Cells as the Basis of Life

Cell Structure
Prokaryotic cells

 Unicellular
 Lacks membrane bound organelles
 Cell wall
 Extremophiles
 Asexual reproduction
 Small (0.1-5mm)
 2 types:
- Bacteria
- Archaea

Eukaryotic cells

 Has membrane bound organelles

 Larger and more complex
 Unicellular and multicellular
 Asexual and sexual reproduction
 Larger (10-100mm)
 4 types:
- Animal
- Plant
- Fungi
- Protest

Microscopes

Light microscope

 Light to illuminate the object

 Simple
 Live and dead specimens
 Low resolving power, usually below 0.30µm
 Low magnification of up to 1,500x
 Cheap and low maintenance costs
 Two types:

- Fluorescent optical microscope

- Confocal stereo microscope

Electron microscope

 Uses a beam of electrons

 Technical skills
 Only dead specimens
 Good surface view and internal details
 High resolving power of up to 0.0001µm.
 High magnification of up to 1,000,000x
 Images are viewed on a photographic plate or zinc sulphate fluorescent screen
 Operates under a high vacuum
 Very expensive to buy and maintain
  Two types:

- Transmission electron microscope (TEMS)

- Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Units of measurement

Unit Symbol Fraction of 1mm

Micrometr μm 1,000 μm
e
Nanometre nm 1,000,000 nm

Estimating cell sizes

Classification of living things

Organelles

Nucleus

 Membrane-bound: double membrane

 Contains DNA
 Contains the genetic instructions for cell replication, growth, repair
and function

Ribosome

 Made of proteins and rRNA

 No membrane
 Synthesises proteins

Endoplasmic reticulum

 Membrane-bound network of cisternae (membranous sacs)

 Ribosomes bind to its membranes, giving it a ‘rough’ appearance
 rER  Processes and modifies proteins
 sER  Synthesises lipids and steroids, storage

Golgi apparatus

 Membrane-bound stack of cisternae that are not connected to

each other
 Processes and packages proteins

Lysosome

 Membrane-bound vesicle containing digestive enzymes

 Digests cellular waste material and foreign matter
Mitochondria

 Membrane-bound: double membrane, inner membrane is highly

folded
 Contains DNA
 Obtains energy from organic compounds (respiration)

Centriole

 Small structure in the cytoplasm, consisting of microtubules

 Involved in cell division and the formation of cell structures such as
flagella and cilia

Vacuole

 Membrane-bound, fluid-filled vesicle

 Stores substances; also involved in cell structure of plants

Plastid

 Small, with double membrane

 Contains DNA
 Synthesises and stores various organic molecules

Chloroplast

 Spherical or ellipsoidal, with double membrane

 Contains DNA
 Site of photosynthesis

Cell wall

 External structure surrounding cell membrane

 Composition depends on type of cell
 No membrane
 Provides support
 Prevents expansion of the cell
 Allows water and dissolved substances to pass freely through it
 Protection

Cilium or flagellum

 External structure consisting of microtubules – hair like structures

 Cilia move with an oar-like motion, and are usually shorter and more numerous than flagella
 Both structures are involved in the movement of the cell or things around the cell

Nucleoid

 The space within a prokaryotic cell where the genetic information, called genophore, is found
 Irregularly shaped region
 Acts as the nucleus in a bacteria cell however not membrane-bound

Cytoplasm

 Gel-like substance composed of mainly water, salts and organic compounds

 The fluid that fills the cell
 Breaks down and removes waste material
 Aids in movement
 Gives cell shape and supports internal structures
Nucleolus

 Located in the nucleus (dark staining area of the nucleus)

 The site of manufacture of ribosomal RNA and Ribosomes

Cytoskeleton

 Consists of microtubules of tubulin (a protein) and filaments of actin (a protein)

 Supports the cell structure
 Allows for movement
 Helps transport organelles and vesicles within the cell

Cell Membrane

 Fluid mosaic model = current model, proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1972

Functions

 Encloses cell
 Controls movement between extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid (cytosol)
 Communication with other cells, cell recognition
 Isolate the cell’s contents from the external environment
 Regulate traffic in and out of the cell

Structure

 Phospholipid bilayer
 Two organic compounds:
- Polar – hydrophilic phosphate head (water loving) on outside
- Non polar – two hydrophobic fatty acid tails (water fearing) on inside
 Can change shape and move
 Selectively (or semi) permeable membrane – selective with what comes in and out of a cell
 Large protein molecules embedded in the bilayer – Acts as channels for the passive and active movement of
certain molecules in and out of the cell through the cell membrane
 Short carbohydrate molecules attached to the outside of the membrane – cell adhesion and cell recognition.
It also recognises antibodies, hormones and viruses.
 Scattered cholesterol – Gives the cell membrane extra support and stability
 Glycoproteins = recognition and immune response  recognise pathogens and unwanted materials
 Glycolipids = acts as surface receptors and stabilize the membrane
Cell Function
Osmosis

 Movement of water from high concentration to low concentration through semi permeable membrane
 Flaccid = soft & turgid = hard

Diffusion

 Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration

 Movement until equilibrium
 Two types:
- Simple diffusion – passive, can only diffuse if membrane is permeable to the substance
- Facilitated diffusion – still passive, but require assistance from channel or carrier proteins (particles
that are not usually allowed through

Solutions

 Hypotonic – low concentration of water compared to outside, water will enter cell (it’ll expand)
 Isotonic – equilibrium
 Hypertonic – high concentration of water compared to outside, water will leave cell (it’ll shrivel)

Active transport

 Requires cells energy (ATP)

 Against the concentration gradient
 Via protein channels

Endocytosis

 Capturing a substance and engulfing it with the cell membrane, pushing it down into the cytosol
 Two types:
- Phagocytosis – cellular eating
- Pinocytosis – cellular drinking
 Requires energy

Exocytosis

 Vesicles fuses with membrane, releasing their contents to outside the cell
 Requires energy

Factors affecting exchange across membranes

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

 SA:V ratio increases = efficiency of exchange increases  vice versa

Concentration gradient

 Greater the concentration difference across a membrane  the more rapidly it will diffuse
 Travelling down the concentration = no difficulty and fast
 Travelling against the concentration gradient = difficulty and timely
Characteristics of materials

Factor Moves across the cell membrane with…

Size of molecule Small = no difficulty
Large = some difficulty  must use
facilitated diffusion via the protein channel
Electrical charge Electrically charged = difficulty
of molecule
Lipid solubility Water soluble = difficulty
Lipid soluble = no difficulty

Energy

 Organic compounds (carbohydrates, protein and fat) contain energy

 Autotrophs make their own organic compounds from inorganic compounds found in the soil and
atmosphere aka producers e.g. plants
 Heterotrophs consume their organic compounds by eating other organisms aka consumers (animals)
 Photosynthesis & cellular respiration  transform matter into energy

Purpose of energy

 Energy released during cellular respiration is used to maintain body temp

 Synthesis of large molecules e.g. proteins, fats and carbohydrates
 Growth - cell division requires energy
 Active transport requires energy
 Repair and maintenance of old and damaged cells
 Muscular contraction (movement) requires energy

Gases

 Carbon Dioxide  source of carbon for organic molecules. The carbon is ‘fixed’ into organic molecules
during photosynthesis.
 Oxygen  needed for an efficient energy supply achieved through cellular respiration.

Nutrients

Monosaccharides

 Simplest carbohydrates; single units of sugar; water soluble

 Building blocks of more complex sugars
 Glucose, fructose, ribose

Disaccharides

 Also simple carbohydrates; double units of sugar; water soluble

 Sucrose (glucose molecule joined with fructose molecule)
 Lactose (glucose molecule joined with galactose)

Polysaccharides

 Complex carbohydrates; multiple sugar units

 Used for storage of glucose in cells e.g. starch & cellulose
 Huge molecules; insoluble in water
 Starch is chain of 2000-3000 glucose molecules

Organic compounds

 Carbohydrates: provides energy to the body

 Lipids: store energy and provide protection around vital organs
  Proteins: growth, development and form part of important substances such as enzymes & antibodies
 Nucleic acids: They make up DNA and RNA.
 Lignin: enables cells to become rigid, provide support and protection.
 Vitamins: the enzymes would not be able to function without them in the body.

Inorganic compounds

 Calcium: eessential for bone development and blood clotting

 Iron: essential for blood production
 Oxygen: oxidise food in the body (cellular respiration)
 Phosphate: build and repair bones and teeth, help nerves function & make muscles contract
 Sodium: maintaining blood volume and blood pressure
 Water: help regulate its temperature and maintain other bodily functions

Ions

 Charged particle
 Assist in chemical reaction
 Components of macromolecules e.g. iron in red blood cells
 Examples in the body include: chlorides, nitrates, phosphates, carbonates, sodium, magnesium, calcium,
potassium

Photosynthesis

 Used by autotrophs (self-feeding organisms) to produce their own glucose

 Converts light energy into chemical energy, and stores this energy in the bonds of glucose molecules

Carbon dioxide + Water (in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll)  Glucose + Oxygen

Chloroplasts

 Site of photosynthesis
 Chlorophyll – a green pigment excited by certain wavelengths of light
 Once glucose has been produced, it is moved around the organism to cells which need it to produce energy
 Excess glucose is stored as saccharide structures in plants (e.g. fruit and vegetables)

Light dependent reactions

 Occurs in grana
 Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll
 Water is split into hydrogen and oxygen
 Oxygen is released into atmosphere
 ATP is formed
 Water + Light → ATP + Oxygen + Hydrogen

Light independent reactions

 Occurs in stroma
  Called Calvin Cycle
 Joins carbon dioxide & hydrogen  forms glucose molecule
 Uses ATP formed in the light reactions for energy to complete the reactions
 Carbon dioxide + Hydrogen → Glucose

Cellular respiration in Eukaryotic Cells

 Required by all cells

 Process of producing energy

Aerobic respiration

Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)

 Presence of oxygen
 Main site: mitochondria
Anaerobic respiration

 Environments that oxygen e.g. bacteria, yeast & archaea

 2 common pathways:

Alcohol fermentation:

Glucose  Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Adenosine triphosphate (2ATP)

 Breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen to form ethanol and CO 2

 2 molecules of ATP produced
 Process for beer, wine and bread making

Lactic acid fermentation:

Glucose  Lactic acid + Adenosine triphosphate (2ATP)

 When organisms can’t produce enough energy in aerobic respiration

 One molecule of glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen, to produce two molecules of lactic acid as
well as two molecules of ATP
 The lactic acid changes to a compound called pyruvate and is converted by aerobic respiration into carbon
dioxide, water and energy (ATP)

Removal of cellular products and wastes in eukaryotic cells

Waste removal from Autotrophs

 Need to remove the by-products of chemical reactions.

 No specialised excretory organs
 Examples of waste removal:
- Aquatic autotrophs pass wastes directly to the water
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide are excreted through the leaves
- Mangroves build up salt in leaves and then drop the leaves
- Some land plants store wastes in non-living hardwood which is later dropped

Waste removal from Heterotrophs

 Unicellular heterotrophs can excrete wastes directly into their environment

 Multicellular heterotrophs use complex excretory structures
 Carbon dioxide is produced during cellular respiration and must be removed as it will lower the pH of the
blood. It is excreted through diffusion from blood into lungs and exhaled.
 Nitrogenous wastes. When proteins are broken down the nitrogenous part can become toxic. The kidney
filters the blood and removes nitrogenous wastes via the urine.
Enzymes

 Enzymes are proteins found in all cells

 They’re catalysts  lower the activation energy needed to start a reaction

Chemical structure

 Proteins are made of amino acids are joined together in a long chain
 This chain then folds in on itself to make a specific shape
 Each enzyme is specific and will only catalyse one reaction
 Each enzyme has an ‘active site’ where the substrate (reactants) bind

Lock and key model

 Substrate fits exactly into active site of enzyme

 Older version of the mode

Induced fit model

 When an enzyme binds to the active site the enzyme changes shape.
 This is a more accurate and current representation of enzyme activity.

Factors effecting enzymes activity

pH (acidity or alkalinity)

 Each enzyme has its own narrow range  outside this, they’ll denature
 Most function best at neutral/7 pH

Temperature

 Temp increases  activity increases, until optimal temp

 Above this, enzymes will denature (lose their shape)
 Heat is altering the chemical bonds within the protein
 Optimum temp in humans for enzymes = 37 oC

Substrate concentration

 Concentration increases  rate of reaction increases

 Reactions occur until all the active sites on the enzyme are occupied = saturation point