMATA
Structure
 Stomata are present in leaf epidermis.
 The stomatal pores are very minute and are covered with
crescent-shaped guard cells.
 The outer wall of guard cells are thin and the inner wall is
thick. Each guard cell contains cytoplasm, a nucleus and
plenty of chloroplasts.
 There is a single large air chamber below the stomatal pore.
 They control the procedure of transpiration and gaseous
exchange.
 They are enclosed by two bean-shaped guard cells
 The guard cells organize the opening and closing of stomata. The opening and closing of stomata are brought
about by changes in the volume and form of the guard cells.
 The wall of the guard cell surrounding the pore is thickened and inelastic due to the rest of the walls is thin, elastic
and semi-permeable.
Functions
The two main functions of stomata are to allow for the uptake of carbon dioxide and to limit the loss of water
due to evaporation.
 The gaseous exchange (CO2 and O2) between the intercellular spaces of plant cell and the outer air takes place
through stomata during photosynthesis
 During respiration, plants receive O2 and release CO2 through stomata.
  Stomata allow the ingress of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen i.e. gaseous exchange takes place through
stomata. These gas molecules are really the source of the carbon atoms used by plants to create sugars, proteins,
and other vital materials for life.
 Stomata help in loss of excess water from the surface of leaves in the form of water vapor in plants. The
phenomenon is known as transpiration.
 In plants, carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged through the stomata by diffusion. Diffusion is the movement
of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
The Two Phases of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis takes place in two sequential stages:
1. The light-dependent reactions;
2. The light-independent reactions, or Calvin Cycle.
Light Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-dependent Reaction
 Photosynthesis begins with the light reaction which is carried out only during the day in the presence of sunlight.
In plants, the light-dependent reaction takes place in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
 The grana, membrane-bound sacs like structures present inside the thylakoid functions by gathering light and is
called photosystems.
 These photosystems have large complexes of pigment and proteins molecules present within the plant cells which
plays the primary role during the process of light reactions of photosynthesis.
 There are two types of photosystems: photosystem I and photosystem II.
 Under the light-dependent reactions, the light energy is converted to ATP and NADPH which are used in the
second phase of photosynthesis.
 During the light reactions, ATP and NADPH are generated by two electron-
transport chains, water is used and oxygen is produced.
Dark Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-independent Reaction
 Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction.
 It is a light-independent process in which sugar molecules are formed from the
water and carbon dioxide molecules.
 The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast where they utilize
the NADPH and ATP products of the light reaction.
 Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata and
proceed to the Calvin photosynthesis cycle.
 In the Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH formed during light reaction drive the reaction and convert 6 molecules of
carbon dioxide into one sugar molecule or glucose.
EVIDENCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 The presence of starch in a leaf is a direct evidence that photosynthesis has taken place.
 Starch can be detected by the iodine test. In this test, leaf is boiled in water and then boiled in ethanol until it
decolorizes. The decolorized leaf is then washed with water and a few drops of iodine solution are placed on it. If
the leaf turns blue-black, starch is present in it.
 The iodine test can be conducted to see if starch is present in the leaf, which is a direct evidence of photosynthesis
occurring in the leaf.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Light
***The rate of photosynthesis increases as the light gets brighter.
***The rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with increasing light intensity (from point A to point B on the graph).
***Gradually the rate falls and at a certain light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis remain constant (from point B
to point C on the graph). Too much light at a high intensity can damage chloroplasts.
2. Temperature
***The higher the temperature then typically the greater the rate of photosynthesis, photosynthesis is a chemical
reaction and the rate of most chemical reactions increases with temperature. For photosynthesis at temperatures
above 40°C the rate slows down.
This is because the enzymes involved in the chemical reactions of photosynthesis are temperature sensitive and
destroyed at higher temperatures.
3. Carbon Dioxide
***The rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with increasing carbon dioxide concentration (from point A to point B on
the graph).At a certain carbon dioxide concentration, the rate of photosynthesis remain constant (from point B to point C
on the graph). Hence, a rise in carbon dioxide levels has no effect on the rate of photosynthesis as the other factors such as
light intensity and temperature become limiting.
4. Chlorophyll
 Leaves with more chlorophyll are better able to absorb the light required for photosynthesis.
 Chlorophyll absorbs the light required to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose.
 Chlorophyll is green - so absorbs the red and blue parts of the electromagnetic spectrum and reflects the green
part of the spectrum.
 CHLOROPHYLL
 Plants are green because their cells contain chloroplasts which have the pigment chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll is a pigment that gives plants their green color, and it helps plants create their own food through
photosynthesis.
 In addition to giving plants their green color, chlorophyll is vital for photosynthesis as it helps to channel the
energy of sunlight into chemical energy. With photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs energy and then transforms
water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and carbohydrates.
 Leaves with more chlorophyll are better able to absorb the light required for photosynthesis.
THE POWER HOUSE
Mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion) are often called the powerhouses
or energy factories of the cell. Their job is to make a steady supply of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main
energy-carrying molecule. The process of making
ATP using chemical energy from fuels such as
sugars is called cellular respiration, and many of
its steps happen inside the mitochondria.
The mitochondria are suspended in the jelly-
like cytosol of the cell. They are oval- shaped and have two membranes: an outer one,
surrounding the whole organelle, and an inner one, with many inward protrusions called
cristae that increase surface area.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into
two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates. Glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway,
meaning that it evolved long ago, and it is found in the great majority of organisms alive today.
In organisms that perform cellular respiration, glycolysis is the first stage of this process.
However, glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen, and many anaerobic organisms—organisms that Activi
do not use oxygen—also have this pathway. ty
Glucose – C6H12O6 Shee
ADP – adenosine diphosphate ATP – adenosine triphosphate ts:
PGAL – phosphoglyceraldehide (2 mol) PGA – phosphoglyceric acid (2 mol) Glyc
NAD+ - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide olysi
NADPH - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (2 mol) s
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: KREBS CYCLE
Krebs Cycle (tricarboxylic acid cyle) or also known as
citric acid cycle closed loop takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondria, just like the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA.
In prokaryotes, these steps both take place in the cytoplasm.
Acetyl CoA – a reactive molecule that enters a series of
chemical changes
Oxaloacetic Acid – a 4-carbon molecule that reacts to
Acetyl CoA to form citric acid ATP – adenosine triphosphate
FAD - flavin adenine dinucleotide
NADH - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
At the end of the Krebs cycle, energy from the chemical
bonds of glucose is stored in diverse energy carrier molecules: four ATPs, but also two FADH2 and ten NADH molecules.
The primary task of the last stage of cellular respiration, the electron transport chain, is to transfer energy from the
electron carriers to even more ATP molecules, the “batteries” which power work within the cell.
Pathways for making ATP in stage 3 of aerobic respiration closely
resemble the electron transport chains used in photosynthesis. In both
electron transport chains, energy carrier molecules are arranged in sequence
within a membrane so that energy-carrying electrons cascade from one to
another, losing a little energy in each step. In both photosynthesis and aerobic
respiration, the energy lost is harnessed to pump hydrogen ions into a
compartment, creating an electrochemical gradient or chemiosmotic gradient
across the enclosing membrane. And in both processes, the energy stored in
the chemiosmotic gradient is used with ATP synthase to build ATP.
COMPARING PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
Photosynthesis is a process among plants where CO2 and H2O as raw materials and converted to simple sugar
glucose and O2 using light energy as the catalyst. Photosynthesis comes into two phases; the light-dependent phase
(photochemical reaction) which occurs in the granum of chloroplast and requires the presence of light and the light-
independent phase (carbon fixation) that takes place in the stroma with or without light.
 Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to
convert chemical energy from oxygen molecules or nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste
products. In the process, glucose molecule is converted into carbon dioxide and how its energy is harvested as ATP and
NADH/FADH2 in one of your body's cells.
SECOND QUARTER - CHEMISTRY
ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF MATTER DEVELOPMENT AND DISCOVERY OF THE ATOM
ATOM - is the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical identity of that element.
DEMOCRITUS
 he was a Greek philosopher
 he opened the door in the study of atom
 he called this particles atomos from the English means atom
 he said that all matter and anything around us is actually composed of tiny indivisible particles
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
JOHN DALTON concluded in 1803 that the properties of matter could be
explained through the concept of atom.
1. Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atom
2. Every atom of a given element is identical but atoms of different elements differ in
structure and properties
3. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any chemical reactions much similar to how masses
are conserved during chemical reaction.
4. A particular compound always has the same relative numbers and kinds of atoms.

As you can see from statement 3

and 4 Dalton’s theory of matter is consistent with the “The
law of conservation of mass and the Law of Definite
proportion. Dalton’s theory states that in chemical reactions,
none of the elements are destroyed nor change mass, and
that compounds always have the same set and number of
atoms
John Dalton concluded in 1803 that the
properties of matter could be explained through the concept of atoms. His contemporaries thought the atoms were hard
and round like extremely tiny marbles or ball bearings. By the end of 19th century different scientist came up with the
different ideas about the structure of the atoms.
STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATOM
1. John Dalton he said that the atom is a solid sphere or billiard
Ball model.
2. JJ Thompson raisin bread model of atom is an electrification of
negative and positive charges.
3. John Ernest Rutherford an atom has dense material inside
called the nucleus and the electrons are moving at tremendous speed outside the nucleus.
4. Neil Bohr the atom is compared to the solar system the nucleus is at the center compared
to the sun and the electrons are moving outside the nucleus compared to the planets.
PARTICLES INSIDE THE ATOM
1. Protons- are found inside the nucleus which are positively charged (+)
2. Electrons - are found outside the nucleus which are negatively charged (-)
Neutrons- are found inside the nucleus which are uncharged or neutral (0)
Energy Level- the fixed amount of energy that a system described by quantum mechanics, such as
a molecule, atom, electron, or nucleus, can have. Energy levels are designated by traditional and
Modern method.
ORBITALS Orbital Shape Maximum electron
Orbitals are the regions of space in which s (sharp) circular 2
electrons are most likely to be found. p (orbital) dumbbell 6
Electron configuration- is the distribution of d (diffuse) complicated 10
electron to the different shells and subshells of an f (fundamental) complicated 14
atom.
AUFBAU DIAGRAM -uses arrows to represent electrons. When there are two electrons in an orbital, the electrons are
called an electron pair. Electron pairs are shown with arrows pointing in opposite directions.
PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE- two electrons in an orbital will not spin the same way. Writing the electronic
configuration of elements.
1. The Aufbau Principle is used. In Aufbau Principle, the electrons are filled according to the increasing energy
level of orbitals.
 2. In 's' orbital, maximum number of filling the electrons is 2.
3. In 'p' orbital, maximum number of filling the electrons is 6.
4. In 'd' orbital, maximum number of filling the electrons is 10.
5. In 'f' orbital, maximum number of filling the electrons is 14
6. Determine the Atomic number of element then start the electron configuration
VALENCE ELECTRON - the outermost electron of an element
ENERGY LEVEL - the fixed amount of energy that a system described by quantum mechanics, such as a molecule, atom,
electron, or nucleus, can have. In determining the energy level group the electron according to shell, then the last shell
would be the energy level.
THERE ARE 3 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
1. Representative elements belong in the s and p block or ends in s and p orbitals
2. Transition elements that ends in d orbital or located in the d block
3. Inner transition elements that ends in f orbital or located at the f block in determining the classification of
elements juts refer to the last electron configuration,
NATURE OF ELEMENTS
In determining the nature of elements just refer to the valence
electron
1. metal – valence electron of 1,2,3
2. Non metal- 5.6.7 valence elctron
3. metalloids- 4 valence electron
4. Noble gas- 8 valence electron

TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING:

Chemical Bond -compounds that are bound together by a strong attractive force.
Ionic Bonding – A type of Chemical bond formed when there is Transfer of
electrons from one atom to another. Ionic bond is formed when a metal
bonds with a non- metal. (metal + non - metal)
Cl atom Cl Ion
2,8,7 2,8,7 (1 electron is accepted)
No. Of proton =17 No. Of proton =17
No. Of electron =17 No. Of electron =18
Charge = 0 Charge = - 1
Ionic bonds and ionic compounds:
NaBr: sodium bromide KCl: potassium chloride
KBr: potassium bromide CaCl2: calcium chloride
NaCl: sodium chloride K2O: potassium oxide
NaF: sodium fluoride MgO: magnesium oxide
Covalent Bonding - A type of Chemical bond formed when there is Sharing of
electrons or also known as Molecular Bond ,it involves the sharing of a pair of valence
electrons by two atoms, commonly between two (2) non-metals.(non-metal + non -
metal)
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract shared pairs of electrons to it. So,
the more electronegative the atom is, the more it will attract electrons.
 Metals form cations because they completely transfer or give away electrons.
 Non Metals form anions because they attract electrons toward themselves.
 Ionic bonding will take place between metal and non-metal with
electronegativity difference of greater than 1.9
THREE TYPES OF COVALENT BOND:
1) Single Covalent Bond, denoted by one short line (--)it is the sharing of one electron
pair between two atoms.
Ex: H-Cl HCl
2) Double Covalent Bond, denoted by two short lines (=) it is the sharing of two
electron pairs Ex:
Ex: O=C=O CO2
3) Triple Covalent Bond, denoted by three short lines (≡), it is the sharing of three
electron pairs.
Ex: N≡N N
Metallic Bond - A type of Chemical bond formed among metals. Metals are unique substances because they stick
together much easier than other natural materials.
 Metallic bonds do not involve the sharing of electrons.
 The s and p valence electrons of metals are loosely held. They leave their “own” metal atoms.
  This forms a "sea" of electrons that surrounds the metal cations in the solid. The electrons are free to move
throughout this electron sea.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
(Luster, malleability, ductility, conductivity and Melting point)
 Metals have high melting points
 The presence of free electrons that vibrates and move are the reasons why metals reflect light.
 Materials bonded by Metals are good electrical and thermal conductors(charged particles) due to their free
valence electrons.
 Metal bonds can only be deformed or dented when struck with it.

HARDNESS is a measure of how much a material resists changes in shape. Hard things resist pressure. Some
examples of hard materials are diamond, boron carbide, quartz, tempered steel, ice, crystals, granite and concrete. Ability
of material to resist wear, tear, scratching, abrasion cutting is called hardness.
COMPARISON BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT IN TERMS OF THEIR PROPERTIES
TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
Crystals are formed by atoms, ions, or molecules. We can
classify crystals into four types according to the kind of particles
that make up the crystals and the forces that hold them together.
1. IONIC CRYSTALS – Positive and negative ions are held in the
crystal arrangement by electrostatic attraction. Because these
forces are strong, ionic substances have high melting points. Ionic
crystals are hard and brittle. Because of the movement of one plain
of ions over another, ions with the same charge are brought next to
on another. The crystal breaks into fragments. Ionic compounds are
good conductor of electricity when molten or in solution but not in
the crystalline state where the ions are free to move. CaF2, is an
example of ionic crystal.
2. COVALENT CRYSTALS – Molecules occupy positions in
crystals of covalent compounds. The intermolecular forces that hold
the molecules in the crystal structure are not nearly so strong as the
electrostatic forces that hold ionic crystals together. Molecular
crystals, therefore, are soft and have low melting points, usually
below 300°C.
In general, molecular substances do not conduct electricity in the solid or liquid states. A few molecular
compounds, such as water, dissociate to a very slight extent and produce low concentrations of ions, these liquids are poor
electrical conductors. Snowflakes (H2O), is a molecular crystal solid.
3. METALLIC CRYSTALS - The outer electrons of metal atoms are loosely held and move freely throughout the metallic
crystal. The remainder of the metal atoms, positive ions occupies fixed positions in the crystal. The negative cloud of the
freely moving electron sometimes called electron gas or sea of electrons, binds the crystal together. This binding force is
called a metallic bond, which is strong and the reason why most of
metals have high melting points, high densities and structures in
which the positive ions are packed together closely. Most metallic
crystals, therefore, are easily deformed, and most metals are
malleable (capable of being beaten into shape); and ductile
(capable of being drawn into wire). The freely moving electrons
are also responsible for the fact that most metals are good
conductor of electricity.
Melting point, temperature at which the solid and liquid
forms of a pure substance can exist in equilibrium. As heat is
applied to a solid, its temperature will increase until the melting
point is reached. More heat then will convert the solid into a liquid
with no temperature change. When all the solid has melted,
additional heat will raise the temperature of the liquid.

COMPARISON BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT IN TERMS

OF THEIR PROPERTIES
The melting temperature of a solid is generally considered
to be the same as the freezing point of the corresponding liquid;
because a liquid may freeze in different crystal systems and because impurities lower the freezing point, however, the
actual freezing point may not be the same as the melting point Liquids have a characteristic temperature at which they
turn into solids, known as their freezing point.
When a liquid is heated, it eventually reaches a temperature at which the vapor
pressure is large enough that bubbles form inside the body of the liquid. This temperature is
called the boiling point. Once the liquid starts to boil, the temperature remains constant until
all of the liquid has been converted to a gas.
 The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes state from
solid to liquid.
 The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a
liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
 Liquids have a characteristic temperature at which they turn into solids, known as their freezing point.
 Generally, the covalent molecules have low or very low melting and boiling points.
POLARITY is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole
moment, with a negatively charged end and a positively charged end. Polar molecules must contain polar bonds due to a
difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms
COMPARISON BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT IN TERMS OF THEIR PROPERTIES
The polarity of a bond is determined by a periodic concept called
electronegativity. In order to determine the polarity of a bond, you must find
the difference in the electronegativity of the atoms involved.
Electronegativity (EN) - Measure of the relative tendency of an
atom to attract electrons to it when chemically combined with another atom.
The higher the value of electronegativity, the more it tends to attract electrons
towards it.
Electronegativity is not
directly measured but is
instead calculated based on
experimental
measurements of other
atomic or molecular
properties. Several methods of calculation have been
proposed, and although there may be small differences in the
numerical values of the calculated electronegativity values, all
methods show the same periodic trend among the elements.
Example 1: Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) = Ionic Bond
***There is a large difference in electronegativity, so the chlorine atom takes an electron from the sodium atom converting
the atoms into ions (Na+) and (Cl−).
***These are held together by their opposite electrical charge forming ionic bonds.
***Each sodium ion is held by 6 chloride ions while each chloride ion is, in turn, held by 6 sodium ions.
***Result: a crystal lattice (not molecules) of common table salt (NaCl).
Example 2: Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H) = Covalent Bond
 There is only a small difference in electronegativity, so the two atoms share the electrons.
 Result: a covalent bond (depicted as C:H or C-H).
 The atoms are held together by their mutual affinity for their shared electrons.
 An array of atoms held together by covalent bonds forms a true molecule.
Example 3: Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) = Polar Covalent Bond
 Here there is a moderate difference in electronegativity, causing the oxygen atom to pull the electron of the
hydrogen atom closer to itself.
 Result: a polar covalent bond.
 Oxygen does this with 2 hydrogen atoms to form a molecule of water.
Key Points
 Electronegativity increases from left to right along a period and down to up on the periodic table
 For the representative elements (s and p block) the electronegativity decreases as you go down a group
 The transition metal group is not as predictable as far as electronegativity
 The higher the attraction for an electron, the higher the electronegativity
 < 0.5 → it’s a non-polar bond (electrons equally shared)
 ˃ 0.5 - 1.7 → it’s a polar covalent bond (2 non-metals, electrons unequally shared)
 >1.7 → it’s ionic (metal and non-metal)
The most commonly used method of calculation for electronegativity was proposed by Linus Pauling. This
method yields a dimensionless quantity, commonly referred to as the Pauling scale, with a range from 0.7 to 4. If we look at
the periodic table without the inert gases, electronegativity is greatest in the upper right and lowest at the bottom left.

IONIC COMPOUND
-Ionic compounds conduct
electricity when molten (liquid) or
in aqueous solution (dissolved in
water), because their ions are free
to move from place to place.
Ionic compounds cannot conduct
electricity when solid, as their ions are
held in fixed positions and cannot
move
number of electrons in the outermost shell; these electrons determine the ease with which mobile electrons are generated.
Non-metals tend to have low conductivity.
COVALENT An insulator is a material which is a poor
conductor of electricity or heat. Some common
COMPOUND
Covalent compounds do not insulators include wood, plastic, glass, porcelain and
conduct electricity because Styrofoam; Styrofoam and plastic see wide use in
they are formed between household applications.
non metal atoms by sharing
of electrons. Covalent COMPARISON BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT
compounds have no free IN TERMS OF THEIR PROPERTIES
electrons and no ions and KEY POINTS
hence they ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY can be defined
do not conduct electricity
as how much voltage is required to get an amount of
electric current to flow. This is largely determined by the
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its
ability to conduct heat. It is commonly denoted by, or. Heat transfer
occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than
in materials of high thermal conductivity.

Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity Ionic Covalent

can be defined as how of a material is a compounds compounds
much voltage is measure of its ability conduct do not
required to get an to conduct heat. It is electricity
amount of electric commonly denoted when conduct
current to flow. by, or. Heat transfer molten (liquid) or electricity
occurs at a lower in aqueous because
rate in materials of solution they are
low thermal (dissolved in formed
conductivity than in water), because between
materials of high their ions are free nonmetal
thermal to move from atoms by
conductivity. place to place. sharing of
electrons.

PERIODIC TABLE
 a tabular display of the chemical elements organized on the basis of their atomic numbers, electron
configurations, and chemical properties. Elements are presented in increasing atomic number.
 a comprehensive system for classifying chemical elements
 It is divided into horizontal rows called periods or series and vertical columns called groups or families.
Periods
 assigned Arabic numerals 1 through 7 Families
 assigned Roman numerals (paired with A or B) 1A through VIIIA and IB through VIIIB.
DMITRI MENDELEEV – mid 1800’s, proposed a table for 70 elements based on increasing mass and similar
properties
Henry Moseley – 1913, determined the atomic number of elements and arranged the table in order of increasing
atomic number.
 The periodic table orders elements by increasing atomic number, which is the number of protons in the atom of an
element.
 The rows of the periodic table are called periods. All elements within a period share the same highest electron
energy level.
 The columns of the periodic table are called groups. All elements in a group share the same number of valence
electrons.
 The three broad categories of elements are metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Most elements are metals.
Nonmetals are located on the righthand side of the periodic table. Metalloids have properties of both metals and
nonmetals.
PARTS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
3 Main Parts of the Periodic Table
Metals
 elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity, generally shiny, solid at room temperature, malleable
and ductile.
 Elements that lie below and to the left of the thick staircase line (except for H).
 readily lose electrons (low electron affinity)
Nonmetals
 The elements on the right-hand side of the periodic table are the nonmetals.
 usually poor conductors of heat and electricity
 often liquids or gases at room temperature and pressure
 lack metallic luster
 readily gain electrons (high electron affinity)
Metalloids or Semimetals
 lie along the thick staircase line
 exhibit properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals
 metalloids have multiple forms or allotropes
 can be made to conduct electricity under special conditions (semiconductors)
PERIODS AND GROUPS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
The arrangement of the periodic table organizes elements with
related properties. Two general categories are groups and periods:
ELEMENT GROUPS
Groups are the columns of the table. Atoms of elements within a
group have the same number of valence electrons. These elements share
many similar properties and tend to act the same way as each other in
chemical reactions.
ELEMENT PERIODS
The rows in the periodic table are called periods. Atoms of these
elements all share the same highest electron energy level.
Elements in the Periodic Table are divided into groups:
1. main – group(representative) elements.
2. Transition elements
3. Inner – transition elements
Representative Elements
 belong to groups IA through VIIIA
 they are called s- block elements, their electron configuration ends in s
 elements belonging to Group IIIA through VIIIA( except He which is an s – block element) are called p – block
elements, because their electron configurations end in p.
A Group of Representative Elements
in this group, the outermost s or p sublevels is only partially fille
 IA alkali metals
 2A alkaline earth metals
 3A boron group
 4A carbon group
 5A nitrogen group
 6A oxygen group
 7A halogen
Group 8A or 0, called the noble gases have the s and p sublevels filled up.
Transition Elements (B Group of Transition Elements)
 composed of Group B elements in the bigger region of the periodic table
 they are metallic elements characterized by the addition of electrons in the d orbitals.
 They are called d – block elements since their electron configurations end in d
Inner transition Elements
 lie below the bigger region of the periodic table
 inner transition elements are metallic in nature characterized by filling of f orbitals.
 They are called f block elements because their electron configurations end in f.
 lanthanide series (atomic numbers 58-71)
 fits into space found after lanthanum (atomic no.57)
 actinide series (atomic numbers 90 – 103).
 Fits into the space after actinium (atomic no.89).
Predicting Periods and Groups
the period and group of an element can be predicted from the electron configuration of the element. The following
guidelines can help in determining the period and group of an element.
 1. If the electron configuration of the element ends in s or p, then the element belongs to family A; otherwise, the
element belongs to family B.
2. For an element belonging to family A, the number of electrons in the outermost energy level corresponds to the
group of the elements.
3. the outermost energy level of the element corresponds to its period.
4. For an element belonging to B(provided that the electron configuration does not end in f) the total number of
electrons in the outermost energy level and the incomplete inner sub-
level is equal to the group number except for the following sums whose
corresponding groups are indicated:
Chemical Properties & Families
Chemical properties of elements are based on their “VALENCE ELECTRONS”
Families are groups of elements that have similar VALENCE ELECTRONS
VALENCE ELECTRONS = outermost electrons in an atom
Electron configuration
 the distribution of electrons of an
atom or molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular
orbitals
 It is related to the position of that element in the periodic table.
LEWIS STRUCTURES
 Lewis structures are visual representations of the physical
arrangement of atoms and their bonds in respect to each other.
Only the valence shell of an atom is illustrated because it contains the only electrons involved in bonding.
 are diagrams that show what happens to the valence electrons of atoms when they form covalent bonds.
Lewis dot symbols
 represent the valence electrons of an atom as dots arranged around the
atomic symbol
In Lewis dot structures:
 Hydrogen and helium can have a maximum of two dots.
 All other elements can have a maximum of eight dots.
To write the Lewis structure for an element, follow these steps:
 Write the element’s symbol.
 Determine how many valence electrons the element has.
 Place the first four electrons on each side (up/down/left/right) of the
element.
 Add the last four by forming pairs Rules
 Identify the central atom of the molecule. This is the least
electronegative atom (See back of periodic table for values) or the only
one able to form more than one bond.
 Assign the valence electrons to each atom as dictated by the periodic
table placing one electron at each compass direction and then pairing
them only after the first four until you have place all of
the atom’s valence electrons. (See the Roman numeral
above the group/column it is in.)
 Arrange the remaining atoms around the central atom
and join them to the central atom by a single bond. The
more electronegative atoms are typically farther away
from the center and attaching hydrogen last is advised.
 Lone electrons (not lone pairs) indicate an ability to form
more covalent bonds, resulting in either double or triple
bonds. Their presence or the lack of a full octet on any
atom indicates there is a better Lewis structure.
 To check yourself, add up the valence electrons of each atom in the molecule and your Lewis structure should
have the same total between all its bonds and lone pairs.
 Rules are followed by the overwhelming majority, but there are always exceptions.
Cations are formed when atoms lose electrons, represented by fewer Lewis dots, whereas anions are formed by
atoms gaining electrons. The total number of electrons does not change.

CHEMICAL BOND
 Forces that hold the atoms together in the compound Important Rule: Octet Rule (Lewis, 1916)
 Atoms lose, gain, or share electrons in order to have a full valence level of eight electrons. Hydrogen and helium
are exceptions because they can hold a maximum of two valence electrons.
Valence electrons
 Electrons in the outermost principal energy (valence) level of an atom that can participate in the formation of
chemical bonds with other atoms
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bond
 Ionic bonds form between atoms with very different electronegativity values. form when one atom takes an
electron from another atom.
 Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals. Ionic compounds
 formed from strong electrostatic interactions between ions, which result in higher melting points and electrical
conductivity compared to covalent compounds.
 consist of a combination of cations and anions
 the formula is usually the same as the empirical formula
 the sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each formula unit must equal zero
Covalent bonds
 form when two atoms share electrons.
 If the electrons are shared equally, the covalent bond is nonpolar. If the electrons are shared unequally, the
covalent bond is polar.
Metallic Bonds
 Metals also bond to other metals to share valence electrons in what becomes an electron sea surrounding all the
affected atoms.
 Atoms of different metals form alloys, which have distinct properties from their component elements. Because the
electrons can move freely, metals readily conduct electricity.
 a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
 elements on the left side of the periodic table generally lose electrons when forming bonds
 elements on the right side of the periodic table are more energy-efficient in gaining electrons to create a complete
valence shell of 8 electrons.
 the more inclined an atom to gain electrons, the more likely that atom will pull electrons toward itself.

Electronegativity Trend
 From left to right across a period of elements, electronegativity increases.
 From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases.
 Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides.
 The noble gases possess a complete valence shell and do not usually attract electrons.
 As for the transition metals, although they have electronegativity values, there is little variance among them
across the period and up and down a group. This is because their metallic properties affect their ability to attract
electrons as easily as the other elements.
Electronegativity Difference
Bonds are classified based on these electronegativity differences:
 Greater than 1.7: Ionic bond
 Between 0.5 and 1.7: Polar covalent bond
 Less than 0.5: Nonpolar covalent bond
Ionization Energy
 the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in its gaseous phase.
 the opposite of electronegativity. The lower this energy is, the more readily the atom becomes a cation. The higher
this energy is, the more unlikely it is the atom becomes a cation
 Elements on the left side of the periodic table have low ionization energies because of their willingness to lose
electrons and become cations.
 ionization energy increases from left to right on the periodic table. Why is ionic bonding important?
Ionic bonds are important because they allow the synthesis of specific organic compounds. Scientists can
manipulate ionic properties and these interactions in order to form desired products.
Most of the organic compounds are synthesized due to presence of ionic
bonds. By this type of bonding it is now easier to know their interactions to
produce specific compounds.
Ionic bonding
complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type of
chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. The metal loses
electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts
those electrons to become a negatively charged anion.

Ionic or Electrovalent Bond

 According to Kossel’s theory, in the process of formation of ionic bond
the atoms acquire the noble gas electronic configuration by the gain or loss of
electrons.
 The electronic configuration of sodium atom (atomic number 11) is 2,8,1.
Since it is highly electropositive, it readily loses an electron to attain the
stable configuration of the
 nearest noble gas (neon) atom. It becomes a positively charged sodium
cation (Na+) in the process
 Electrostatic force of attraction that holds the cation and anion together. The compounds so formed are termed as
ionic or electrovalent compounds
 Ionic bonds tend to form between metals and nonmetals because they have a high electronegativity difference
IONS
 an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or negative charge.
 an atom is electrically neutral because it has equal # of protons (+) & # of
electrons (-)
 positive & negative ions form when electrons are transferred between
atoms!
 atoms of METALS tend to form positive ions by losing 1 or more e - from
their valence (outermost) shell
 an ion with a positive charge is called a CATION.
 atoms of NONMETALS tend to form negative ions by gaining 1 or more e(&
thus filling their outermost energy level)
 an ion with a negative charge is called an ANION.
A chemical bond is when that force holds the atoms in a compound together. These bonds are able to form
because of an attraction between atoms, ions, or between electrons and nuclei. A cation is a positive ion formed when
electrons are lost, and anions are negative ions formed when electrons are gained. If an atom loses one or more electrons,
it becomes a positive ion, but if it gains one or more, it becomes negative. An ionic bond is an electrostatic force that holds
oppositely charged ions together. Ionic compounds are identified by their properties
 Lewis proposed that Covalent bonds consist of shared pairs of electrons. He created a powerful empirical
formalism (Lewis dot structures) for understanding bonding in simple compounds
 In 1916 G. N. Lewis proposed that atoms combine in order to achieve a more stable electron configuration
 Maximum stability results when an atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas.
 Linus Pauling created a picture of covalent bonding that employed Quantum Mechanics (and won the 1954
Nobel Prize for it).
 Lewis Dot Structures provide a simple but extremely powerful formalism for representing covalent bonding in
molecules.
 covalent bond is a chemical link between two atoms or ions in which the electron pairs are shared.

Covalent compound (molecular compound) Number Prefix

 formed from the covalent bonding between non- es
metallic elements. 1 Mono
 Electrons are shared between atoms in covalent 2 Di
compounds. 3 tri
Important Rule: Octet rule (Lewis, 1916) 4 tetra
elements gain or lose electrons to attain an electron 5 penta
configuration of the nearest noble gas.
6 hexa
Covalent Naming 7 hepta
 Binary covalent compounds are characterized by 8 octa
having two nonmetals.
9 nona
 Naming these compounds involves the use of
numerical prefixes: 10 deca
 If there is only ONE atom of the first element, you DON’T
need a prefix.
 The FIRST element is named as a normal element.
 The SECOND element has an –IDE ending.
Characteristics - Covalent Bonding:
Covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms that
SHARE electrons. Covalent bonds are stronger than ionic bonds. Each atom pulls at the others’ electrons. Covalent bonds
can form between any unpaired electrons in two different atoms. Covalent bonds can be written with dots or lines.
 A single bond contains two shared electrons (one pair).
 A double bond contains four shared electrons (two pairs).
  A triple bond contains six shared electrons (three pairs).
Lone pairs
 Electrons that are paired but not part of a bond Bonding Electrons
 electrons between elements Non - Bonding Electrons
 The octet rule is the most useful in cases involving covalent bonds to C, N, O, and F.
Lewis Formula
According to Lewis: At least two electrons are shared between two atoms. These atoms reach noble gas
configuration.
Nonpolar covalent bonds are a type of chemical bond where two atoms share a pair of electrons with each other.
Polar covalent bonding is a type of chemical bond where a pair of electrons is unequally shared between two atoms.
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE - a set of rules to generate systematic names for chemical compounds IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). It is the body responsible for naming compounds. It ensures the use
of a consistent, practical way of naming compounds that allows scientists to communicate clearly and precisely
Ions
 electrically- charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons
 atoms form ions when they lose or gain electrons.
 Cations form when atoms lose electrons and form a positive charge.
 Anions form when atoms gain electrons and form a negative charge
Ionic compounds – formed from strong electrostatic interactions between ions, which result in higher melting points
and electrical conductivity compared to covalent compounds.
TWO WAYS OF NAMING COMPOUNDS
 The Stock System/Systematic Names - uses roman numerals in parentheses to indicate the type of ion in the
compound.
 Classical System/Older System - uses the “-ous” and “-ic” prefixes to indicate the lower and higher charges,
respectively
A polyatomic ion is an ion made of two or more atoms bonded that act as a single unit.
Chemical Formula - a shorthand abbreviation representing the name of a compound using chemical symbols and
numerical subscripts.
Chemical nomenclature is the term given to the naming of compounds. Chemists use specific rules and "conventions"
to name different compounds. It is necessary in identification of compounds.
Organic Chemistry is the study of carbon containing molecules known as organic compounds.
Organic Compounds are commonly defined as carbon containing compounds while inorganic compounds that do not
contain carbon.
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS MAY BE COMPARED GENERALLY USING THE FOLLOWING
PROPERTIES AS PARAMETERS.
1. Solubility - Most organic compounds have covalent bonds, while most inorganic compounds have ionic bonds. The
ionic bonds allow inorganic compounds to dissociate into positive and negative ions in water, making them highly soluble
in water, meaning easily dissolved. On the other hand, most organic compounds are insoluble in water, although they are
soluble in other organic compounds.
2. Viscosity - Viscosity, which is basically thickness or ability to resist deformation, is based on how strong the
intermolecular forces between molecules are.
3. Density - Density, which is how compact something is, is based on the size of the molecule versus the weight of the
atoms in the molecule.
4. Conductivity - The ability for inorganic compounds to ionize allows them to be better electro-conductors. It's the
movement of electrons from one location to another.
5. Reactivity - Reactivity refers to how easy or difficult it is for a substance to react to stimulation.
A carbon atom is considered to be special and unique because it can bond with other carbon atoms to an almost
unlimited degree.
Catenation is the ability of carbon to form long chains. In fact, carbon atoms are unique because of catenation—they are
unique among all of the other atoms found in nature.
p