Option D.

5 Hormones

The endocrine system is comprised of ductless glands that release chemicals into the
blood to regulate body functions
■ A hormone is a chemical messenger that is transported indiscriminately via the
bloodstream to act on distant target cells
■ Hormones are specific and will only activate cells or tissues that possess the
appropriate target receptor
■ The endocrine system is slower to initiate, but has a more prolonged response
when compared to the nervous system
Endocrine Signalling

Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands secrete their product (hormones) directly into the bloodstream, rather
than through a duct (e.g. exocrine gland)
■ Major endocrine glands include the pancreas, adrenal gland, thyroid gland,
pineal gland and the gonads (ovaries and testes)
■ The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine glands and function to
link the nervous and endocrine systems
■ Some organs may also secrete hormones despite not being endocrine glands
(e.g. adipose tissue secretes leptin)
Examples of Endocrine Glands
Steroid Hormones
■ Steroid hormones are lipophilic (fat-loving) – meaning they can freely diffuse
across the plasma membrane of a cell
■ They bind to receptors in either the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cell, to
form an active receptor-hormone complex
■ This activated complex will move into the nucleus and bind directly to DNA,
acting as a transcription factor for gene expression
■ Examples of steroid hormones include those produced by the gonads (i.e.
estrogen, progesterone and testosterone)

Peptide Hormones
 ■ Peptide hormones are hydrophylic and lipophobic (fat-hating) – meaning they
cannot freely cross the plasma membrane
■ They bind to receptors on the surface of the cell, which are typically coupled to
internally anchored proteins (e.g. G proteins)
■ The receptor complex activates a series of intracellular molecules called second
messengers, which initiate cell activity
■ This process is called signal transduction, because the external signal (hormone)
is transduced via internal intermediaries
■ Examples of second messengers include cyclic AMP (cAMP), calcium ions
(Ca2+), nitric oxide (NO) and protein kinases
■ The use of second messengers enables the amplification of the initial signal (as
more molecules are activated)
■ Peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, leptin, ADH and oxytocin

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is the section of the brain that links the nervous and endocrine
systems in order to maintain homeostasis
■ It receives information from nerves throughout the body and other parts of the
brain and initiates endocrine responses
■ It secretes neurochemicals (called releasing factors) into a portal system which
target the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
■ It also secretes hormones directly into the blood via neurosecretory cells that
extend into the posterior pituitary lobe
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland lies adjacent to the hypothalamus and is in direct contact due to a
portal blood system
 ■ The pituitary gland receives instructions from the hypothalamus and consists of
two lobes (anterior and posterior lobe)

Anterior Lobe
■ The anterior lobe is also called the adenohypophysis (‘adeno’ = relating to
glands)
■ The hypothalamus produces releasing factors, which are released into portal
vessels by neurosecretory cells
■ The releasing factors cause endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary to release
specific hormones into the bloodstream
■ An example of a releasing factor is GnRH, which triggers the release of
LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary

Posterior Lobe
■ The posterior lobe is also called the neurohypophysis (‘neuro’ = relating to
nerves)
■ The posterior lobe releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus itself (via
neurosecretory cells)
■ These neurosecretory cells extend into the posterior lobe from the hypothalamus
and release hormones into the blood
Endocrine Signalling via the Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is often referred to as the ‘master gland’, as it controls the secretion
of a number of other endocrine glands
■ Pituitary hormones will often target endocrine glands in other organs (e.g.
gonads, pancreas, thyroid, mammary gland)
Pituitary hormones hence control many vital body processes, including:

■ Metabolism (e.g. TSH activates thyroxin)

■ Adult Development (e.g. LH / FSH trigger puberty)
■ Reproduction (e.g. LH / FSH control menstruation)
■ Growth (e.g. growth hormone promotes growth)
■ Equilibrium / Homeostasis (e.g. ADH and water balance)

Mnemonic: MARGE

The Role of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland in Endocrine

Signalling

Growth hormone (also known as somatotropin) is an anabolic peptide hormone that

stimulates growth
■ It acts directly to reduce the formation of adipose cells (i.e. less nutrients stored
as fat)
■ It acts indirectly via insulin growth factor (IGF) – produced by the liver – to
increase muscle mass and bone size
Due to its role in promoting growth and regeneration, it is used by some athletes as a
performance enhancer
■ The use of human growth hormone is banned in sports, with proven cases of
doping strictly punished
■ Traditional urine testing could not detect doping, which historically made bans
difficult to enforce
■ Recent blood tests can now identify between natural and artificial variants of
growth hormone
Effects of Growth Hormone on Athletic Capacity

The production and secretion of milk by maternal mammary glands following birth is
called lactation

■ It is predominantly controlled and regulated by two key hormones – oxytocin and

prolactin

Prolactin is responsible for the development of the mammary glands and the
production of milk

■ It is secreted by the anterior pituitary in response to the release of PRH (prolactin

releasing hormone) from the hypothalamus
■ The effects of prolactin are inhibited by progesterone, which prevents milk
production from occurring prior to birth

Oxytocin is responsible for the release of milk from the mammary glands (milk ejection
reflex)
 ■ It is produced in the hypothalamus and secreted by neurosecretory cells that
extend into the posterior pituitary
■ Oxytocin release is triggered by stimulation of sensory receptors in the breast
tissue by the suckling infant
■ This creates a positive feedback loop that will result in continuous oxytocin
secretion until the infant stops feeding
Hormonal Regulation of Breastfeeding

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback involves a response that is the reverse of the change detected (it
functions to reduce the change)

■ A change is detected by a receptor and an effector is activated to induce an

opposite effect – this promotes equilibrium

Examples of processes that utilise negative feedback loops include homeostatic

systems, such as:

■ Thermoregulation (if body temperature changes, mechanisms are induced to

restore normal levels)
■ Blood sugar regulation (insulin lowers blood glucose when levels are high ;
glucagon raises blood glucose when levels are low)
 ■ Osmoregulation (ADH is secreted to retain water when dehydrated and its
release is inhibited when the body is hydrated)
Example of a Negative Feedback Loop – Thermoregulation

Positive Feedback
Positive feedback involves a response that reinforces the change detected (it functions
to amplify the change)

■ A change is detected by a receptor and an effector is activated to induce the

same effect – this promotes further change
■ Positive feedback loops will continue to amplify the initial change until the
stimulus is removed

Examples of processes that utilise positive feedback loops include:

■ Childbirth – stretching of uterine walls cause contractions that further stretch the
walls (this continues until birthing occurs)
■ Lactation – the child feeding stimulates milk production which causes further
feeding (continues until baby stops feeding)
■ Ovulation – the dominant follicle releases oestrogen which stimulates LH and
FSH release to promote further follicular growth
■ Blood clotting – platelets release clotting factors which cause more platelets to
aggregate at the site of injury
Example of a Positive Feedback Loop – Child Birth