College of Arts and Sciences Education

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THE UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Arts and Sciences Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Teacher: PROF. RONNEL P. SENINING

Course/Subject: GE 15: Environmental Science

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY, NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE.
THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE
OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 134

WEEK 4-5 Unit Learning Outcome d (ULOd)

Discuss how species interaction shape biological communities.

METALANGUAGE
Below are the essential terms that you are going to encounter in the pursuit of ULOd.

1. Biological Communities – The term biological community refers to all the living
components in an ecosystem. A slightly different concept is encompassed in the word
biota, which refers to all flora and fauna, or plant and animal life, in a particular region.

2. Predation it is referring to a biological interaction where one organism captures

and kills other organisms, its prey.
2.1. It is one of the known modes of feeding behaviors that includes parasitism
and micropredation and parasitoids.

3. A symbiotic relationship is referring to any close and long-term biological

interaction between two different organisms.
3.1. The organisms, each termed a symbiont, may be of the same or different
species.

4. Mutualism it is referring to a biological and ecological interaction where both

organisms benefit from each other.
11.1. It is one of the known ecological interactions.

5. Parasitism. A symbiotic relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite,
lives on or in another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally
to this way of life.

6. Keystone species. It is a concept that was introduced by Robert T. Paine in 1969.

It pertains to species relative to its abundance is a disproportionate effect on its
natural environment.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES

A population consists of all individuals of a single species that exist together at a

given place and time. A species is a single type of organism that can interbreed and
produce fertile offspring. All of the populations living together in the same area make up
a community. An ecosystem is made up of the living organisms in a community and the
nonliving things, the physical and chemical factors, that they interact with.
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https://www.bursahaga.com/

The living organisms within an ecosystem are its biotic factors and the physical
and chemical features are abiotic factors. Abiotic factors include resources living
organisms need, such as light, oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, good soil, and nitrogen,
phosphorous, and other nutrients. Abiotic factors also include environmental features that
are not materials or living things, such as living space and the right temperature range.
Energy moves through an ecosystem in one direction.

https://sciencenotes.org/biotic-and-abiotic-factors-in-ecology/

Organisms must make a living. This means that each individual organism must
acquire enough food energy to live and reproduce. A species' way of making a living is
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called its niche. An example of a niche is making a living as a top carnivore, an animal
that eats other animals, but is not eaten by any other animals. Every species fills a niche,
and niches are almost always filled in an ecosystem. An organism’s habitat is where it
lives. The important characteristics of a habitat include climate, the availability of food,
water, and other resources, and other factors, such as weather.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/10578551/

What Is a Community?
A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the populations
of all the species in the same area. It also includes their interactions. Species interactions
in communities are important factors in natural selection. They help shape the evolution
of the interacting species. There are three major types of community interactions:
predation, competition, and symbiosis.

 Predation is a relationship in which members of one species (the predator) consume

members of another species (the prey).
 Competition is a relationship between organisms that strive for the same resources in the
same place. The resources might be food, water, or space. There are two different types
of competition:
1. Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same species.
For example, two male birds of the same species might compete for mates in
the same area. This type of competition is a basic factor in natural selection.
It leads to the evolution of better adaptations within a species.
2. Interspecific competition occurs between members of different species. For
example, predators of different species might compete for the same prey.
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 Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species
benefits. For the other species, the relationship may be positive, negative, or neutral.
There are three basic types of symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.

https://www.guyhowto.com/symbiosis-definition-types-examples/

A food chain is an arrangement of the organisms according to the order of

predation in which one uses another as a food source. It also shows the flow of energy in
an ecosystem.it allows one to identify what eats what. The trophic level refers to the
position of organisms in the food chain. A food web shows interlocking food chains. It
allows one to see the precise feeding relationship among populations of organisms.

https://biodifferences.net/difference-between-food-chain-and-food-web/
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The food chain is the part of the natural ecosystem in which food, nutrients, and
energy are transmitted from one organism to another organism whereas the food web is
a system in which numerous food chains are interconnected with each other. In an
ecosystem, all living organisms depend on each other for food which develops a food
chain and in this way, they survive and reproduce. But organisms cannot depend on only
one type of food chain so they have to interact with another type of food chain which
eventually leads to the formation of a food web. All types of food chains have sunlight,
producer, consumer, and decomposer as its components.

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS

Communities are complex systems that can be characterized by community

structure (the number and size of populations and their interactions) and community
dynamics (how the members and their interactions change over time). Understanding
community structure and dynamics allows us to minimize impacts on ecosystems and
manage ecological communities we benefit from.

A keystone species is one whose presence has inordinate influence in

maintaining the prevalence of various species, the ecological community’s
structure, and sometimes its biodiversity.

Community dynamics are the changes in community structure and composition over
time, often following environmental disturbances such as volcanoes, earthquakes,
storms, fires, and climate change. Communities with a relatively constant number of
species are said to be at equilibrium. The equilibrium is dynamic with species identities
and relationships changing over time, but maintaining relatively constant numbers.
Following a disturbance, the community may or may not return to the equilibrium state.

Succession describes the sequential appearance and disappearance of species in a

community over time after a severe disturbance. In primary succession, newly exposed
or newly formed rock is colonized by living organisms. In secondary succession, a
part of an ecosystem is disturbed and remnants of the previous community remain. In
both cases, there is a sequential change in species until a more-or-less permanent
community develops.

HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

In contrast to the millions of years that extinctions normally occur, human activity
is directly responsible for hundreds of extinctions in the last two centuries. Humans have
altered the earth in previously unheard-of ways as the twenty-first century goes on.
Human impact on the environment has become one of the main topics all over the world.
Here are some of the negative impacts of human population on the environment:
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 Overpopulation
 Pollution
 Global Warming
 Genetic Modification
 Ocean Acidification
 Overfishing
 Deforestation
 Acid Rain
 Ozone Depletion

SELF-HELP
You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson.

Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA

Cunningham, W. P., and Cunningham, M., 2010. Environmental Science: A Global

Concern.11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.

Botkin, D., and Keller, E., 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8th
Edition. John Wiley and Sons, USA

LET’S CHECK
Activity 4. Answer the following briefly:

1. Discuss the features of a biological community.

 A biological community is an ecological term that describes a collection of

populations of various species coexisting and interacting in a certain
geographic location. A biological community has the qualities listed below,
among others:
1. Diversity of Species: A biological community is made up of many plant, animal, and
microbial species. Species diversity refers to the number of species and the
distribution of those species within a community.
2. A biological community's members engage in a variety of interactions with one
another, including parasitism, mutualism, commensalism, and resource
competition.
3. Trophic Levels: The community is divided into many trophic levels based on the
feeding preferences of the species. There are several trophic levels in a community,
including producers, main consumers, secondary consumers, and decomposers.
4. Ecological Niche: Every species in the community has a unique ecological niche, or
function, which includes its habitat, food source, and interactions with other species.
5. Succession: Communities are dynamic, ever-evolving entities rather than static
ones. The slow and predictable shift in species composition and community
organization through time is known as succession.
6. Energy Flow: Energy is transferred from the sun to producers and then through the
trophic levels, with a small amount of energy being lost at each stage.
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7. The community takes part in a number of biogeochemical cycles, including the

carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles, which entail the exchange of nutrients
between living things and their environment.
8. Adaptations: Individuals within a group have developed physical and behavioral
traits that help them survive and procreate in their surroundings.
9. Keystone species are those species that have a disproportionately significant
influence on the composition and operation of the community. The community may
undergo dramatic changes as a result of their disappearance.
10. Human Impacts: The form and function of biological communities can be
significantly altered by human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, and
the introduction of invasive species.

2. Differentiate biological community from ecological system. .

 Although the terms "biological community" and "ecological system" are
similar, they speak of different degrees of structure within an ecosystem.

A biological community is a collection of populations from several species

that coexist and interact in a certain location. It encompasses every living
thing present in a specific ecosystem and how they interact with one another.

Abiotic, or non-living, elements of an environment are included in an

ecological system, commonly referred to as an ecosystem. On the other
hand, biotic, or living, elements of an environment are included in an
ecological system. The physical and chemical elements of the environment
that affect how living things interact with one another are all included in an
ecosystem.
3. Are natural resource have effect on the species composition, structure, and
function.

 Yes, a biological community or ecosystem's species composition, structure,

and function can all be significantly impacted by natural resources. Natural
resources are crucial parts of every ecosystem, including water, air, soil,
sunlight, and nutrients. The growth, survival, and procreation of the creatures
in the ecosystem can be impacted by the quantity and quality of these
resources. The kind of plants that can flourish, for instance, rely on the
availability of water and nutrients. This has an impact on the animal species
that depend on those plants for food and habitat.

In addition to affecting the quantity and quality of natural resources, human

activities like deforestation, pollution, and climate change can also alter the
species composition, ecosystem structure, and function. For instance,
deforestation can change an animal species' habitat and food supply, and
pollution can hurt or kill ecosystem creatures, causing population decreases
or even extinction. The distribution of species may also alter as a result of
climate change since certain species may not be able to adapt to the shifting
climatic conditions.
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In order to prevent the depletion or degradation of natural resources beyond
what is necessary to maintain the ecological systems they are a part of, it is
crucial to manage them sustainably. As a result, ecosystems will be able to
continue to function and supply the resources and services that are
necessary for humans and other living things to survive.

4. Discuss the importance of community interactions.

 For biological communities or ecosystems to function and remain stable,

community interactions are crucial. These interactions, which take place
between various species within the population, can be either favorable or
unfavorable. They aid in controlling populations, allocating resources, and
influencing the long-term form and function of the community. For ecosystem
management and conservation as well as sustaining the benefits they offer,
an understanding of these interactions is crucial.

5. Why organisms compete? Can competition favor or eliminate biological species.

 When organisms need the same scarce resources, such as food, water,
shelter, or mates, they are in competition with one another. Competition is a
natural process that occurs when members of the same species or members
of different species must contend with one another for these resources in
order to survive and procreate.

Certain biological species may benefit from competition while others may be
wiped out. As two or more species fight for the same resources, some of
them may adapt to do so in a way that gives them an advantage over the
others. The more suited species may have an easier time acquiring the
resources necessary for survival and reproduction, whereas the less adapted
species may have a harder time surviving. This may eventually result in the
exclusion of the less prosperous species from the society.

Competition can, however, also result in coexistence between species,

particularly if the resources needed are not completely limited or if the
species can divide the resources to prevent direct competition. One way that
different bird species might survive in the same ecosystem is by using
various portions of the same tree to scavenge for insects.

Interactions between species within a community might also be impacted

indirectly by competition. The abundance of other species in the community
that depend on the prey species for food or that the predator species preys
upon may be impacted, for instance, if a predator species is more adept at
catching a prey species.

In summary, competition is a natural process that can shape the composition

and structure of biological communities. While it can favor some species over
others, it can also lead to coexistence between species, and can have
indirect effects on other species interactions in the community.
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6. For an ideal community interaction, what must be observed?

 For an ideal community interaction, several factors must be observed:
1. Mutualism
2. Coevolution
3. Specificity
4. Synchronicity
5. Non-lethality
6. Balance
Overall, an ideal community interaction should be mutually beneficial, specific, long-
term, synchronized, non-lethal, and balanced. Such interactions can promote the
stability and functioning of ecological systems and contribute to the biodiversity of
the natural world.

LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 4. In this activity, you require to elaborate your answer once again to
each of the questions provided below.
1. How human disturbance affects ecosystems?
Biological community structure and function can be changed, biodiversity can be
decreased, and ecosystem processes can be disrupted as a result of human disturbance.
Habitat degradation, overuse, pollution, and climate change are a few of the methods.
In conclusion, human disturbance can have large and enduring consequences on
ecosystems, emphasizing the significance of sustainable practices and conservation
efforts to reduce adverse effects on the environment.

2. Identify physical and biological factors that are most important in shaping the biotic
community.
The two primary elements responsible for forming the ecosystem are biotic and abiotic.
The terms "biotic factors" and "abiotic factors" describe the various living and non-living
elements that make up an ecosystem, such as the physical conditions (such as
temperature, pH, humidity, salinity, sunlight, etc.) and chemical agents (such as various
gases and mineral nutrients present in the air, water, and soil, respectively). As a result,
the processes of survival and reproduction are influenced by both abiotic and biotic
resources.
These two elements depend on one another as well. Imagine that if one of the variables is
eliminated or changed, the ecosystem as a whole will be affected. Abiotic factors
unquestionably have a direct impact on how long organisms survive. Continue reading to
learn more about the functions of biotic and abiotic resources in an ecosystem.
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3. What are the factors that limit ecosystem functionality?

The sickness, extreme climatic and weather variations, predator-prey interactions,
commercial development, environmental pollution, and other variables that limit an
ecosystem. A habitat can deteriorate and possibly be destroyed if one of these limiting
variables is over or underused. The carrying capacity of an environment will be impacted
by these components' availability. Food demand grows along with population growth.
Organisms will start to compete for food since it is a finite resource.

4. Develop a conceptual framework that depicts the relationship between physical,

chemical, and biological factors in shaping communities and maintaining biological
diversity. Discuss your framework comprehensively.
The relationship between physical, chemical, and biological factors in shaping
communities and maintaining biological diversity can be conceptualized as a nested
framework, in which physical and chemical factors create the foundation for biological
communities to develop and maintain diversity.
At the bottom of the framework are physical and chemical factors such as climate,
topography, soil, and water, which create the environmental conditions necessary for
biological communities to thrive. These factors interact with one another to create a
specific set of physical and chemical conditions that dictate which organisms can survive
and reproduce in an ecosystem.
On top of this foundation, biological factors such as competition, predation,
mutualism, and succession interact with one another and with the physical and chemical
factors to create complex communities of organisms that are adapted to the specific
environmental conditions of the ecosystem. Competition and predation create selection
pressures that can lead to the evolution of specific adaptations in organisms, while
mutualistic relationships can facilitate the exchange of resources and support coexistence
among different species. Succession can also drive changes in community composition
over time, as new species colonize and replace older ones.
At the highest level of the framework is biological diversity, which is maintained by
the interactions among physical, chemical, and biological factors. Diversity can be
maintained through a variety of mechanisms, including niche differentiation, genetic
diversity, and species interactions. The maintenance of biological diversity is important
because it provides the resilience and adaptability necessary for ecosystems to withstand
disturbances such as climate change, pollution, and habitat loss.
Overall, this framework highlights the interconnectedness of physical, chemical,
and biological factors in shaping communities and maintaining biological diversity. It
emphasizes the importance of understanding the complex interactions among these
factors in order to develop effective conservation and management strategies to protect
and preserve ecosystems and the organisms that inhabit them.
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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 4. The approaches of environmental studies viewed as a very
complicated process. With the human population on many ecosystems that are widely
dispersed around the globe also have detrimental impacts on biological communities as
well about sustainability. Ecosystems and communities have evolved to keep abreast of
the changing activities within a specific geographical unit. The physical, chemical and
biological attributes of different communities will determine how our ecosystems will be in
the many years to come. In this part, you require to draw conclusions, perspectives, and
arguments about ecological system functions and communities' patterns from the unit
lesson. I will supply the first two items, and you will continue the rest.
1. Human introduction and removal of biological species in a community have a
profound effect on the community structure and its ecosystem functions. It is
significant to consider long-term studies and investigation before embarking on this
undertaking. It might hamper ecological services performed by organisms, neither
limits ecosystems functionality, adding a new set of organisms in a community.

2. Species interactions are important in the process of natural selection. Through

these processes, the unique set of organisms and environmental conditions will
determine key organisms that can continue to flourish and pass off their genes to
their offspring’s, which will be the second line of resilient organisms that will shape
a new set of biological communities.
3. Symbiosis is the term used to describe a close, long-term relationship between two or
more species that is advantageous to at least one of the parties. Symbionts are the living
things that participate in symbiosis.
4. A community in ecology is the collection of various populations of organisms that live in
a specific geographic area and interact with one another. Positive, negative, or neutral
interactions between these populations can have a substantial impact on the community's
overall structure and function.
5. From the level of the individual organism to the level of the entire ecosystem, several
organizational levels can be used to view ecological structure. The physical environment
serves as the ecological structure's most fundamental supporting framework. Which
species may survive and flourish in a particular ecosystem is determined by the conditions
that are created by the abiotic elements of the environment, such as climate, topography,
soil, and water.
6. Throughout an ecosystem, keystone species can play a range of ecological roles, but
they are frequently linked to regulating the abundance of other species through direct or
indirect effects. By regulating the quantity of its prey species (mussels), a predator species
like the sea star in Paine's rocky intertidal community works as a keystone
species and influences the abundance of other species in the community.