ee Human teeth - O » Inhumans, only the lower jaw is movable, while the upper jaw is fused to the skull. Chewing is brought about by the cheek muscles, which move the lower jaw up and down, and allow some side-to-side movement. » The arrangement of an animal's teeth is called its dentition. pg 63 Fig 4.10 Number of teeth During their lifetime, mammals have two sets of teeth. The first set of teeth is called the milk teeth. In humans, these start to grow through the gum when a child is a few months old. By the age of about 21 or 22 months, a child will have 20 teeth, mainly milk teeth. From around the age of 7 years, the milk teeth are pushed out by permanent teeth growing underneath them. The molars at the back are present only as permanent teeth. Eventually a full set of 32 adult teeth is formed . Scanned with CamScannera —————SS Number of teeth O During their lifetime, mammals have two sets of teeth. The first set of teeth is called the milk teeth. In humans, these start to grow through the gum when a child is a few months old. By the age of about 21 or 22 months, a child will have 20 teeth, mainly milk teeth. From around the age of 7 years, the milk teeth are pushed out by permanent teeth growing underneath them. The molars at the back are present only as permanent teeth. Eventually a full set of 32 adult teeth is formed . Scanned with CamScannerTypes of teeth = O e There are 4 types of teeth: e1) Incisor (I) e2)Canine (C) _ ¢3)Premolar (PM) _¢4)Molar (M) Scanned with CamScannerTeeth Diagram Cental incisors Lateral Incisor Canine Ist Premolar Conine Lateral incisor Central incisors — Scanned with CamScanner——____——— Different types of teeth ¢ ) 1) Incisor: At the front of the mouth are the incisors. » Incisors are relatively sharp,chisel shaped teeth « Itis used for biting off pieces of food. It also helps the tearing of food. « Each jaw contain 4 incisors and in total there are 8 incisors. 2) canine: They are pointed and sharp. * Itis used for biting and tearing the food. * Each jaw contains 2 canine and in total there are 4 canines. 3) premolar: Behind the canine,premolars are present. Which is larger than canines. * Itis used for crushing the food component. * Each jaw contain 4 premolars and total is 8. 4)molars: Behind the premolars are the cheek teeth known as molar, which is large in size. * They can be used for chewing, crushing or grinding food. (WliEach jaW contains 6 molars and total is 12. Scanned with CamScannerCHEEK TEETH oO e The cheek teeth ( premolar & molar ) have a flatter top surface (crown), and the top and bottom sets of cheek teeth meet crown to crown, so that they can be used for chewing or crushing food. Human teeth are adapted to deal with a wide range of food types, from meat and fish to plant roots, stems and leaves. e Molar teeth contain large occlusal surface where groove , pit and fissure present ,which helps to crush and grind the food component. _ 8 Scanned with CamScanner" a ee Milk teeth: ° During the lifetime of mammal, they have 2 sets of teeth. The first set is called milk teeth or deciduous teeth. e By the age of about 21 or 22 months, a child will have 20 teeth, mainly milk teeth. From around age of 7 years , the milk teeth are pushed out by permanent teeth growing underneath them. Scanned with CamScannerO Internal structure of teeth Scanned with CamScannerEnamel Dentin Crown Pulp chamber / --—= Gum line Periodontal : ligament Root Cementum Scanned with CamScannerTe Internal structure of teeth ¢ The crown of a tooth is covered with a non-living material called enamel , which is the hardest substance in the body. * Underneath the enamel is a softer material (but still about as hard as bone) called dentine. * The middle of the tooth is called the pulp cavity. It contains blood vessels and nerves. There are fine channels running through the dentine, filled with cytoplasm. These cytoplasmic strands are kept alive by nutrients and oxygen from the blood vessels in the pulp cavity. « The root of the tooth is covered with cement, containing fiber's. This material anchors the tooth in the jawbone but allows a slight degree of movement when the person is chewing. (9 (pg 64 Figure 4.11) — Scanned with CamScannerTooth decay/ dental caries/ cavity formation ¢ Tooth decay or dental caries is caused by bacteria in the mouth feeding on sugar. The bacteria break down the sugar, forming lactic acids which dissolve the tooth enamel. Once the enamel is penetrated, the acid breaks down the softer dentine underneath. Eventually a cavity is formed in the tooth. Bacteria can then enter this cavity and enlarge it until the decay reaches the nerves in the pulp cavity and causes pain. These bacteria are also the cause of periodontal disease, where the gums become inflamed and so sensitive that they bleed when the teeth are brushed. Periodontal disease can also lead to loss of teeth. Scanned with CamScannerPrevention of tooth decay dental hygiene Bacteria form an invisible layer on the surface of teeth, called plaque. One of the obvious ways to prevent the tooth decay is by regularly | brushing the teeth twice a day. Dentists advise the use of a toothbrush with a small head that will allow the bristles to reach into the crevices between the teeth or better still, an electric toothbrush. © Use of dental floss to clean between the teeth, where it is difficult to brush. If plaque is left on the teeth, it soon forms a hard deposit called tartar. This has to be removed by a dentist. * Fluoride has been shown to reduce tooth decay by strengthening the enamel. So fluoride is added to drinking water, you can take fluoride tablets, or use fluoride toothpaste. « Use of mouth wash to inhibit the growth and development of bacteria. « Finally, a good balanced diet is essential for teeth to grow healthily. Avoiding sweets and sugary drinks will reduce the supply of nutrients for the bacteria. r dental ch Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannere person has a greater ses shen compared witha person of a e coronal phe rt diseas@and a rson’ g divided by f height in meters. A eh BMI can be c igh ‘ I can be used to screen for weight categori: ms but it is not diagnostic of the body fatne: _ Weight in kilograms (height in metres)" * aBMlof less than 18.5 kg/m? means you are eric weight. © a BMI of 18.5 - 25 kg/m? is the ideal range. © aBMlover 25 and up to 30 kg/m? means overweight. a BMI of 30 - 40 kg/m? is considered obese. a BMI over 40 kg/m? defines as morbidly obese. ° Scanned with CamScanner2 seve *° Obesity: -- Eating too much food can also create many health problems. more energy is taken in than is required, the excess is stored as fa and may develop obesity. Obesity can be further defined as having a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 30 or greater. BMI is the most common method for measuring body fat. Pg 70 fig 4.19 » How does - Obesity causes increased levels of fatty acids and i iedicnation, leading to insulin resistance, which in turn can lead to type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes, known as non-insulin dependent diabetes . People with type 2 diabetes can produce some of their own insulin, but it's often not enough or the body’s cells don't respond to it. Asa result of this insulin resistance, glucose (blood sugar) builds up in the body, leading to high blood sugar Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScanner. ~ FO 1e- Some bacteria that cause disease are transmitted in food, for * example: = Salmonella enterica - causes salmonellosis (a type of food poisoning) = Salmonella typhi - causes typhoid fever = Listeria monocytogenes - causes listeriosis (a type of food poisoning) = Clostridium botulinum - causes botulism, a rare and sometimes fatal illness caused by a toxin (poison) made by the bacteria. - Most microorganisms transmitted in food or drink are bacteria, although some viruses are transmitted in this way. In addition, other microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) are the cause of food eventually going bad or ‘spoiling’. » Food hygiene is concerned with preventing harmful microorganisms from being transmitted in food, as well as preserving food and reducing its rate of spoilage. Scanned with CamScannerPREVENTING TRANSMISS! f MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD We can prevent transmission of food-borne microorganisms at various stages: We can prevent microorganisms from getting into the food in the first place. We can treat the food to slow down the rate at which microorganisms multiply in the food (food preservation). We can cook food properly to kill any microorganisms present. Scanned with CamScannerit of production. ». At the point of sale. 3. During storage after production or in the home. : — Scanned with CamScannerfood ee bacteria such as salmonella to spread 1 to infection of the eggs. rgal from humans. Food packaging helps to do this, but unpackaged foods (e.g. loose fruit and vegetables) are at risk. Packaged foods show ‘display until’ and ‘use by’ dates, to tell us when a food may become unsafe to eat because of contamination by microorganisms or their toxins. After the ‘use by’ date, the number of microorganisms may have increased to dangerous levels 3: » Cooked and raw foods should not be stored together. This is because bacteria in the uncooked food may be transmitted to the cooked food. * Foods that have been previously frozen and then thawed should be cooked and eaten straight away, and not re-frozen. Bacteria grow more quickly in previously frozen and thawed foods than in fresh foods. © Food should not be left in the open air or on a work surface. Bacteria in the air could land on the food, and insects such as flies could carry bacteria to the food. Scanned with CamScannerCommon methods of food preservation Scanned with CamScannerMethod ~ Technique and prir ciples involved preserve by this method Salting Drying Pickling Pasteurization Some foods are covered in salt; others are soaked in salt water. High salt concentrations stop bacteria from multiplying. Bacterial cells lose water by osmosis and die. Food is dried by blowing hot air through it. Drying removes water from the food so bacteria cannot digest and absorb it. Foods are bottled in vinegar, a weak solution of ethanoic (acetic) acid. The low pH inactivates most microorganisms by affecting enzyme activity. Food is heated to about 63 °C for 30 minutes. Alternatively, it is heated to 72 °C for 15 seconds, It is then quickly cooled to 10 °C. Heating kills bacteria. The spores are prevented from growing by the rapid cooling, some meats, fish, vegetables cereals, some fruits fish, onions, cabbage, mayonnaise milk, cream, ice cream, fruit juices, beer Scanned with CamScannerultra-heat- "| Superheated ste atupto 160 °Cis blown treatment | through the food for 2 seconds. This kills all (uxt) | bacteria and their spores. | | | Canning Food is packed in cans, heated to high "meat, fish, temperatures, sealed and then re-heated to | vegetables, soup temperatures of 105-160 °C. The high temperature kills bacteria and their spores. Cans | prevent more bacteria reaching the food. Irradiation High-energy gamma radiation is passed through vegetables, fruits, the food. All bacteria and spores are killed, - shellfish although any toxins already produced by the (irradiation is not bacteria remain. allowed in. | some countries) Freezing | Foods are cooled rapidly and stored at -12 °C to | vegetables, meat, | -18 °C. Low temperatures prevent bacteria - fish, from multiplying. Rapid freezing prevents the __ prepared meals formation of ice crystals, which could alter the texture and flavour of the food. Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannerWrite e chemical elements and structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugars, protein from amino acids, lipids from fatty acids and glycerol. Describe the tests for glucose (a reducing sugar), starch, lipid and protein Investigate the energy content of food Explain the importance of a balanced diet including the recommended dietary intake of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins A and C, calcium, iron and fibre Sources and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fats and oils), vitamins A, C and D, and the mineral ions, calcium and iron Describe the causes and symptoms of deficiency diseases limited to scurvy (lack of vitamin C), anaemia (lack of iron), blindness (lack of vitamin A) and Kwashiorkor (lack of protein) Structures of the human alimentary canal and describe the functions of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and pancreas in digestion Explain how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis including the role of dietary fibre in the process The role of digestive enzymes including: their site of production and action, the digestion of starch to glucose by amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to amino acids by proteases (pepsin, trypsin), the digestion of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases. » The role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and emulsifying lipids ») How the structure of the villus helps absorption of the products of digestion in the Scanned with CamScanner