Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

The research progress of physical regulation techniques in 3D food printing

Yinqiao Lv, Weiqiao Lv *, Guohua Li, Yuanliang Zhong
College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: AR Jambrak Background: With the increasing application of three-dimensional printing, (3D printing) in the modern food
processing industry, research in this area has made great progress. Recently, the application of physical regu­
Keywords: lation techniques in 3D food printing has been of great interest to researchers to improve printing quality.
3D food printing Scope and approach: This review summarizes the various physical methods used in the pre-, in-process, and post-
Energy-carrying electromagnetic field
treatment of 3D food printing. Further, the application of energy-carrying electromagnetic fields, ultrasonic, and
Electrothermal regulation
electric heating in the whole process of 3D food printing is highlighted. Their mechanisms of action and treat­
Printing mode
ment effects on printing substrates with different properties are also described.
Key Findings and Conclusions: Different from pre-printing methods such as expanding the range of printing
substrates and adding functional materials to improve printing characteristics, physical methods such as energy-
carrying electromagnetic fields, electrothermal regulation, and forming modes can affect the final quality of the
printed product. This can be from printing substrate preparation to post-treatment, and expansion to four-
dimensional printing, (4D printing). Successful printing requires a reasonable selection and combination of
various physical regulation techniques. This helps to improve substrate printing characteristics based on different
material properties and desired results to obtain high-quality printed products, according to this review.

1. Introduction
Three-dimensional printing is a new manufacturing technology that
uses computer-aided design software and digital processing equipment
to produce stereoscopic products. This technology is now widely used in
the automotive, aerospace, pharmaceutical, and food industries. In the
food processing field, much of the relevant research has focused on
expanding the range of ingredients for printing and improving the
substrate characteristics, thereof. Ingredients applied to 3D printing are
generally a powder, paste, or melted materials at room temperature (Lin
Wang, Zhang, Bhandari, & Yang, 2018). For example, starch (S Than­
galakshmi & Arora, 2021), plant fiber (Pant et al., 2021), isolated pro­
tein (J. Chen et al., 2019), and chocolate (Mantihal, Prakash, Godoi, &
Bhandari, 2017) have become the main substrates of 3D food printing,
thereby providing a good carrier for stereoscopic reproduction to ach­
ieve various customized functions. The material performance and
properties of common printing substrates are shown in Table 1. A variety
of thickeners (Cai, Zhong, Xu, Huang, & Lu, 2022; C. Severini, Derossi,
Ricci, Caporizzi, & Fiore, 2018; Vancauwenberghe et al., 2017), nutrient
supplements (Carla Severini & Derossi, 2016; Zhang et al., 2022), and
coloring agents (Goyanes et al., 2019; Wen, Kim, & Park, 2022) make 3D
food printing more flexible and diverse, thereby enriching the content of
personalized as well as customized food. Currently, there are four main
forming modes of 3D food printing that include extrusion based, selec­
tive laser sintering, binder jetting, and inkjet. Of the four methods, the
extrusion-based printing is the most widely used. According to the
different states of printing substrates, it can be divided into room tem­
perature, hot-melt, and hydrogel-forming extrusion.
The 3D food printing technology is a cutting-edge processing tech­
nique that integrates various disciplines such as food, mechanics, com­
puters, and electromagnetics (Q. Jiang, Zhang, & Mujumdar, 2021;
Zheng, Zhang, & Liu, 2021). The printing effect is influenced, not only
by the substrate components and product shape, but also by a combi­
nation of physical factors such as printing temperature, forming mode,
homogenization, and energy-carrying electromagnetic fields. In 3D food
printing, according to the substrate properties and the target effect, the
appropriate forming mode is selected to obtain the desired stereoscopic
product. Temperature has an important influence on the rheological
properties, extrusion state, and forming effect of the substrates during
the printing process. Proper temperature control is one of the necessary
factors for successful printing. Energy-carrying electromagnetic field
treatment can improve the physicochemical and functional properties of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lvweiqiao@cau.edu.cn (W. Lv).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2023.02.004
Received 5 December 2022; Received in revised form 24 January 2023; Accepted 5 February 2023
Available online 7 February 2023
0924-2244/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Lv et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243

food substrates (Li et al., 2021), thereby making targeted extensions to

(Lee, Won, Kim, & Park, 2019; J.

(Bianca C. Maniglia et al., 2020;
3D printing in time and space (Phuhongsung, Zhang, & Bhandari, 2020).

(Fan et al., 2020; Phuhongsung,

Chen, 2021; Y. Liu et al., 2022)
(S. Ma, Schutyser, et al., 2022)
Arora, & Liu, 2022; Villanueva
It is applied to 3D printing pre, in-process, and post-treatment (He,

Zhang, & Devahastin, 2020)

(Prithviraj, Thangalakshmi,

(H.-z. Chen, Zhang, Guo, &

B. C. Maniglia et al., 2019)

(S. Ji, Xu, Li, et al., 2022;

Zhang, & Fang, 2020), and the properties of printing substrates are

Maniglia et al., 2021)

greatly improved by the exposure to different energy-carrying electro­
magnetic fields. Using energy-carrying electromagnetic field regulation

Sun et al., 2015)

techniques to improve the texture and efficiency of printed food has

et al., 2019)
resulted in more innovative research results. This helps to provide a new
Reference

direction for research that is aimed at improving the precision, quality,

and productivity of 3D food printed products. Additionally, physical
regulation methods such as energy-carrying electromagnetic fields can
The pulsed electric fields treatment leads to fractures on granules surface,
The MW treatment of rice flours resulted in substantial changes in dough

The appropriate ultrasound-assisted thawing treatment did not cause high

The protein is gradually unfolded and cross-linked by microwave heating

to form a gel, and the rheological properties and structural strength of the
Gels made from electrothermally treated cassava starch have lower peak

also expand 3D into four-dimensional printing (4D printing), or even

viscoelastic and pasting properties. This contributes to improved bread-

thawing loss. There is no significant differences were observed for flow

starch surface and reduced the amylose content, viscosity and pasting
The radio frequency electromagnetic wave treatment roughened the

higher capacities (Ghazal, Zhang, Mujumdar, & Ghamry, 2022; He,

standardized ink quality and result in desired printing performance

and viscoelastic properties at room temperature among surimi gels

Materials crushed into appropriate size particles can maintain the

Zhang, & Guo, 2020).
Currently, many physical factors are applied to enhance the quality
of 3D food printing. Although specific regulation techniques and treat­
ment conditions have been proposed, the role or even the combined
reduction in peak apparent viscosity, and firmer gels

effect of physical regulation at different stages of printing has not been

systematically elaborated. This review describes the application of
apparent viscosity and increased gel firmness

different physical regulation techniques before, during, and after

printing. It expounds the effects and principles of physical factors on the
printing properties and printing results.
Effect of physical treatments

2. The effect of pre-printing physical regulation on 3D food

temperature of the starch

printing results
making performance

ink are improved

The 3D food printing pretreatment has an important impact on the

printability of the substrate, and the optimization achieved by pre­
treatment can be characterized by printability assessment techniques. In
many studies, functional materials have been added to printing sub­
strates with the aim of improving their printing performance (S. Ji, Xu,
Liu, et al., 2022; Yu, Wang, Li, Wang, & Wang, 2022). In recent years,
electromagnetic wave

physical regulation techniques such as temperature, energy-carrying

electromagnetic fields and ultrasound have also been increasingly
Radio frequency
Electrothermal
Pre-treatment

used in 3D food printing pretreatment.

Comminution
Electric fields
Microwave

Ultrasound

Microwave
technique

treatment

2.1. The printability assessment of physically treated substrates

Printability is a key factor in judging the success of the physical

However, Soybean isolate protein gel exhibits higher viscosity and
major starches. The more uniform and dense gel network results in

excessive moisture and low content of carbohydrates and proteins

viscosity, but the printing performance is not ideal due to the low

treatment and printing process. Printability assessment is a systematic

Cassava starch hydrogel is a relatively “weak” gel. It has a large

material. And its extrudability may be limited due to the higher

Wheat starch exhibits the best printing performance among the

Vegetables and fruits have undesirable printability due to their

viscosity in non-shearing processes, and the viscosity is greatly
Potato starch has modifiable viscosity and good transparency.

issue involving extrudability, dimensional accuracy, and stability of the

Soybean isolate protein gel has good water holding capacity.
Rice flour paste does not behave like an ideal shear thinning

Surimi is a sol with pseudoplasticity, i.e., it presents higher

rheological properties that are not suitable for 3D printing.

However, weak gel strength and too easy extrusion are its

3D printed objects (Kadival, Kour, Meena, & Mitra). Evaluation tech­

Printing characteristics of the material and the effect of physical treatment on it.

niques for physically treated substrates are common. Typically the

reduced during the extrusion and shearing process.

rheological properties of the pretreated samples are measured with a

rheometer to assess the extrudability of the substrate (Ma, Schutyser,
Boom, & Zhang, 2022). The yield stress of the substrate, which is related
to the printing extrusion force, is also measured as a parameter to assess
that give proper rheological properties
Material behavior and characteristics

limitations as a 3D printing material

extrudability. Moreover, the yield stress also reflects the mechanical

strength of the ink. This is because the ink needs to be strong enough to
support the subsequent build-up layers after deposition. Stability is also
significantly influenced by the printer parameters (Hussain, Malakar, &
Arora, 2022). Printing accuracy can usually be determined based on
good print quality.

two-dimensional and 3D structures. Depending on the type of substrate,

the effect of physical pretreatment on the printability is shown in
gel firmness

flow point

Table 1.

2.2. Effect of electrothermal regulated pretreatment on printing

performance
Soy protein
Rice flour
example

Cassava

spinach
powder
Surimi

isolate
Potato

Wheat

In 3D food printing pretreatment, heating substrates such as proteins

starch

starch

starch
Food

and starches can affect their structure and conformation, thereby

changing the printability together with the structural stability of the
vegetables

substrate. Electrothermal regulation is the most common choice for

Substrate

Fruit and

pretreating printing substrates. The effect of pre-printing electrothermal

Protein
Table 1

Starch

regulation on the printing characteristics and performance of the sub­

type

strates is shown in Fig. 1.

232
Y. Lv et al.
Fig. 1. The effect of pre-printing electrothermal regulation on the printing characteristics and performance (a) egg yolk paste, (b) dough.
The method of heating thermosensitive materials to prepare gels is
also widely used in the pretreatment of printing substrates. These ma­
terials have a conformation of coils at higher temperatures, but as the
amount of heat decreases, they begin to form helical structures and
aggregates, thereby forming a gel (He, Zhang, & Fang, 2020). Liu et al.
dissolved carrageenan, xanthan gum, and starch in a certain ratio in
water, prior to heating the mixtures in a water bath at 90 ◦ C for 30 min.
They finally cooled the mixture to obtain a multi-component gel system
that could be used for 3D printing (Zhenbin Liu, Bhandari, Prakash,
Mantihal, & Zhang, 2019). Egg yolk was heated in a water bath and then
cooled, based on the heat-induced gelation property. This aids to expand
the application of protein weak gelation system without additives in
extrusion-based 3D food printing. The effect of temperature on the
printing characteristics and performance of egg yolk paste is shown in
Fig. 1a. Egg yolk paste that was heated at 72 ◦ C for 12 min was easily
extruded but could not maintain the printed structure, while the yolk
paste heated at 76 ◦ C for 8 min had good printability and structure
retention. Further increasing the heating temperature resulted in diffi­
cult extrusion of the substrate (L. Xu, Zhang, & Bhandari, 2020). In
another study, gels made from cassava starch that had been dry heat
treated at 130 ◦ C for 4 h also had good 3D printing characteristics and
brought out products with higher resolution (Bianca C. Maniglia et al.,
2020). Electrothermal treatment is widely used in the preparation of
printing gels. Due to the different thermal properties of the substrates,
there is a considerable difference in pretreatment conditions for
starch-based and protein-based or other gels. Pre-experiments may be
required to determine the proper range of conditions in practical
applications.
For smooth extrusion and good printing effects it is generally
required that the dough have proper rheological properties and struc­
ture retention in 3D food printing (Yang, Zhang, Prakash, & Liu, 2018).
Pulatsu et al. continuously heated the dough used for 3D printing by
hotplate at 55 ◦ C for 3 min. The results showed that pre-heating greatly
improved the printability and shape stability of the dough system by
yielding dense networks and affecting conformational changes. The
printing performance is shown in Fig. 1b, where the pre-heated dough
233
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
samples have higher stack height and better structural integrity after
baking, compared to the untreated samples (Pulatsu et al., 2021).
Similar conclusions were reached in studies that were using the ther­
momechanical process to treat wheat dough (Masbernat et al., 2021).
2.3. The effect of energy-carrying electromagnetic field pretreatment on
printing results
Compared with traditional heating methods, microwaves are
increasingly being used in the food processing field because of their easy
control and temperature management (Fu et al., 2012; Limei Wang
et al., 2020). In the pretreatment of food printing, microwave heating
can enhance the textural and water retention properties of the gel (L. Ji,
Xue, Zhang, Li, & Xue, 2017). The substrate composition can affect its
physical properties, therefore, researchers synergistically applied mi­
crowave treatment and additives to gel inks to improve their printing
characteristics. This resulted in significant improvements in printing
accuracy. The synergistic effects of microwave and additives in
pre-treatment on the printing effect are shown in Fig. 2, where Fig. 2a
shows the synergistic effect of microwave and Ca2+ on the buckwheat
starch-pectin gel system. The microwave treatment condition was
heating at 700w for 30 s. Compared with the control group, the treated
printed products have a more desirable structural size and shape fidelity.
Fig. 2b shows the synergistic effects of microwave and salt on the soy­
bean isolate protein-strawberry ink system. Different microwave power
(30,50, and 70 W) were selected to pre-treat the printing ink for 4 min. It
is clear that the product that contains salt ink that has been treated by
the maximum power microwave has the most desirable forming effect
(Fan, Zhang, Liu, & Ye, 2020; C. Guo, Zhang, & Devahastin, 2021b). A
microwave was also used in the pretreatment of printing dough. Sun
et al. pretreated wheat dough using a microwave, and this increased
both the surface viscosity and elasticity of the dough, while improving
the precision of printed products (Y. Sun, Zhang, & Chen, 2020). A
similar conclusion was reached by Villanueva et al. in the microwave
pretreatment of the rice flour of gluten-free dough (Villanueva, Har­
asym, Munoz, & Ronda, 2019). Whether treated directly or in synergy
Y. Lv et al.
Fig. 2. Synergistic effect of microwave and additives in pre-treatment on the printing results (a) microwave and Ca2+ , (b) microwave and salt.
with other techniques, microwave pretreatment achieved desirable re­
sults in a short period of time. This provides researchers with an
essential approach to improve the printability of substrates unsuitable
for 3D printing.
In addition to the microwave, other energy-carrying electromagnetic
fields have great potential for use in the pretreatment of printing sub­
strate. Compared with microwaves, radio frequency electromagnetic
waves (RF) treatment exhibits better uniformity and controllability due
to lower electromagnetic frequency (Xia, Gou, Zhang, Li, & Jiang,
2018). Radio frequency-treated potato starch gels displayed better
printing performance than the untreated ones, thereby resulting in
products with higher stack height, line uniformity, and structural sta­
bility. This is because the RF treatment rearranges the internal structure
of the potato starch granules, thereby causing a more stable and orga­
nized internal structure (S. Ma, Schutyser, et al., 2022). The electric
field-treated starch hydrogels displayed similar properties. Printed
products using pulsed electric field-treated wheat starch gels have
smoother surfaces, higher hardness, and lower adhesiveness (Bianca
Chieregato Maniglia et al., 2021).
2.4. The effect of ultrasonic pretreatment on printing results
In the food processing industry, ultrasound, as an emerging tech­
nique with promising applications, is often used in combination with
other methods (Singla & Sit, 2021). Combinations of ultrasound and
other techniques are also used in 3D food printing pretreatment. Chen
et al. investigated the effects of ultrasonic-assisted and water immersion
thawing on gelling as well as 3D printing properties of silver carp surimi.
The results showed that a more desirable surimi quality and printing
accuracy could be obtained by using ultrasonic-assisted thawing (H.-z.
Chen, Zhang, & Rao, 2021). Liu et al. used ultrasonic and
234
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
homogenization treatment to modify okara fiber. The resulting dough
containing modified okara fiber exhibited excellent printing perfor­
mance. The treated okara fiber exhibited better swelling as well as water
and oil-holding capacities, both of which are extremely important for
printing inks. Adding modified okara fiber has also been seen to improve
the water-holding capacity and printing stability of the dough (Y. Liu
et al., 2021). The shape accuracy of the 3D printed snacks was also
improved by adding ultrasonic pre-treated bran to the dough, mainly as
a result of the increased dough’s viscosity (Habus et al., 2021). The
combined treatment of energy-carrying electromagnetic fields can
merge the advantages of different methods to obtain more desirable
printing results. Xu et al. used ultrasonic-microwave combined pre­
treatment in 3D printing pretreatment of the wheat starch-papaya sys­
tem, and the results showed that in addition to the effect of microwave,
ultrasound increased the ratio of bound water and shape retention
ability, which was beneficial in improving the printing characteristics of
the system (Xu, Zhang, & Bhandari, 2020).
3. The research progress of physical regulation techniques in 3D
food printing process
During the 3D food printing, according to the path given by the
control system, the substrates are discharged from the barrel to accu­
mulate in the designated position and finally solidify into the shape. In
this process, different forming modes has been seen to obtain different
printing effects. Using physical regulation methods to change the phase
change process and rheological properties of the printing substrates is
also one of the research directions in recent years, specifically involving
electrothermal regulation, microwave regulation, infrared regulation,
etc.
Y. Lv et al.
3.1. The effect of forming mode on 3D printing results
Forming modes were selected according to different printing mate­
rials to achieve different printing effects (Varvara, Szabo, & Vodnar,
2021). Among the various forming modes, the extrusion-based printing
is the most widely used and requires appropriate flow and viscoelasticity
of the substrate. They affect the shape fidelity and mechanical properties
of the printed product (Liu, Zhang, & Bhandari, 2018). The method and
parameters of the extrusion-based printing can also have a large impact
on the texture and forming effect of the printed product (Gue­
nard-Lampron, Masson, Leichtnam, & Blumenthal, 2021). Table 2 de­
scribes the key printer parameters that affect the printability of 3D food
printing. Le Tohic et al. investigated the effect of the extrusion-based 3D
printing on the properties of processed cheese. The result showed that
cheese prepared by extrusion-based printing exhibits lower hardness
and higher degrees of meltability, compared to untreated cheese (Le
Tohic et al., 2018). Guo et al. compared the flow characteristics and
profile of syringe-based and screw-based printed products through
computational simulations and printing experiments. The results
showed that different extrusion methods have a great impact on the
printing results. Screw-based 3D food printers may not be able to
extrude high-viscosity inks, while syringe-based 3D food printers is more
suitable for actual printing (C.-F. Guo, Zhang, & Bhandari, 2019). Liu
et al. also found that screw-based printing was not suitable for food
substrates with high viscosity and mechanical strength in
extrusion-based printing of starch gels. The printed products could not
obtain the proper mechanical strength to support the subsequent
deposited layers, thereby resulting in compression distortion and low
resolution (Z. B. Liu, Zhang, Bhandari, & Yang, 2018).
Most of the current 3D food printing research uses conventional
single-nozzle extrusion 3D printing, while dual extrusion printing and
coaxial extrusion printing techniques are gaining attention from re­
searchers for their ability to achieve special printing effects. Liu et al.
used dual extrusion printing to produce more complex geometries and
more attractive multi-material structures by controlling material dis­
tribution (Liu, Zhang, & Yang, 2018). Comparing coaxial extrusion
printing with normal extrusion based printing, the researchers found
that coaxial extrusion printing can not only precisely control the gela­
tion of the substrate by embedding functional materials (Vancau­
wenberghe, Verboven, Lammertyn, & Nicolaï, 2018), but also accurately
control the texture of the printed product (Chao et al., 2022).
Several other forming modes are capable of achieving different
Table 2
Impact of 3D-printer parameters on printability.
Control 3D Printer/model
parameters
Nozzle Shiyin Co. Ltd.
diameter
Nozzle Shiyin Technology Co., Ltd.
movement
speed
Extrusion rate The 3D printing system composed of the following
three major parts: (i) feed hopper with auger mixer
and conveyor, (ii) an extrusion system, (iii) and a X-
Y-Z positioning system
Printing path 3D printer mod. Delta 2040 (Wasp project, Italy)
equipped with a screw-extrusion system
Height ratio Z Morph multi tool 3D printer with thick paste
extruder
Post cooling An extrusion-based 3D printer, PORIMY Co. Ltd.
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
printing results than extrusion-based printing. Selective laser sintering is
mainly used for printing substrates with low melting points. It is able to
print complex structures with different layers of material, thereby
printing products with variable textures (Godoi, Prakash, & Bhandari,
2016; Zhenbin Liu, Zhang, Bhandari, & Wang, 2017). Binder jetting
allows more dry matter content for fast printing without increasing the
printing temperature. This helps to print complex geometries more
easily (Holland, Foster, & Tuck, 2019). Inkjet printing uses a
low-viscosity substrate, typically used for food surface filling and
pattern decoration with a simple printing process (Pallottino et al.,
2016).
The choice of printing mode and its parameters considerably de­
termines the forming effect. Many researchers have paid attention to
hardware and parameter settings, but more research is needed to expand
the application of various printing modes in 3D food printing.
3.2. The effect of in-process electrothermal regulation on 3D printing
results
The structural transformation of the starch gels is influenced by the
printing temperature. As the temperature increases, the gel network
becomes more complete, three-dimensional, and homogeneous, thereby
improving the mechanical strength of the gel system (Zeng, Chen, Chen,
& Zheng, 2021). Tian et al. changed the incubation temperature of the
substrate by heating coils during printing, thereby resulting in
temperature-dependent hybrid gel inks with suitable rheological prop­
erties for better forming results. The results showed that the gel inks
exhibited the best printing characteristics at 45 ◦ C (Tian et al., 2022). In
the 3D printing process of potato starch gel, Liu et al. found that the
suitable printing temperature makes the starch gel with smooth extru­
sion, good printing accuracy, and high structural strength (Zipeng Liu,
Chen, Zheng, Xie, & Chen, 2020). Similar conclusions were reached in
the printing of other materials such as oleogels (Kavimughil, Leena,
Moses, & Anandharamakrishnan, 2022) and soy protein isolate pastes
(J. Chen et al., 2022). The effect of the electrothermally regulated
printing temperature during printing on the printing structure and sta­
bility is shown in Fig. 3. Further, Fig. 3a shows the different forming
effects of hybrid gelator inks at different printing temperatures (25, 45,
and 65 ◦ C). When the printing temperature was low, the ink line surface
of the one-dimensional (1D) model was rough and showed obvious ag­
gregation, and the three-dimensional (3D) model showed obvious col­
lapses. It indicates that the ink is too thin, resulting in poor printing
Food example Effects on printability Reference
Composite mixtures of Significant differences in the printing accuracy and (Y. M. Shi, Zhang, &
potato starch, whey shape retention between nozzle diameters Bhandari, 2021)
protein and oleogel
Taro pastes Too fast or too slow speed all had negative effect on Huang, Zhang,
the accuracy of products. The appropriate printing Bhandari, and Liu
speed also takes into account the important factor of (2020)
printing time
Lemon juice gel A suitable extrusion rate can achieve a smooth line (F. L. Yang, Zhang,
with uniform diameter. And a reasonable Bhandari, & Liu, 2018)
combination of extrusion rate, nozzle movement
speed, and nozzle diameter helps improve printing
performance and increase printing efficiency
Batters The defined infill pathway resulted in the distribution Derossi, Caporizzi,
of pores in 3D printed products Oral, and Severini
(2020)
Rice flour and jaggery It is found to be negatively correlated to layer height. (S. Thangalakshmi,
paste The optimal height ratio and layer height contribute Kumar, & V, 2022)
to a uniform print layer and good structure retention
Baking dough Fast-cooling is used to enhance the shape retention of (F. Yang, Zhang, Fang,
printed samples. The dough should be fast-cooled to & Liu, 2019)
65 ◦ C for more than 10 min to have desired shapes
and structures
235
Y. Lv et al.
Fig. 3. The effect of the electrothermally regulated temperature during printing on the printing structure and stability (a) One-dimensional and three-dimensional
printing structure of hybrid gelator inks at different printing temperatures, (b) the forming effect and stability of the soy protein isolate pastes with additives at
different temperatures.
performance. When the printing temperature was too high, the ink lines
in the 1D model were interrupted in many places, and the 3D model
structure had obvious broken wires that have fallen. This is due to the
fact that the ink cannot be extruded smoothly from the nozzle, while at
close to 45 ◦ C, the printed structure had good shape retention (Tian
et al., 2022). Fig. 3b shows the forming effect and stability of the soy
protein isolate pastes with the addition of sodium alginate and gelatin at
different temperatures (25, 35, 45 ◦ C). The higher printing temperature
resulted in better structural retention of the mixed pastes, especially
when the printed object height exceeded 10 mm (Fig. 3b, printing2), and
no collapse was observed after storage for 6 h. This indicates that the
coordinated effect of electrothermal temperature regulation and opti­
mized printing substrate formulation can bring out 3D printing struc­
tures with high precision and stability (J. Chen et al., 2022).
In the 3D food printing process, using electrothermal modulation
also enables the pre- and post-processing to be integrated into the food
printer, thereby reducing printing pre- and post-treatment time. Diañez
et al. heated the extrusion nozzle during the printing process to promote
the in-situ temperature-induced gelification. Compared to preparing the
gel in the substrate pretreatment, this method minimizes the processing
time without additional additives (Diañez et al., 2019). Khodeir et al.
developed a printing nozzle using ohmic heating to pre-bake a cake
batter in continuous flow. This reduced baking time in post-treatment of
3D printed products (Khodeir et al., 2021).
3.3. The effect of in-process microwave regulation on 3D printing results
In the printing process, the protein substrates cannot be fully
236
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
denatured in a short time under conventional heating methods. The
protein has a high dielectric constant, microwave treatment can change
its activity and structure in a relatively short period of time with the aim
of promoting the gelation of the protein substrates (H. Jiang, Liu, &
Wang, 2018; Jiao et al., 2019; X. Liu, Feng, et al., 2018). Therefore,
microwave regulation is ideal for the protein substrates in the printing
process to achieve uniform heating. Related articles reported that
transglutaminase,(TGase) can effectively improve the strength and
hardness of surimi gels (Dong et al., 2020), Zhao et al. investigated the
synergistic effect of microwaves and TGase on the phase transition
process of surimi from fluid to gelatinized solid. The mechanism of
self-gelation of surimi during the 3D printing process was clarified, as
shown in Fig. 4. The result showed that microwave heating of surimi
increased TGase activity. This contributed to the surimi transform
gradually into a solid gel during the deposition process. When the mi­
crowave power was in the range of 40–50 W/g, the extrusion nozzle
temperature was close to 40 ◦ C, thereby resulting in an increase in TGase
activity to promote the conversion of surimi into a solid gel. This was
conducive to improving the shape stability of the printed products. The
printed hollow spheres in Fig. 4 exhibit good shape retention (Zhao
et al., 2021). To investigate whether the above method is applicable to
different gelation mechanisms of different proteins, this team also
applied the synergistic effect of microwaves and TGase on soy proteins.
This resulted in self-gelation of soy proteins that are not suitable for
direct 3D printing (X. Yu, Wang, et al., 2022). The synergistic effect of
microwaves and TGase provides a new method to improve the quality of
protein-based 3D printing. However, when the microwave power is
high, the protein is rapidly cross-linked leading to the printing substrates
Y. Lv et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243

Fig. 4. Synergistic effect of microwave and Tgase on the self-gelation of surimi during the 3D printing.

cannot be smoothly extruded. This is an issue that needs to be resolved
when microwaving protein-based material during printing to improve
their printability.
3.4. The effect of in-process infrared regulation on 3D printing results
Typically near-infrared (NIR) 3D printing uses NIR lasers to facilitate
the cross-linking and curing of NIR-sensitive inks to form 3D structures
(Zhu, Zhang, Yang, Liu, & Liu, 2020), while in the 3D food printing NIR
is mainly applied for its thermal effect. Fahmy et al. used starch-based
food as the printing substrate and heated each layer of the 3D struc­
ture automatically during printing with the help of a NIR spot heater,
thereby improving the thermal stabilization of printing substrate by
temperature increment and moisture loss. This printing method can
reduce the diffusion and mechanical deformation of the substrate after
extrusion to form a more stable printed structure and prevent structural
collapse (Fahmy et al., 2021). In addition to being able to use thermal
effects to improve structural stability during printing, the on-board
integration of thermal stabilization solutions can also be used to inte­
grate possible post-treatment into the printing system. Using infrared
heating to integrate post-printing cooking into a food printer, Hertafeld
et al. have shown the ability to simultaneously extrude and cook
printing substrates with extreme precision. Due to the high resolution of
infrared spot, it is possible to precisely heat the different printing sub­
strates in the printed product to give rise to new flavor profiles (Herta­
feld et al., 2019). The integrated IR regulation during printing can
reduce post-processing time. This is a potential way to increase pro­
ductivity for printed products with post-processing needs.

Fig. 5. The effect of post-printing physical regulation on the degree of printed product deformation (a) different mechanisms of deformation caused by microwave
drying, infrared drying and hot air drying, (b) microwave-induced deformation of samples with different salt contents.

237
Y. Lv et al.
4. The research progress of post-printing physical regulation
techniques in 3D food printing
4.1. Physical regulation of 3D printing shaping effect
Microwave treatment is an essential factor to regulate the shaping
effect after 3D printing. Microwaves can induce spontaneous shape
changes of 3D printed products. This mainly relies on the rapid dehy­
dration of materials. The differences of microwave penetration depth
and material dielectric properties lead to uneven shrinkage deformation,
which provides an effective method for 3D food printing to achieve
controlled deformation (Teng, Zhang, & Mujumdar, 2021). The effect of
post-printing physical regulation on the deformation degree is shown in
Fig. 5. Fig. 5a shows mechanisms of deformation caused by different
drying methods. In the microwave drying process, the temperature of
the inner layer of the printed product is higher than the outer layer,
thereby causing the moisture migration from the inner layer to the
outside, which caused the inner layer first shrinkage. However, the
shrinkage of internal layer cannot bend the printed products uniformly
due to the constraint and the final evaporation of moisture from the
outer layer. Compared with hot air drying and infrared drying, there was
no “accumulation bending effect” during microwave drying, the sample
has a minimum of shrinkage and bending degree (Z. Liu et al., 2021a).
Fig. 5b shows the difference in microwave-induced deformation of
samples with different salt content. As the salt content increases, the
final bending angle after microwave treatment decreases significantly.
This is due to the fact that edible salt increases the dielectric properties
of the printing substrate, which accelerate the heating and drying rate of
the printed product in the microwave treatment. The result is a more
extensive hardening of the printed product surface, which helps to stop
the deformation (He, Zhang, & Devahastin, 2021). This method com­
bines the microwave treatment and the optimized substrate composition
to effectively control the amount of deformation.
4D food printing is a targeted extension of 3D printing. It uses the
stimulation of external factors to change the printing performance of the
printed products (Jaspin, Anbarasan, Dharini, & Mahendran, 2021; Z.
Liu et al., 2021b). Controlled deformation of 3D printed products is one
of the main forms of 4D food printing that can enhance the consumer
experience. He et al. used purple sweet potato purees for printing, fol­
lowed by rapid dehydration of the samples using microwaves to induce
spontaneous shape change. The result showed that the bending angle of
printed samples is related to their dehydration rate, which expectedly
increases with increased microwave power. The microwave
Fig. 6. Special structural changes achieved by microwave heating in 4D printing (a) comparison of deformation effects of 3D printing and indirect 4D printing, (b)
comparison of deformation effects induced by hot air and microwave heating.
238
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
post-treatment directionally changes the printed samples with 2D
structure into 3D structure. This microwave-induced spontaneous
deformation provides a basis for 4D food printing (He, Zhang, & Deva­
hastin, 2020). Shi et al. used purple potato puree and oleogel for
dual-nozzle printing, and utilized microwave as an external thermal
stimulus to treat the printed products. Due to the differences in dielectric
properties and flow characteristics, different materials melt at different
degrees and rates during the microwave treatment. This provides the
driving force for achieving spontaneous shape change (Y. Shi, Zhang, &
Phuhongsung, 2022). Exploiting the difference in material properties
provides a new idea for achieving spontaneous deformation in 4D food
printing. A similar control strategy was used in the controlled defor­
mation of the double layer structure of 3D printed pumpkin/paper by
Fengying Chen et al. The different temperature response characteristics
of the materials were exploited to create deformation drivers for
pumpkin puree dehydration shrinkage (F. Chen, Zhang, Liu, & Bhandari,
2021).
One of the advantages of 4D printing is the ability to achieve sus­
pended structures that 3D printing cannot do (Teng et al., 2021). The
special printed structures that can be achieved by microwave treatment
in 4D printing are shown in Fig. 6. In Fig. 6a, the substrate printed
directly by 3D printing lacks support during the deposition process,
thereby causing the collapse of the structure. This makes it impossible to
form a suspended structure of petals, while 4D printing can first print a
3D structure with stable support, and then deform the product through
microwave heating to form a stable suspended structure. In Fig. 6b, a
long time hot air heating cannot make a single petal flower samples
deformation, but through microwave heating in a short period of time to
achieve a significant “flowering” effect due to the uneven heating
characteristics of microwaves, which leads to the connection between
the petal and stamen swelling to produce deformation drive. However,
the hot air heating evenly heats the sample surface without producing a
“flowering” drive (C. Guo, Zhang, Bhandari, & Devahastin, 2022b).
Texture is one of the indicators for evaluating printed products.
Physical regulation in the post-processing can effectively improve the
texture of the product. When C. Severini et al. baked the printed dough,
they found that the moderate temperature avoided low expansion and
surface crusting. This resulted in a decrease in the firmness of the
confection (C. Severini, Azzollini, Albenzio, & Derossi, 2018). The
texture of meat is affected by the method of reheating. For 3D printed
meat products with easy swallowing requirements, microwave heating
are able to avoid crusting from convection heating, thereby causing a
soft texture of the sample (Dick, Bhandari, & Prakash, 2021). Microwave
Y. Lv et al.
heating of materials has a significant puffing effect (Pompe, Briesen, &
Datta, 2020), which can be applied to post-processing of 3D printing.
This helps to puff up 3D printed starch-based products into low-fat
products similar to fried foods (Teng, Zhang, & Mujumdar, 2022).
4.2. Physical regulation of printed product color
Attractive colors can enhance the visual performance of food and
become a driving force for purchase. The ideal color given to the
printing products in 3D food printing post-processing is beneficial to
improve their sensory experiences. Using physical regulation methods to
achieve spontaneous color change of 3D printed products is also one of
the directions of 4D food printing (Ghazal, Zhang, & Liu, 2019; Navaf
et al., 2022). The methods and samples of spontaneous color change
using physical regulation techniques in post-treatment are shown in
Fig. 7.
Microcapsule, one of the important new complementary technolo­
gies in food research, is often used to embed functional ingredients to
improve their storage stability (Bekhit, Sánchez-González, Ben Mes­
saoud, & Desobry, 2016; Coelho et al., 2022). Energy-carrying electro­
magnetic fields can be used as a source of stimulation to facilitate the
release of pigments from microcapsules to achieve color change (L.
Tang, Liu, et al., 2022). In 3D food printing post-processing, microcap­
sule is used in combination with physical regulation techniques to
improve the color and flavor of printed products. Guo et al. added
different contents of microcapsules to buckwheat dough containing
yellow flesh peach. The pepper red pigment in the capsules was released
during microwave heating due to the destruction of capsule wall
composing of gelatin and gum Arabic. The experimental results showed
that the color changes of the dough with different levels of microcap­
sules exhibited different trends. The color change of printed products
using microwaves stimulated microcapsules is shown in Fig. 7a (C. Guo,
Zhang, & Devahastin, 2021a). Tang et al. have reached similar conclu­
sions. They used microwave-infrared heating as a stimulation source to
achieve color and flavor changes in a white radish/potato gel product.
The color change effect is shown in Fig. 7b. Further, the degree of color
Fig. 7. The methods and samples of spontaneous color change using physical regulation in post-treatment (a) the spontaneous color change of printed products using
microwave stimulated microcapsules, (b) microwave-infrared heating stimulates microcapsules to change the color, (c) microwave heating changes the pH to change
the color of product ingredients. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
239
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
change is positively correlated with the microcapsule level and heating
time (Tang, Zhang, et al., 2022). Guo et al. also combined color and
flavor changing microcapsules with the strategy of directional defor­
mation to realize the synchronous 4D printing process of deformation,
color changing, and aroma changing within 15 s, induced by a house­
hold microwave oven. This provides a new research method for 4D
printing (C. Guo, Zhang, Bhandari, & Devahastin, 2022a).
To achieve color change in 3D food printing post-processing, Chen
et al. also used microwave heating for changing the acid-base environ­
ment of the printed product, thereby causing spontaneous color change
of pH-sensitive component in the sample. This method achieves post-
printing physical regulation of the product color. As shown in Fig. 7c,
the top and bottom are the samples before and after treatment, respec­
tively. Microwave heating caused spontaneous color change of curcu­
min, which is sensitive to pH, in the samples. The pictures show that the
sample color changed completely after 1 or 2 min of microwave treat­
ment. The yellow dry lines that impair the appearance of the samples
appeared on the surface after 3 min, thus it can be found that this
method has a high efficiency of color change (C. Chen, Zhang, Guo, &
Chen, 2021).
Not all color changes are expected in the post-processing of 3D food
printed products. Many printed products are cooked and processed after
printing, usually by baking, microwaving, etc (Keerthana, Anukiruthika,
Moses, & Anandharamakrishnan, 2020; Pulatsu et al., 2022). Discolor­
ation due to inappropriate heat treatment may reduce the sensory
acceptability of 3D printed products. When S. Thangalakshmi et al.
analyzed the effect of steaming on the color of printed samples, they
found that different processing times may have different effects on the
color due to the composition of the substrate (S. Thangalakshmi, Arora,
et al., 2022). Krishnaraj et al. compared microwave reheating with hot
air drying and frying. The results showed the microwave-treated sam­
ples were the most similar in appearance to the untreated samples and
preserved the color most completely (Krishnaraj, Anukiruthika,
Choudhary, Moses, & Anandharamakrishnan, 2019). For substrates such
as rice starch, which are more suitable for frying treatment (Theagar­
ajan, Nimbkar, Moses, & Anandharamakrishnan, 2021), microwave,
Y. Lv et al.
ultrasonic, and electric fields combined with frying can improve the
frying quality of printed products. They are beneficial in reducing color
variation and making the color more natural (Devi, Zhang, & Mujumdar,
2021; D. Yang et al., 2021).
4.3. Physical regulation of moisture in 3D printed products
Dehydration is a common post-processing method in food process­
ing. It can effectively improve storage conditions and extend shelf life.
Timely regulation of moisture in 3D food printing post-processing can
improve stabilization of printed products (Demei, Zhang, Phuhongsung,
& Mujumdar, 2022; Yoha, Anukiruthika, Anila, Moses, & Anandhar­
amakrishnan, 2021).
Hot air drying, freeze drying, and microwave drying are commonly
used in food processing (Ren, Zheng, Zhao, Hu, & Yang, 2022; Richter
Reis, Marques, Moraes, & Masson, 2022). Due to the characteristics of
microwave heating, microwaves are widely used in the drying pro­
cessing of food materials after 3D printing. Microwave drying allows for
better retention of nutrients while minimizing changes in texture
properties (Krishnaraj et al., 2019). Compared with hot-air drying and
freeze-drying, rose-yam paste printed products after microwave vacuum
drying (MVD) have good product quality and highest drying efficiency.
The result showed that microwave drying was a promising
post-processing method in 3D food printing, especially for printed
products enriched with bioactive compounds (Feng et al., 2021). The
researchers reached similar conclusions when post-processing the
printed potato-based snacks using MVD (Zhenbin Liu & Zhang, 2021).
Yang et al. applied MVD to mango juice gel 3D printed products. They
compared the products with MVD for 0, 2 and 4 min. The result showed
that the 3D printed products after 4 min treatment not only had the best
shape retention and shape accuracy, but also exhibited better flavor,
texture and, dielectric properties (F. Yang, Zhang, & Liu, 2019).
5. Conclusion and outlook
Physical factors in 3D food printing are energy-carrying electro­
magnetic fields including microwave, RF, infrared and electric fields,
electrothermal, forming modes, ultrasonic, etc. The physical regulation
techniques have proven to be efficient and environmentally friendly
methods to improve printing performance depending on the substrate
properties.
In pre- and in-process treatment, physical regulation techniques are
mainly used for improving the substrate characteristics. Electrothermal
regulation can contribute to the preparation of inks with good material
properties, as well as the proper printing temperature results in the
extrudability and shape retention of the ink. The forming mode and its
parameter settings are highly dependent on the type of substrate and
largely determine the forming results. The energy-carrying electro­
magnetic field can quickly improve the printing characteristics, result­
ing in the proper extrudability and good dimensional accuracy, and
stability of 3D printed objects. Moreover, in-process treatments inte­
grate physical regulation into the food printer to improve printing effi­
ciency. In printing post-treatment, physical regulation methods are used
to control the shape, color, and moisture, with the aim of obtaining
printed products that have better stability, a delicate shape, and an
attractive color.
According to the printing characteristics of the substrates and the
target effects, the reasonable selection and combination of physical
regulation techniques can greatly improve the 3D food printing effect.
The future research can focus on the combination and interaction effects
of various physical regulation techniques. Such directions as combined
energy-carrying electromagnetic field and ultrasonic pretreatment,
combined microwave and infrared heating to induce deformation, for
example, could be potential ways to improve the quality of printed
products.
240
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the financial support provided to us by the National
Key R&D Program of China (2022YFF1101200), which has enabled us to
carry out this study. The authors would like to express their gratitude to
EditSprings (https://www.editsprings.cn) for the expert linguistic ser­
vices provided.
References
Bekhit, M., Sánchez-González, L., Ben Messaoud, G., & Desobry, S. (2016). Design of
microcapsules containing Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis in alginate shell and
xanthan gum with nutrients core. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 68, 446–453.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.12.037
Cai, Q., Zhong, Y., Xu, M., Huang, Q., & Lu, X. (2022). 3D printed high oil custard cream:
Effects of whey protein isolate, hydroxypropylated starch and carrageenan on
physicochemical properties and printing performance. Lwt-Food Science and
Technology, 156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.113039
Chao, C., Hwang, J. S., Kim, I. W., Choi, R. Y., Kim, H. W., & Park, H. J. (2022). Coaxial
3D printing of chicken surimi incorporated with mealworm protein isolate as
texture-modified food for the elderly. Journal of Food Engineering, 333, Article
111151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2022.111151
Chen, J., Mu, T., Goffin, D., Blecker, C., Richard, G., Richel, A., et al. (2019). Application
of soy protein isolate and hydrocolloids based mixtures as promising food material in
3D food printing. Journal of Food Engineering, 261, 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2019.03.016
Chen, J., Sun, H., Mu, T., Blecker, C., Richel, A., Richard, G., … Goffin, D. (2022). Effect
of temperature on rheological, structural, and textural properties of soy protein
isolate pastes for 3D food printing. Journal of Food Engineering, 323, Article 110917.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110917
Chen, C., Zhang, M., Guo, C., & Chen, H. (2021). 4D printing of lotus root powder gel:
Color change induced by microwave. Innovative Food Science & Emerging
Technologies, 68, Article 102605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102605
Chen, F., Zhang, M., Liu, Z., & Bhandari, B. (2021). 4D deformation based on double-
layer structure of the pumpkin/paper. Food Structure, 27, Article 100168. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2020.100168
Chen, H.-z., Zhang, M., & Rao, Z. (2021). Effect of ultrasound-assisted thawing on gelling
and 3D printing properties of silver carp surimi. Food Research International, 145,
Article 110405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110405
Coelho, L. M., Gonçalves, I., Ferreira, P., Pinheiro, A. C., Vicente, A. A., & Martins, J. T.
(2022). Exploring the performance of amaranth grain starch and protein
microcapsules as β-carotene carrier systems for food applications. Food Structure, 33,
Article 100287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2022.100287
Demei, K., Zhang, M., Phuhongsung, P., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2022). 3D food printing:
Controlling characteristics and improving technological effect during food
processing. Food Research International, 156, Article 111120. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111120
Derossi, A., Caporizzi, R., Oral, M. O., & Severini, C. (2020). Analyzing the effects of 3D
printing process per se on the microstructure and mechanical properties of cereal
food products. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 66. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102531
Devi, S., Zhang, M., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2021). Influence of ultrasound and microwave-
assisted vacuum frying on quality parameters of fried product and the stability of
frying oil. Drying Technology, 39(5), 655–668. https://doi.org/10.1080/
07373937.2019.1702995
Diañez, I., Gallegos, C., Brito-de la Fuente, E., Martinez, I., Valencia, C., Sanchez, M. C.,
… Franco, J. M. (2019). 3D printing in situ gelification of κ-carrageenan solutions:
Effect of printing variables on the rheological response. Food Hydrocolloids, 87,
321–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.08.010
Dick, A., Bhandari, B., & Prakash, S. (2021). Effect of reheating method on the post-
processing characterisation of 3D printed meat products for dysphagia patients.
Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie, 150, Article 111915. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111915
Dong, X., Pan, Y., Zhao, W., Huang, Y., Qu, W., Pan, J., … Prakash, S. (2020). Impact of
microbial transglutaminase on 3D printing quality of Scomberomorus niphonius
surimi. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie, 124, Article 109123. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109123
Fahmy, A. R., Amann, L. S., Dunkel, A., Frank, O., Dawid, C., Hofmann, T., … Jekle, M.
(2021). Sensory design in food 3D printing – structuring, texture modulation, taste
localization, and thermal stabilization. Innovative Food Science & Emerging
Technologies, 72, Article 102743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102743
Fan, H., Zhang, M., Liu, Z., & Ye, Y. (2020). Effect of microwave-salt synergetic pre-
treatment on the 3D printing performance of SPI-strawberry ink system. Lebensmittel-
Wissenschaft & Technologie, 122, Article 109004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lwt.2019.109004
Feng, C. Y., Zhang, M., Liu, Z. B., Mujumdar, A., Wang, Y. C., & Chang, L. (2021). Effect
of drying method on post-processing stability and quality of 3D printed rose-yam
Y. Lv et al.
paste. Drying Technology, 39(9), 1196–1204. https://doi.org/10.1080/
07373937.2020.1851708
Fu, X., Hayat, K., Li, Z., Lin, Q., Xu, S., & Wang, S. (2012). Effect of microwave heating on
the low-salt gel from silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) surimi. Food
Hydrocolloids, 27(2), 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.09.009
Ghazal, A. F., Zhang, M., & Liu, Z. (2019). Spontaneous color change of 3D printed
healthy food product over time after printing as a novel application for 4D food
printing. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 12(10), 1627–1645. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11947-019-02327-6
Ghazal, A. F., Zhang, M., Mujumdar, A. S., & Ghamry, M. (2022). Progress in 4D/5D/6D
printing of foods: Applications and R&D Opportunities. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10408398.2022.2045896
Godoi, F. C., Prakash, S., & Bhandari, B. R. (2016). 3d printing technologies applied for
food design: Status and prospects. Journal of Food Engineering, 179, 44–54. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.01.025
Goyanes, A., Madla, C. M., Umerji, A., Duran Pineiro, G., Giraldez Montero, J. M., Lamas
Diaz, M. J., … Basit, A. W. (2019). Automated therapy preparation of isoleucine
formulations using 3D printing for the treatment of MSUD: First single-centre,
prospective, crossover study in patients. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 567,
Article 118497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118497
Guenard-Lampron, V., Masson, M., Leichtnam, O., & Blumenthal, D. (2021). Impact of
3D printing and post-processing parameters on shape, texture and microstructure of
carrot appetizer cake. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 72, Article
102738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102738
Guo, C.-F., Zhang, M., & Bhandari, B. (2019). A comparative study between syringe-
based and screw-based 3D food printers by computational simulation. Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture, 162, 397–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compag.2019.04.032
Guo, C., Zhang, M., Bhandari, B., & Devahastin, S. (2022a). Investigation on
simultaneous change of deformation, color and aroma of 4D printed starch-based
pastes from fruit and vegetable as induced by microwave. Food Research
International, 157, Article 111214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111214
Guo, C., Zhang, M., Bhandari, B., & Devahastin, S. (2022b). Investigation on
simultaneous change of deformation, color and aroma of 4D printed starch-based
pastes from fruit and vegetable as induced by microwave. Food Research
International, 111214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111214
Guo, C., Zhang, M., & Devahastin, S. (2021a). Color/aroma changes of 3D-Printed
buckwheat dough with yellow flesh peach as triggered by microwave heating of
gelatin-gum Arabic complex coacervates. Food Hydrocolloids, 112. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106358
Guo, C., Zhang, M., & Devahastin, S. (2021b). Improvement of 3D printability of
buckwheat starch-pectin system via synergistic Ca2+-microwave pretreatment. Food
Hydrocolloids, 113, Article 106483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2020.106483
Habus, M., Golubic, P., Pavicic, T. V., Mustac, N. C., Voucko, B., Herceg, Z., …
Novotni, D. (2021). Influence of flour type, dough acidity, printing temperature and
bran pre-processing on browning and 3D printing performance of snacks. Food and
Bioprocess Technology, 14(12), 2365–2379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-021-
02732-w
Hertafeld, E., Zhang, C., Jin, Z., Jakub, A., Russell, K., Lakehal, Y., … Lipson, H. (2019).
Multi-material three-dimensional food printing with simultaneous infrared cooking.
3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 6(1), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1089/
3dp.2018.0042
He, C., Zhang, M., & Devahastin, S. (2020). Investigation on spontaneous shape change of
4D printed starch-based purees from purple sweet potatoes as induced by microwave
dehydration. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 12(34), 37896–37905. https://doi.
org/10.1021/acsami.0c10899
He, C., Zhang, M., & Devahastin, S. (2021). Microwave-induced deformation behaviors of
4D printed starch-based food products as affected by edible salt and butter content.
Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ifset.2021.102699
He, C., Zhang, M., & Fang, Z. (2020). 3D printing of food: Pretreatment and post-
treatment of materials. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 60(14),
2379–2392. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019.1641065
He, C., Zhang, M., & Guo, C. (2020). 4D printing of mashed potato/purple sweet potato
puree with spontaneous color change. Innovative Food Science & Emerging
Technologies, 59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2019.102250
Holland, S., Foster, T., & Tuck, C. (2019). Chapter 9 - creation of food structures through
binder jetting. In F. C. Godoi, B. R. Bhandari, S. Prakash, & M. Zhang (Eds.),
Fundamentals of 3D food printing and applications (pp. 257–288). Academic Press.
Huang, M. S., Zhang, M., Bhandari, B., & Liu, Y. P. (2020). Improving the three-
dimensional printability of taro paste by the addition of additives. Journal of Food
Process Engineering, 43(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13090
Hussain, S., Malakar, S., & Arora, V. K. (2022). Extrusion-based 3D food printing:
Technological approaches, material characteristics, printing stability, and post-
processing. Food Engineering Reviews, 14(1), 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s12393-021-09293-w
Jaspin, S., Anbarasan, R., Dharini, M., & Mahendran, R. (2021). Structural analysis of
tapioca xerogel and its water and oil triggered shape change. Food Structure, 30,
Article 100226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2021.100226
Jiang, H., Liu, Z., & Wang, S. (2018). Microwave processing: Effects and impacts on food
components. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 58(14), 2476–2489.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2017.1319322
Jiang, Q., Zhang, M., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2021). Novel evaluation technology for the
demand characteristics of 3D food printing materials: A review. Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2021.1878099
241
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
Jiao, X., Cao, H., Fan, D., Huang, J., Zhao, J., Yan, B., … Zhang, H. (2019). Effects of fish
oil incorporation on the gelling properties of silver carp surimi gel subjected to
microwave heating combined with conduction heating treatment. Food
Hydrocolloids, 94, 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.03.017
Ji, L., Xue, Y., Zhang, T., Li, Z., & Xue, C. (2017). The effects of microwave processing on
the structure and various quality parameters of Alaska pollock surimi protein-
polysaccharide gels. Food Hydrocolloids, 63, 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2016.08.011
Ji, S., Xu, T., Li, Y., Li, H., Zhong, Y., & Lu, B. (2022). Effect of starch molecular structure
on precision and texture properties of 3D printed products. Food Hydrocolloids, 125.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107387
Ji, S., Xu, T., Liu, Y., Li, H., Luo, J., Zou, Y., … Lu, B. (2022). Investigation of the
mechanism of casein protein to enhance 3D printing accuracy of cassava starch gel.
Carbohydrate Polymers, 295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119827
Kadival, A., Kour, M., Meena, D., & Mitra, J. Extrusion-based 3D food printing:
Printability assessment and improvement techniques. Food and Bioprocess
Technology. doi:10.1007/s11947-022-02931-z.
Kavimughil, M., Leena, M. M., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2022). Effect of
material composition and 3D printing temperature on hot-melt extrusion of ethyl
cellulose based medium chain triglyceride oleogel. Journal of Food Engineering, 329,
Article 111055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2022.111055
Keerthana, K., Anukiruthika, T., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2020).
Development of fiber-enriched 3D printed snacks from alternative foods: A study on
button mushroom. Journal of Food Engineering, 287, Article 110116. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2020.110116
Khodeir, M., Rouaud, O., Oge, A., Jury, V., Le-Bail, P., & Le-Bail, A. (2021). Study of
continuous cake pre-baking in a rectangular channel using ohmic heating. Innovative
Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ifset.2020.102580
Krishnaraj, P., Anukiruthika, T., Choudhary, P., Moses, J. A., &
Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2019). 3D extrusion printing and post-processing of
fibre-rich snack from indigenous composite flour. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 12
(10), 1776–1786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-019-02336-5
Le Tohic, C., O’Sullivan, J. J., Drapala, K. P., Chartrin, V., Chan, T., Morrison, A. P., …
Kelly, A. L. (2018). Effect of 3D printing on the structure and textural properties of
processed cheese. Journal of Food Engineering, 220, 56–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jfoodeng.2017.02.003
Lee, J. H., Won, D. J., Kim, H. W., & Park, H. J. (2019). Effect of particle size on 3D
printing performance of the food-ink system with cellular food materials. Journal of
Food Engineering, 256, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.03.014
Liu, Z., Bhandari, B., Prakash, S., Mantihal, S., & Zhang, M. (2019). Linking rheology and
printability of a multicomponent gel system of carrageenan-xanthan-starch in
extrusion based additive manufacturing. Food Hydrocolloids, 87, 413–424. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.08.026
Liu, Z., Chen, H., Zheng, B., Xie, F., & Chen, L. (2020). Understanding the structure and
rheological properties of potato starch induced by hot-extrusion 3D printing. Food
Hydrocolloids, 105, Article 105812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2020.105812
Liu, X., Feng, D., Ji, L., Zhang, T., Xue, Y., & Xue, C. (2018). Effects of microwave heating
on the gelation properties of heat-induced Alaska Pollock (Theragra chalcogramma)
surimi. Food Science and Technology International, 24(6), 497–506. https://doi.org/
10.1177/1082013218768411
Liu, Z., He, C., Guo, C., Chen, F., Bhandari, B., & Zhang, M. (2021a). Dehydration-
triggered shape transformation of 4D printed edible gel structure affected by
material property and heating mechanism. Food Hydrocolloids, 115, Article 106608.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106608
Liu, Z., He, C., Guo, C., Chen, F., Bhandari, B., & Zhang, M. (2021b). Dehydration-
triggered shape transformation of 4D printed edible gel structure affected by
material property and heating mechanism. Food Hydrocolloids, 115. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106608
Liu, Y., Sun, Q. X., Wei, S., Xia, Q. Y., Pan, Y. M., Ji, H. W., … Liu, S. C. (2022). Insight
into the correlations among rheological behaviour, protein molecular structure and
3D printability during the processing of surimi from golden pompano (Trachinotus
ovatus). Food Chemistry, 371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131046
Liu, Y., Yi, S., Ye, T., Leng, Y., Hossen, M. A., Sameen, D. E., … Qin, W. (2021). Effects of
ultrasonic treatment and homogenization on physicochemical properties of okara
dietary fibers for 3D printing cookies. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 77. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105693
Liu, Z., & Zhang, M. (2021). Texture properties of microwave post-processed 3D printed
potato snack with different ingredients and infill structure. Future Foods, 3, Article
100017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100017
Liu, Z., Zhang, M., & Bhandari, B. (2018). Effect of gums on the rheological,
microstructural and extrusion printing characteristics of mashed potatoes.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 117, 1179–1187. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.06.048
Liu, Z., Zhang, M., Bhandari, B., & Wang, Y. (2017). 3D printing: Printing precision and
application in food sector. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 69, 83–94. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.08.018
Liu, Z. B., Zhang, M., Bhandari, B., & Yang, C. H. (2018). Impact of rheological properties
of mashed potatoes on 3D printing. Journal of Food Engineering, 220, 76–82. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.04.017
Liu, Z., Zhang, M., & Yang, C.-h. (2018). Dual extrusion 3D printing of mashed potatoes/
strawberry juice gel. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie, 96, 589–596. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.06.014
Li, S. Y., Zhang, R., Lei, D., Huang, Y. Q., Cheng, S. Y., Zhu, Z. Z., … Cravotto, G. (2021).
Impact of ultrasound, microwaves and high-pressure processing on food components
Y. Lv et al.
and their interactions. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 109, 1–15. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.017
Ma, S., Liu, J., Zhang, Q., Lin, Q., Liu, R., Xing, Y., et al. (2022). 3D printing performance
using radio frequency electromagnetic wave modified potato starch. Innovative Food
Science & Emerging Technologies, 80, Article 103064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ifset.2022.103064
Maniglia, B. C., Lima, D. C., Matta Junior, M. D., Le-Bail, P., Le-Bail, A., &
Augusto, P. E. D. (2020). Preparation of cassava starch hydrogels for application in
3D printing using dry heating treatment (DHT): A prospective study on the effects of
DHT and gelatinization conditions. Food Research International, 128, Article 108803.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108803
Maniglia, B. C., Lima, D. C., Matta, M. D., Le-Bail, P., Le-Bail, A., & Augusto, P. E. D.
(2019). Hydrogels based on ozonated cassava starch: Effect of ozone processing and
gelatinization conditions on enhancing 3D-printing applications. International
Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 138, 1087–1097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijbiomac.2019.07.124
Maniglia, B. C., Pataro, G., Ferrari, G., Augusto, P. E. D., Le-Bail, P., & Le-Bail, A. (2021).
Pulsed electric fields (PEF) treatment to enhance starch 3D printing application:
Effect on structure, properties, and functionality of wheat and cassava starches.
Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 68, Article 102602. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102602
Mantihal, S., Prakash, S., Godoi, F. C., & Bhandari, B. (2017). Optimization of chocolate
3D printing by correlating thermal and flow properties with 3D structure modeling.
Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 44, 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ifset.2017.09.012
Masbernat, L., Berland, S., Leverrier, C., Moulin, G., Michon, C., & Almeida, G. (2021).
Structuring wheat dough using a thermomechanical process, from liquid food to 3D-
printable food material. Journal of Food Engineering, 310, Article 110696. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110696
Ma, Y., Schutyser, M. A., Boom, R. M., & Zhang, L. (2022). Thermographic and
rheological characterization of viscoelastic materials for hot-extrusion 3D food
printing. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 81, Article 103135.
Navaf, M., Sunooj, K. V., Aaliya, B., Akhila, P. P., Sudheesh, C., Mir, S. A., et al. (2022).
4D printing: A new approach for food printing; effect of various stimuli on 4D
printed food properties. A comprehensive review. Applied Food Research, 2(2),
Article 100150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100150
Pallottino, F., Hakola, L., Costa, C., Antonucci, F., Figorilli, S., Seisto, A., et al. (2016).
Printing on food or food printing: A review. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 9(5),
725–733. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-016-1692-3
Pant, A., Lee, A. Y., Karyappa, R., Lee, C. P., An, J., Hashimoto, M., … Zhang, Y. (2021).
3D food printing of fresh vegetables using food hydrocolloids for dysphagic patients.
Food Hydrocolloids, 114, Article 106546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2020.106546
Phuhongsung, P., Zhang, M., & Bhandari, B. (2020). 4D printing of products based on soy
protein isolate via microwave heating for flavor development. Food Research
International, 137, Article 109605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109605
Phuhongsung, P., Zhang, M., & Devahastin, S. (2020). Investigation on 3D printing
ability of soybean protein isolate gels and correlations with their rheological and
textural properties via LF-NMR spectroscopic characteristics. Lebensmittel-
Wissenschaft & Technologie, 122, Article 109019.
Pompe, R., Briesen, H., & Datta, A. K. (2020). Understanding puffing in a domestic
microwave oven. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 43(7). https://doi.org/
10.1111/jfpe.13429
Prithviraj, V., Thangalakshmi, S., Arora, V. K., & Liu, Z. B. (2022). Characterization of
rice flour and pastes with different sweeteners for extrusion-based 3D food printing.
Journal of Texture Studies, 53(6), 895–907. https://doi.org/10.1111/jtxs.12709
Pulatsu, E., Su, J.-W., Kenderes, S. M., Lin, J., Vardhanabhuti, B., & Lin, M. (2021).
Effects of ingredients and pre-heating on the printing quality and dimensional
stability in 3D printing of cookie dough. Journal of Food Engineering, 294, Article
110412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2020.110412
Pulatsu, E., Su, J.-W., Kenderes, S. M., Lin, J., Vardhanabhuti, B., & Lin, M. (2022).
Restructuring cookie dough with 3D printing: Relationships between the mechanical
properties, baking conditions, and structural changes. Journal of Food Engineering,
319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110911
Ren, S., Zheng, E., Zhao, T., Hu, S., & Yang, H. (2022). Evaluation of physicochemical
properties, equivalent umami concentration and antioxidant activity of Coprinus
comatus prepared by different drying methods. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft &
Technologie, 162, Article 113479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113479
Richter Reis, F., Marques, C., Moraes, A. C. S.d., & Masson, M. L. (2022). Trends in
quality assessment and drying methods used for fruits and vegetables. Food Control,
142, Article 109254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109254
Severini, C., Azzollini, D., Albenzio, M., & Derossi, A. (2018). On printability, quality and
nutritional properties of 3D printed cereal based snacks enriched with edible insects.
Food Research International, 106, 666–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodres.2018.01.034
Severini, C., & Derossi, A. (2016). Could the 3D printing technology be a useful strategy
to obtain customized nutrition? Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology, 50, S175–S178.
https://doi.org/10.1097/mcg.0000000000000705
Severini, C., Derossi, A., Ricci, I., Caporizzi, R., & Fiore, A. (2018). Printing a blend of
fruit and vegetables. New advances on critical variables and shelf life of 3D edible
objects. Journal of Food Engineering, 220, 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2017.08.025
Shi, Y. M., Zhang, M., & Bhandari, B. (2021). Effect of addition of beeswax based oleogel
on 3D printing of potato starch-protein system. Food Structure-Netherlands, 27.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2021.100176
242
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
Shi, Y., Zhang, M., & Phuhongsung, P. (2022). Microwave-induced spontaneous
deformation of purple potato puree and oleogel in 4D printing. Journal of Food
Engineering, 313, Article 110757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110757
Singla, M., & Sit, N. (2021). Application of ultrasound in combination with other
technologies in food processing: A review. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 73, Article
105506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105506
Sun, J., Peng, Z., Zhou, W., Fuh, J. Y. H., Hong, G. S., & Chiu, A. (2015). A review on 3D
printing for customized food fabrication. Procedia Manufacturing, 1, 308–319.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2015.09.057
Sun, Y., Zhang, M., & Chen, H. (2020). LF-NMR intelligent evaluation of rheology and
printability for 3D printing of cookie dough pretreated by microwave. Lebensmittel-
Wissenschaft & Technologie, 132, Article 109752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lwt.2020.109752
Tang, L., Liu, H., Huang, G., Yuan, Z., Fu, M., Bu, Z., … Xu, Y. (2022). The structural
characterization, physicochemical properties, and stability of gardenia yellow
pigment microcapsules. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie, 162, Article 113507.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113507
Tang, T., Zhang, M., Mujumdar, A. S., & Teng, X. (2022). 3D printed white radish/potato
gel with microcapsules: Color/flavor change induced by microwave-infrared
heating. Food Research International, 158, Article 111496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodres.2022.111496
Teng, X., Zhang, M., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2021). 4D printing: Recent advances and
proposals in the food sector. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 110, 349–363.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.076
Teng, X., Zhang, M., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2022). Strategies for controlling over-puffing of
3D-printed potato gel during microwave processing. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft &
Technologie, 153, Article 112508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112508
Thangalakshmi, S., & Arora, V. K. (2021). Assessment of rice flour and jaggery as a
potential 3D food printer cartridge. In Advances in interdisciplinary engineering (pp.
487–498). Springer.
Thangalakshmi, S., Arora, V. K., Kaur, B. P., Singh, R., Malakar, S., Rathi, S., et al.
(2022). Effect of steaming as postprocessing method on rice flour and jaggery 3D
printed construct. Journal of Food Quality. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3531711,
2022.
Thangalakshmi, S., Kumar, A. V., & V, P. (2022). Printability assessment and
optimization of process parameters for 3D printing of rice flour and jaggery paste.
Journal of Biosystems Engineering, 47(2), 248–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42853-
022-00143-z
Theagarajan, R., Nimbkar, S., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2021). Effect of
post-processing treatments on the quality of three-dimensional printed rice starch
constructs. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 44(9). https://doi.org/10.1111/
jfpe.13772
Tian, H., Wang, K., Qiu, R., Wang, S., Hu, Z., & Zhao, L. (2022). Effects of incubation
temperature on the mechanical and structure performance of beeswax-carrageenan-
xanthan hybrid gelator system in 3D printing. Food Hydrocolloids, 127, Article
107541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.107541
Vancauwenberghe, V., Katalagarianakis, L., Wang, Z., Meerts, M., Hertog, M.,
Verboven, P., … Nicolaï, B. (2017). Pectin based food-ink formulations for 3-D
printing of customizable porous food simulants. Innovative Food Science & Emerging
Technologies, 42, 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2017.06.011
Vancauwenberghe, V., Verboven, P., Lammertyn, J., & Nicolaï, B. (2018). Development
of a coaxial extrusion deposition for 3D printing of customizable pectin-based food
simulant. Journal of Food Engineering, 225, 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2018.01.008
Varvara, R.-A., Szabo, K., & Vodnar, D. C. (2021). 3D food printing: Principles of
obtaining digitally-designed nourishment. Nutrients, 13(10). https://doi.org/
10.3390/nu13103617
Villanueva, M., Harasym, J., Munoz, J. M., & Ronda, F. (2019). Rice flour physically
modified by microwave radiation improves viscoelastic behavior of doughs and its
bread-making performance. Food Hydrocolloids, 90, 472–481. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.12.048
Wang, L., Xia, M., Zhou, Y., Wang, X., Ma, J., Xiong, G., … Sun, W. (2020). Gel properties
of grass carp myofibrillar protein modified by low-frequency magnetic field during
two-stage water bath heating. Food Hydrocolloids, 107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2020.105920
Wang, L., Zhang, M., Bhandari, B., & Yang, C. (2018). Investigation on fish surimi gel as
promising food material for 3D printing. Journal of Food Engineering, 220, 101–108.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.02.029
Wen, Y., Kim, H. W., & Park, H. J. (2022). Effect of xylose on rheological, printing, color,
texture, and microstructure characteristics of 3D-printable colorant-containing meat
analogs based on mung bean protein. Food Research International, 160, Article
111704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111704
Xia, T., Gou, M., Zhang, G., Li, W., & Jiang, H. (2018). Physical and structural properties
of potato starch modified by dielectric treatment with different moisture content.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 118, 1455–1462. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.06.149
Xu, L., Gu, L., Su, Y., Chang, C., Wang, J., Dong, S., … Li, J. (2020). Impact of thermal
treatment on the rheological, microstructural, protein structures and extrusion 3D
printing characteristics of egg yolk. Food Hydrocolloids, 100, Article 105399. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105399
Xu, K. J., Zhang, M., & Bhandari, B. (2020). Effect of novel ultrasonic- microwave
combined pretreatment on the quality of 3D printed wheat starch-papaya system.
Food Biophysics, 15(2), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11483-019-09615-w
Yang, D., Wu, G., Lu, Y., Li, P., Qi, X., Zhang, H., … Jin, Q. (2021). Comparative analysis
of the effects of novel electric field frying and conventional frying on the quality of
Y. Lv et al.
frying oil and oil absorption of fried shrimps. Food Control, 128, Article 108195.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108195
Yang, F. L., Zhang, M., Bhandari, B., & Liu, Y. P. (2018). Investigation on lemon juice gel
as food material for 3D printing and optimization of printing parameters. Lwt-Food
Science and Technology, 87, 67–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.08.054
Yang, F., Zhang, M., Fang, Z. X., & Liu, Y. P. (2019). Impact of processing parameters and
post-treatment on the shape accuracy of 3D-printed baking dough. International
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 54(1), 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/
ijfs.13904
Yang, F., Zhang, M., & Liu, Y. P. (2019). Effect of post-treatment microwave vacuum
drying on the quality of 3D-printed mango juice gel. Drying Technology, 37(14),
1757–1765. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2018.1536884
Yang, F., Zhang, M., Prakash, S., & Liu, Y. (2018). Physical properties of 3D printed
baking dough as affected by different compositions. Innovative Food Science &
Emerging Technologies, 49, 202–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2018.01.001
Yoha, K. S., Anukiruthika, T., Anila, W., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C.
(2021). 3D printing of encapsulated probiotics: Effect of different post-processing
methods on the stability of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (NCIM 2083) under static
in vitro digestion conditions and during storage. Lwt-Food Science and Technology,
146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111461
Yu, J., Wang, X.-y., Li, D., Wang, L.-j., & Wang, Y. (2022). Development of soy protein
isolate emulsion gels as extrusion-based 3D food printing inks: Effect of
243
Trends in Food Science & Technology 133 (2023) 231–243
polysaccharides incorporation. Food Hydrocolloids, 131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2022.107824
Yu, X., Zhao, Z., Zhang, N., Yan, B., Gao, W., Huang, J., … Fan, D. (2022). Effects of
preheating-induced denaturation treatments on the printability and instant curing
property of soy protein during microwave 3D printing. Food Chemistry, 397, Article
133682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133682
Zeng, X., Chen, H., Chen, L., & Zheng, B. (2021). Insights into the relationship between
structure and rheological properties of starch gels in hot-extrusion 3D printing. Food
Chemistry, 342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128362
Zhang, Y., Lee, A. Y., Pojchanun, K., Lee, C. P., Zhou, A., An, J., … Pant, A. (2022).
Systematic Engineering approach for optimization of multi-component alternative
protein-fortified 3D printing food Ink. Food Hydrocolloids, 131, Article 107803.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.107803
Zhao, Z., Wang, Q., Yan, B., Gao, W., Jiao, X., Huang, J., … Fan, D. (2021). Synergistic
effect of microwave 3D print and transglutaminase on the self-gelation of surimi
during printing. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 67, Article 102546.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102546
Zheng, Z., Zhang, M., & Liu, Z. (2021). Investigation on evaluating the printable height
and dimensional stability of food extrusion-based 3D printed foods. Journal of Food
Engineering, 306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110636
Zhu, J., Zhang, Q., Yang, T., Liu, Y., & Liu, R. (2020). 3D printing of multi-scalable
structures via high penetration near-infrared photopolymerization. Nature
Communications, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17251-z