CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Population growth, industrialization, urbanization, and economic competition are some of the important factors
that have influenced economic and social changes in the world. These factors are not without their negative
consequences, particularly concerning climate change and global warming. In recent years, climate change has
been recognized as one of the most serious threats to humans and the environment. The factors causing the
global warming are several, but some are linked to the production and use of construction materials like bricks,
cement, concrete, glass, steel, aggregates, and timber. The construction sector is major user of these materials.
Their production usually requires huge amounts of energy and natural resources, leading to large volumes of
CO2 emissions into the environment.

Concrete is an essential construction material and the second most commonly used worldwide after water. More
than 10 billion tons of concrete are produced each year globally. Researchers have found concrete a more energy-
efficient and environmentally friendly building material compare to steel. However, its advantage has been
significantly impacted due to its high consumption than other construction materials. Concrete production
consumes vast quantities of natural resources, such as aggregates and freshwater. Ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) which is the main binder used in concrete, generates around 8% of global CO2 emissions and consumes
about 3% of global energy. As the negative impact of conventional concrete production on the environment
becomes increasingly evident, it is necessary to find more sustainable alternatives. The high demand for natural
aggregates and the significant energy consumption and CO2 emissions associated with producing Ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) - two key component in concrete - have led researchers to explore alternative materials
and production methods. These include industrial by-products such as fly ash and slag, which can replace some
or all of the ingredients in concrete.

Aggregates play a crucial role in concrete production, constituting a significant portion of its volume, ranging
from 60% to 70%. The selection of aggregates, including their type and quality, can significantly influence the
characteristics of concrete, such as workability, durability, density, strength, and shrinkage. Nevertheless,
urbanization and population growth have resulted in an increasing global demand for natural aggregates, leading
to shortages or supply depletion in many regions. This increased demand has also affected the environment,
causing environmental damage from mining and quarrying activities. Overusing natural aggregates has resulted
in habitat destruction, soil erosion, and water pollution. Therefore, exploring alternative sources of more
sustainable and environmentally friendly aggregates is necessary.
Fly ash is a by-product of coal-fired power plants and has become a significant environmental concern due to
its composition and disposal. Only 217.04 MT of fly ash were produced in India during 2018–2019 [1]. The
disposal of fly ash can harm the environment, occupying a significant amount of agricultural land. Researchers
have been investigating the usage of fly ash in the construction sector for reducing its environmental effect.
Using fly ash as alternative to natural aggregates can decrease the overexploitation of natural aggregates and
protect environment from the harmful effects of fly ash disposal. investigationes are ongoing to find new usage
for fly ash.

This study investigates the potential of using Angular fly ash aggregate(AFA) as a sustainable alternative to
Natural aggregates(NA) in concrete production. The industrial by-product used for the study was fly ash
obtained from NCPL Rourkela, and Bentonite was purchased from the local market. Angular fly ash aggregate
(AFA) was manufactured and used fully in place of NA in concrete production, and a series of tests were
performed to determine its ability to meet concrete's durability and strength requirements. The study aimed to
provide insight into the potential of AFA in reducing NA overexploitation and the environmental effects of
concrete production.

1.2 Fly Ash

Fly ash is a fine, glassy powder that is produced by the burning of coal in thermal power stations during the
generation of electricity. This by-product is composed of various chemicals, such as silicon dioxide, lime, and
aluminium dioxide, which differ depending on the coal type. There are two types of fly ash: Class F and Class
C. By burning lignite and bituminous coal, Class F fly ash is obtained, while by burning sub-bituminous coal,
Class F fly ash is obtained. Class C fly ash is cementitious and pozzolanic and contains more than 20% CaO,
while Class F fly ash is only pozzolanic and includes less than 20% CaO. When pulverized coal is burned, 80
% is separated as fly ash, and the remaining 20% is coarser in size and accumulates on the furnace floor as
bottom ash.

Industrialization of countries has led to a significant increase in fly ash production annually. India, United States,
and China are the three largest fly ash producers. fly ash disposal carries significant environmental dangers that
contribute significantly to global environmental and planetary issues.

For example, the fine particles of fly ash can be carried by light winds, making it challenging to handle when
dry. When these particles eventually settle on large land areas near power plants, the soil quality is harmed,
which can lead to adverse effects on agriculture. long-term exposure to fly ash can cause silicosis, lung fibrosis,
bronchitis, and pneumonitis, which can harm human health.

In addition, the disposal of fly ash requires a large amount of land, which can occupy agricultural land. In India
alone, ash ponds cover an area of 65,000 acres. Fly ash is also a significant source of air, soil, and water pollution.
Finer particles of fly ash behave as cumulative toxins. When they reach the respiratory area over a long period,
it can lead to various physiological and health-related problems, including cancer, air conditions, anaemia, and
hepatic disorders. Furthermore, studies have indicated that wet fly ash disposal results in metal migration into
the soil, posing a risk to people living close to the fly ash disposal site, as it can pollute surface and underground
water.

Fly ash pollution of surface water decreases the fish population due to heavy metals in fly ash, which can also
lead to diarrhoea, skin conditions, and death from drinking or bathing in contaminated river water. Despite the
environmental hazards of fly ash, various studies have been conducted to improve its usage in various fields.
Using fly ash can result in lower disposal costs, less land required for disposal, economic benefits from its sale,
and other advantages.

Numerous research studies have been conducted to enhance the utilization of fly ash across different domains.
This study focuses on using fly ash for making fly ash aggregates and checking its suitability for concrete
durability and mechanical properties.

1.3 Bentonite

Bentonite is a clay mineral made from a group of hydrated aluminium silicate minerals, mainly montmorillonite.
The particle size is tiny, and it has plastic properties when wet. Bentonite has unique properties that make it a
suitable material for many applications. It has a high cation exchange capacity (CEC), making it perfect like an
adsorbent for various pollutants, including heavy metals, organic compounds, and radioactive materials. Its high
swelling capacity also makes it sound like a sealant for ponds, landfills and other applications requiring a
waterproof barrier.

Bentonite is known for its thixotropic properties, meaning it becomes more fluid when stirred or sheared and
more viscous after settling. This property makes it sound like a drilling mud for oil and gas wells and in
producing paints, inks, and other materials requiring rheological control. In construction, bentonite is commonly
used as a waterproofing agent because it can form an impermeable barrier when hydrated. In agriculture, it is
used as a soil conditioner to improve soil structure and conserve water. This study uses Bentonite as a binder in
shaping fly ash particles into angular-shaped aggregates.
1.4 Objectives

 Manufacture Angular Fly Ash Aggregate (AFA) from local class F fly ash using briquette machine and
sintering technique.
 Analyse the properties of AFA and compare them with the properties of locally available Natural
Aggregate (NA).
 Cast concrete specimens using both NA and 100% AFA.
 Evaluate the strength and durability of the concrete specimens, including resistance to Chloride attack,
carbonation attack, cyclic immersing and drying, and water absorption.
 Compare the performance of the concrete made with NA and AFA to evaluate the potential of AFA as a
substitute for NA in concrete production
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

Across the globe, researchers have conducted several studies to discover new applications for
fly ash. This is to reduce its negative environmental impact and change it from a waste product
into useful material. One such area of interest is the use of fly ash in producing lightweight
aggregate. Many studies have been conducted to investigate how to make lightweight aggregate
and substitute it for natural aggregate in concrete mixtures. Some of the investigations have
been shown below.

2.2 Literature review

Bijen (1986) Investigated agglomeration methods for producing rounded-shaped fly ash
aggregates. The study discusses two primary processes for agglomerating fly ash particles:
granulation and compacting. Granulation involves the use of tumbling forces to agglomerate
the particles without external forces. The process involves wetting the fly ash particles with a
bonding agent such as water, adding water dosage into granulating devices, and forming balls
of fly ash particles. These balls of particles roll in the disc of granulation to create pellets. On
the other hand, compacting methods rely on external forces such as roll pressing and extrusion
to form the agglomerates. However, the pellets produced both ways are weak and unsuitable
for aggregate use. Therefore, three methods for hardening the pellets are mentioned in the
study: sintering, autoclaving, and cold bonding. Sintering involves burning the pellets at a
temperature of more than 1200 °C, while autoclaving involves adding a small quantity of
gypsum to fly ash. Finally, the cold bonding method involves adding a source of calcium
hydroxides, such as cement or lime, to harden the pellets.

Verma et al. (1998) developed spherical-shaped aggregates by mixing fly ash, clay, coal
dust, and 15-20% water. The mixture was sintered in a machine at a temperature of 1050°C–
1250°C, and the resulting pellets were cooled. The cooled pellets had a spherical shape with a
diameter ranging from 5-20mm and other properties are listed below:
 Size and shape 5-20-mm dia ,spherical
Water Abs
 Uncrushed 15-20%
 Crushed 40-50%
FM 6.5
Spe.gr. 1.23
Crushing value 55.07
Impact value 55.2
abrasion value 29
Bulk density 640-750

The produced aggregate was used for design of M20 concrete with a water/cement ratio of 0.7.
After 28 days, the compressive strength of the concrete obtained 19.2 N/mm2. It should be
noted that this value was less than the mean strength typically obtained for M20 concrete mixes.

Ramamurthy et al. (2006) studied to investigate the impact of different binders on the
properties of sintered fly ash aggregate produced using a disc-type pelletizer. The study focused
on three types of binders: cement, lime, and bentonite, and evaluated their effects on the
resulting aggregate properties. The study revealed that the fly ash aggregate made with
bentonite as a binder had higher specific gravity and strength than those made with cement or
lime. Additionally, the aggregates produced with bentonite as a binder had lower water
absorption than those produced with cement or lime. XRD and SEM analyses demonstrated
that the chemical composition of the aggregates was not altered by the binders used. Still, their
microstructure was affected, leading to variations in the aggregate properties. Based on the
findings, the researchers concluded that the properties of fly ash aggregate are influenced by
the type and amount of binders used in their production.

Manikandan et al. (2008) found that the duration of curing and hardening methods affect the
properties of fly ash aggregates. Spherical fly ash aggregates were manufactured using a disc
pelletizer. The raw pellets were hardened in three ways: normal water curing, autoclaving
curing, and steam curing. In normal water curing, the pellets were cured in normal water for
28 days, and properties like strength, water absorption, and XRD were examined after 3, 7, 14,
and 28 days. It was found that an increase in the duration of curing results in an increase in
strength and a decrease in the water absorption of aggregates. In autoclaving, and steam curing,
green pellets were autoclaved and steam cured for 5 to 10 hours at 1 MPa and 70 °C,
respectively. It was discovered that increasing the duration increases aggregate strength and
decreases water absorption. The outcomes of all three methods were compared, and it was
concluded that the way and duration of hardening affect the properties of fly ash aggregate and
that the normal water curing method gives better fly ash aggregate properties than autoclaving
and steam curing.

Kockal et al. (2010) investigated the influence of different binders and sintering temperatures
on the properties of spherical fly ash aggregate. Six different mixes were prepared using fly
ash, bentonite, glass powder, and cement, and pellets were formed using a pelletizer pan. The
pellets were then sintered at different temperatures and durations to determine their specific
gravity, water absorption, and crushing value. It was found that the mix containing 10%
bentonite and 10% glass powder sintered at 1200°C produced the highest quality aggregate,
with superior strength and lower water absorption and specific gravity.

The different types of aggregate were then used to produce concrete specimens, and various
tests were performed to evaluate their properties. The study found that due to the spherical
shape of lightweight aggregate, concrete made with cold-bonded and sintered fly ash aggregate
exhibited good slump compared to normal-weight aggregate concrete. However, the
compressive strength of lightweight concrete was lower than that of normal-weight concrete
after 28 and 56 days due to the porous nature of lightweight aggregates. Among the lightweight
aggregates, glass-powder concrete exhibited the highest compressive strength, followed by
bentonite concrete and cold-bonded concrete. The splitting tensile strength of normal-weight
concrete was found to be the highest, followed by lightweight glass-powder concrete,
lightweight bentonite concrete, and lightweight cold-bonded concrete.

Furthermore, the study found that after 28 and 56 days, lightweight bentonite concrete
exhibited the lowest chloride permeability, followed by lightweight glass-powder concrete,
normal-weight concrete, and cold-bonded concrete. All concrete samples demonstrated
excellent resistance to freezing and thawing, with the maximum resistance exhibited by
lightweight bentonite concrete and the lowest by cold-bonded concrete. Overall, the study
highlights the influence of different binders and sintering temperatures on the properties of fly
ash aggregate and their effect on concrete performance.

Gomathi et al. (2015) examined the mechanical and physical characteristics of cold-bonded
and sintered lightweight concrete. The researchers found that sintered fly ash aggregate resulted
in higher concrete strength compared to cold-bonded aggregate. Additionally, they observed
that the strength of cold-bonded aggregate was improved when it was cured in hot water instead
of normal water.
Patel et al. (2019) investigated the durability and microstructural properties of lightweight
concrete by replacing natural fine and coarse aggregates with fly ash cenosphere and sintered
rounded fly ash aggregate. Their findings indicated that the resistance to chloride was directly
proportional to the amount of replacement, with higher replacement of sintered rounded fly ash
aggregate resulting in greater resistance to chloride.

Pati et al. (2022) investigated the production and properties of angular-based fly ash aggregate
using a briquette machine for compaction. Fly ash was mixed with binder and water, then
compacted and sintered at 1250 °C for 3 hours. The resulting angular fly ash aggregate showed
better properties compared to rounded fly ash aggregate and normal aggregate. Concrete
samples were prepared using partial to complete substitution of natural aggregates with fly ash
angular aggregates and pellets, and their compressive strength, flexural strength, and split
tensile strength were analysed. In addition, RCC beams were constructed with complete
replacement of natural aggregates with fly ash pellets and angular aggregate, to investigate
their cracking patterns, flexural behaviour, and load-carrying capacities.
 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL WORK AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 General

Aggregate properties play a crucial role in the strength and durability of concrete. Properties
such as strength, hardness, specific gravity, water absorption, density, and percentage of voids
in aggregate affect the quality of the concrete.

In this chapter, the properties of the materials used and the procedure for the production of
AFA have been explained. as well as explained the procedure of casting concrete samples with
NA and 100% AFA and testing them for compressive strength and durability tests such as
RCPT, Carbonation, UPV, Sorptivity, and slake durability in order to examine the potential of
AFA in concrete production and whether they can fulfil concrete’s durability and strength or
not.

3.1.1 Cement

In this study, OPC43 conforming the IS: 8112 (2013), has been used as the binding material.
Cement is a crucial ingredient in concrete, and its properties directly impact the overall
performance of concrete. The physical properties of cement, such as setting time, Normal
Consistency, and Specific Gravity, have been determined and are listed in the below table.

Table 3.1: Physical properties of OPC 43

Standard values
Sl. No Property Test Results according to IS: 8112-
2013
1 Normal Consistency 30% 26%-33%
2 Sp. gr 3.14 3.14-3.15
3 Ini.S.T 145 min. >30 min.
4 Fin.S.T 505 min. < 600 min.

3.1.2 Fine Aggregate

the fine aggregates used in this project are obtained locally. Sieve analysis, Apparatus
Specific gravity, specific gravity, and water absorption of fine aggregate were determined and
are shown in the table below. Based on the grading specified in IS 383- 1970, the fine
aggregates were classified as belonging to Zone II

Table 3.2: Physical properties of fine aggregate

Sl.No Property Obtained Value

1. Water absorption (%) 0.517
2. Sp.gr. 2.534
3. Apparatus Sp.gr. 2.567

3.1.3 Natural Coarse Aggregate

coarse aggregates that are available locally have been used. some properties of the coarse
aggregates have been determined and are shown below. These properties play a crucial role in
the mix design.

Table 3.3: Physical properties of coarse aggregate

Sl.No Property Obtained Value

1 Water absorption (%) 0.39
2 Sp.gr 2.854
3 Apparatus Sp.gr 2.87

3.1.4 Fly ash

For this research, fly ash was obtained from Rourkela NTPC. The Sp.gr of fly ash was
determined using Le Chatelier’s flask and kerosene as it does not react with fly ash. The
average Sp.gr of fly ash obtained from two samples was 2.19, and the results are presented in
the table below. The Sp.gr. of fly ash is a significant parameter that affects the properties of
AFA.

Table 3.4: Specific gravity of fly ash

Sample Weight Initial reading Final reading specific Average

taken(gm) (ml) (ml) gravity
1. 50 0.3 22.7 2.23
2. 50 0.5 23.7 2.155 2.19

3.1.5 Bentonite

Bentonite was provided from Rourkela Market and used as a binder due to its ability to bind
other materials effectively. The Sp.gr of Bentonite was determined 2.52 following IS 4031
(Part-11):1988, and observations are presented in the table below. The Sp.gr of Bentonite is an
important parameter that affects its binding capacity and the overall characteristics of the final
material.

Table 3.5: Specific gravity of Bentonite

Sample Weight Initial reading Final reading specific Average

taken(gm) (ml) (ml) gravity
1. 50 0.4 20.5 2.48
2. 50 0.2 19.7 2.56 2.52

3.2 Manufacturing process of Angular Fly Ash Aggregate (AFA)

As earlier mentioned, aggregate makes up a large volume of concrete. This means a large
demand for aggregate, which is mainly made from natural materials such as sand, gravel, and
crushed stone. However, the extraction of these materials destroys the environment, leading to
ecological imbalance and habitat destruction. In contrast, fly ash is produced annually in large
quantities, and its disposal poses significant environmental and health risks. Therefore, using
fly ash as an alternative to natural building materials has become an attractive option that
provides a sustainable solution to the issue of waste management. Production of aggregates
from fly ash is one of these fields of exploration. While several methods have been proposed
for this purpose, most of them produce spherical fly ash aggregates that do not provide optimal
bonding and locking within the concrete, resulting in reduced strength. To address this issue, a
new approach has been proposed to create angular fly ash aggregates(AFA) that exhibit better
cohesive properties and provide higher strength than concrete structures. The procedure of
producing of Angular Fly ash aggregate(AFA) is explained below.

3.2.1 Procedure

1. After several trials, the optimal mixture for producing AFA was determined. The
mixture consists of fly ash with 32.5% water by weight of fly ash and 25% Bentonite
by weight of fly ash. This combination was chosen based on its ability to produce
high-quality aggregates with desirable properties. The addition of water facilitates the
formation of aggregates and improves their bonding strength, while Bentonite, which
is a clay mineral, acts as a binding agent, allowing for the formation of AFA.
 Fig 3.1: Fly ash + Bentonite + Water

2. The dry materials, which are fly ash and Bentonite, were mixed for a period of
3 minutes in fly ash mixer. Once the dry materials were mixed, water was
sprayed onto the mixture and it was then mixed for a period of 10 minutes. This
allowed the water to be evenly distributed throughout the mixture and for the
Bentonite to act as a binding agent, binding the fly ash particles together. The
resulting mix was then processed further to form the AFA.

Fig 3.2: Fly ash Mixer

3. The material was then fed into briquette machine after the mixing process. This
machine was used to effectively reduce the pores in the mixture and create a
denser, more compact product. Briquetting is a commonly used process within
the material processing industry, as it creates a uniform, high-density products
that are easier to transport and store. The briquette machine applies pressure to
the material, shaping it into a specific form while simultaneously reducing any
gaps or pores within the material. The resulting product takes the form of high-
density briquettes that are ready for further processing.

Fig 3.3: Raw Briquettes

4. Once the briquettes were compacted, they were allowed to dry for 24 hours at
room temperature. This step is essential to ensure that the briquettes are
completely dry before being subjected to high temperatures in the furnace. After
 the drying process, the briquettes were placed inside the furnace and burned for
a total of 10 hours, with the temperature gradually increasing from 0℃ to
1250℃ over a period of 7 hours. This gradual heating process is essential to
prevent the briquettes from cracking due to thermal shock. After reaching the
maximum temperature of 1250℃, the briquettes were maintained at that
temperature for 3 hours to ensure that they were fully sintered.

Fig 3.4: Sintered Briquettes

5. The sintered briquettes were carefully removed from the furnace and allowed to cool at
room temperature. Once cooled, the briquettes were broken down into smaller pieces
using hammer in preparation for the crushing process. The briquettes were then fed into
a crusher machine, which crushed them into smaller sizes. The crushed material was
sieved into different sizes, using sieves of varying mesh sizes, such as 20mm, 12.5mm,
10mm, and 4.5mm. This process ensured that the aggregates were sorted into different
sizes. The different sizes of aggregates produced through this process are shown in the
figures below.

20MSA 10mm < Size < 12.5 mm 4.5mm < Size < 10 mm

Fig 3.5: Different size of AFA

3.3 Tests On Angular Fly Ash Aggregates(AFA)
To ensure the suitability of Aggregate for use in construction, aggregates must be thoroughly
tested for various qualities. These tests typically evaluate characteristics such as hardness,
toughness, size, water absorption, and more. In this study, AFA are subject to several tests to
determine their suitability for use in construction projects. These tests include examining the
compressive strength of the aggregate to assess its ability to withstand external forces and the
water absorption rate to determine its ability to resist water damage as well as the abrasion
resistance of the aggregate. These tests are critical to ensuring that AFA meet the necessary
standards for use in construction, promoting safety and durability in building projects.

1.Aggregate Impact value test

this test is done to evaluate the resistance of AFA to sudden shock or impact as per IS: 2386
(Part IV)—1963. AFA samples that have passed through a 12.5 mm sieve and retained on a 10
mm sieve are used as input for the test. The weight of the sample taken (W), weight passed
(W1), and weight retained (W2) are recorded during the observation phase. The average % age
impact value is then calculated using the formula: Aggregate Impact value (%) = (W1/ W) X
100. The values obtained from the test are recorded in the table below. This test is important in
determining the quality and durability of the aggregate and ensuring that it meets the necessary
standards for use in construction projects.

Observation:

Table 3.6: Aggregate Impact value

Sl. Wt of Wt passed Wt % Age Average

No Sample (W1) retained Impact %
taken(W) (gm) (W2) value
(gm) (gm)
1. 219 43 175 19.63
2. 216.5 53 162.5 24.48 21.91
3. 222 48 173 21.62

2. Aggregate Crushing value test

this test determines the resistance of AFA to gradually applied compressive load as per
the IS: 2386 (Part IV)—1963 standard. The test requires AFA sample that has passed
the 12.5 mm sieve and is retained on the 10 mm sieve. The weight of the sample taken
(W), the weight passed (W1), and the weight retained (W2) are recorded, and the %
age crushing value and average are calculated using a formula: Aggregate Crushing
value (%) = (W1/ W) X 100. These tests are essential in determining the ability of the
aggregate to withstand compressive loads over time, ensuring the safety and durability
of construction projects. The results are tabulated in Table 3.8.

Table 3.7: Aggregate Crushing value

Sl. Wt of Sample Wt passed Wt retained % Age Average

No taken(W) (W1) (W2) crushing %
(gm) (gm) (gm) value

1. 1648.3 493.6 1153.2 29.946

2. 1656 510.7 1144 30.839 29.67
3. 1652 466.277 1185.614 28.225

3. Aggregate Abrasion value test

This test aims to determine the resistance of AFA against wearing and tearing by the use of a
Los Angeles machine as per the IS 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 standard. For this test, an AFA sample
of 5 kg is required, with 2.5 kg passed the 20 mm sieve and retained on the 12.5 mm and 2.5
kg passed the 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve. The weight of the sample taken
(W), the weight passed (W1), and the weight retained (W2) are recorded, and the % age
abrasion value and the average are then calculated from the formula: Aggregate Abrasion value
(%) = (W1/ W) X 100.The results are tabulated in Table 3.9. The test is essential to determine
the durability of aggregates against repeated impacts and abrasion, which are common stresses
encountered in construction projects.

Table 3.8: Aggregate Abrasion value

Wt
Wt of Sample Wt passed % Age
Sl. retained Average
taken(W) (W1) Impact
No (W2) %
(gm) (gm) value
(gm)
1. 5000 922 4004 18.44
18.54
2. 5000 932 4061 18.64

4. Specific gravity and water absorption of Aggregates

This test is conducted to determine the specific gravity and water absorption of AFA according
to the IS: 2386 (Part-3)-1963 standard. The test needs two sizes of AFA - one sample has passed
the 20 mm sieve and is retained on the 10 mm sieve, and the other size has passed the 10 mm
sieve and is retained on the 4.75 mm sieve. The samples' weight, the size of aggregates, and
the weights of aggregates in water surface-dried, and oven-dried aggregates are recorded. The
Sp.gr, apparent Sp.gr, and water absorption are then calculated using the following formulas:

Sp.gr = C/ [B-A]

Apparent Sp.gr = C/[C-A]

Water absorption = 100(B-C)/C

The observations are shown in Table 3.10. These tests are essential for mix design and also in
determining the quality of aggregates to make sure that they are suitable for our purpose and
will not deteriorate over time.

Table 3.9: Specific gravity and water absorption of AFA

Sl.No Description (gm) Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Wt of sample
1 2000 2000 2000
taken
passed 20 mm passed 20 mm
passed 10 mm
sieve and sieve and
2 Size of Aggregates sieve and retained
retained on 10 retained on 10
on 4.75 mm sieve.
mm sieve. mm sieve.
Weight of
3 aggregates in water 1013.1 996.8 1042.6
(A)
Weight of surface
4 dried aggregates 2106 gm 2106.3 2167.2
(B)
Weight of oven
5 dried aggregates 1997.1 2001.9 1998.4
(C)
6 Specific gravity 1.827 1.804 1.777
Apparent specific
7 2.029 1.992 2.09
gravity
8 Water absorption 5.45 % 5.215% 8.446 %
Average Specific
9 1.802
gravity
Average Apparent
10 2.037
specific gravity
Average Water
11 6.37%
absorption

5. Aggregates Bulk Density and Voids

This test aims to measure the bulk density and voids of AFA based on the IS 2386 (Part III) –
1963 standard. The input used in this test is AFA with a maximum size of 20mm. The test
observations include the cylinder capacity, loss weight, and tamped weight, which are listed in
below. These values are then used to calculate the loss bulk density, tamped bulk density, and
percentage of voids of the AFA. The results of this test can be used to determine the
compactness and porosity of the aggregates.

Cylinder capacity = 15 liter

Loss weight = 13.18 kg
Tamped weight = 14.44 kg
Loss Bulk Density (kg/Liter) = 0.878
Tamped Bulk Density (kg/Liter) = 0.963
% of Voids = 51.22
3.4 Concrete Mix Design

Concrete mix design is a procedure that includes choosing suitable materials and determining
their ratio to produce concrete with desirable properties such as performance, strength and
durability. In this study, mix design was conducted for both NA and AFA to evaluate the
suitability of AFA for use in construction. Mix design was done for M25 grade concrete per IS
10262 (2009) and IS 456 (2000) standards guidelines. IS 10262 provides guidelines for the
suitability of concrete ingredients, while IS 456 provides general requirements and concrete
testing recommendations. Mix design results can help determine the optimal ratio of different
materials for concrete production, leading to better quality and more stable concrete structures.

Stipulation for Proportioning

Table 3.10: Specification for Proportioning

Description M25 grade with NA M25 grade with AFA

Grade designation M25 M25
Type and grade of cement OPC43 OPC43
Max Nominal size of Agg. 20mm 20mm
Exposure condition Moderate Moderate
Minm cement content 300 kg/m3 300 kg/m3
Workability in terms of slump 75mm 75mm
Transportation 30 minutes 30 minutes
Standard deviation 4 N/mm2 4 N/mm2
Max cement content 450 kg/m3 450 kg/m3
Water/ cement 0.5 0.5
Zone of fine Agg. Zone II Zone II
Sp.gr of cement. 3.14 3.14
Sp.gr of F.Agg 2.534 2.534
Sp.gr of C.Agg 2.854 1.8
Sp.gr of water 1.0 1.0
3.4.1 Procedure for Concrete with NA

Step 1: Determination of Target Mean Strt

Ftarget = fck + 1.65 x S or fck + X, whichever is higher
Where,
S = as per table -2 of IS 10262- 2019
X= as per table -1 of IS 10262- 2019
Ftarget = fck + 1.65 x S = 25 +1.65 x 4 = 31.6 N/mm2
Ftarget = fck + X = 25 + 5.5 = 30.5 N/mm2

Ftarget= 31.6 N/mm2

Step 2: Selection of water / cement ratio:

From Table 5 of IS 456, (page no 20)
Maximum water-cement ratio for Moderate exposure condition = 0.5
Note: admixture is not used in this mix design; the water-cement ratio does not need
to be reduced.
Step 3: Selection of Water Content
From Table 4 of IS 10262- 2019,
Maximum water content = 186 Kg
The required slump in this design is = 75 mm. So, 3 % should be added (as per 10262-
2019 – Cl 5.3).
186 + (3/100) x 186 = 191.58 kg /m3

Step 4: Selection of Cement Content

Cement content = wtr content / wtr cement ratio
= 191.58 / 0.5
= 383.16 Kg/m3 > 300 Kg/m3 (IS- 456-Table-5), Hence OK

Step 5: Aggregate proportion between C.A and F.A

Nominal maximum size of Agg = 20 mm,
Zone of F.A - Zone II
Volume of C.A = 0.62 (as per table -5 of IS 10262- 2019).
If the concrete is placed by pump, the coarse aggregate can be reduced up to 10.
 So,

Volume of C.A = 0.62 -0.1x100 = 0.558

Volume of F.A = 1- 0.558 = 0.442

Step 6: Mix calculation per unit volume of concrete

1. Volm of concrete= 1m3

2. Volm of cement = Mass of cement / Mass density

= 383.16 / (3.14 x1000) = 0.122025 m3

3. Volm of water = Mass of water / Mass density

= 191.58 / (1 x 1000) = 0.19158 m3

4. Volm of all in Agg = 1- (Volm of water +Volm of cement)

= 1- (0.19158 + 0.122025) = 0.686395 m3

Step 7: Mass of C.A and F.A

Mass of C.A = Volm of all in Agg x Volm of C. A x Sp.gr of C.A x 1000

= 0.686395 x 0.558 x 2.854 x1000 = 1093 kg/ m3

Mass of F.A = Volm of all in Agg x Volm of F. A x Sp.gr of F.A x 1000

= 0.686395 x 0.442 x 2.534 x1000 = 768.781 kg/m3

Summary:

Table 3.11: Mix Design proportions for Concrete with NA

Coarse
Description Cement Sand water
aggregate
Quantities of materials (in
383.16 768.781 1093 191.58
Kg/m3 )
Mix proportion
1 2.006 2.85 0.5
(by weight)
3.4.2 Procedure for Concrete with 100% AFA Mix Design
Step 1: Determination of Target Mean Strength
Ftarget = fck + 1.65 x S or fck + X, whichever is higher
Where,
S = as per table -2 of IS 10262- 2019
X= as per table -1 of IS 10262- 2019
Ftarget = fck + 1.65 x S = 25 +1.65 x 4 = 31.6 N/mm2
Ftarget = fck + X = 25 + 5.5 = 30.5 N/mm2

Ftarget= 31.6 N/mm2

Step 2: Selection of water / cement ratio:

From Table 5 of IS 456, (page no 20)
Maximum water-cement ratio for Moderate exposure condition = 0.5
Note: admixture is not used in this mix design; the water-cement ratio does not need
to be reduced.
Step 3: Selection of Water Content
From Table 4 of IS 10262- 2019,
Max water content = 186 Kg
The required slump in this design is = 75 mm. So, 3 % should be added (as per 10262-
2019 – Cl 5.3).
186 + (3/100) x 186 = 191.58 kg /m3

Step 4: Selection of Cement Content

Cement content = wtr content / wtr cement ratio
= 191.58 / 0.5
= 383.16 Kg/m3 > 300 Kg/m3 (IS- 456-Table-5), Hence OK

Step 5: Aggregate proportion between C.A and F.A

Nominal max size of Agg = 20 mm,
Zone of F.A- Zone II
Volume of C.A = 0.62 (as per table -5 of IS 10262- 2019).

If the concrete is placed by pump, the C.A can be reduced up to 10.

 So,

Volume of C.A = 0.62 -0.1x100 = 0.558

Volume of F.A = 1- 0.558 = 0.442

Step 6: Mix calculation per unit Volm of concrete

1. Volm of concrete= 1m3

2. Volm of cement = Mass of cement / Mass density

= 383.16 / (3.14 x1000) = 0.122025 m3

3. Volm of water = Mass of water / Mass density

= 191.58 / (1 x 1000) = 0.19158 m3

4. Volume of all in Agg. = 1- (Volm of water +Volm of cement)

= 1- (0.19158 + 0.122025) = 0.686395 m3

Step 7: Mass of C.A and F.A

Mass of C.A = Volm of all in Agg x Volm of C. A x Sp.gr of C.A x 1000

= 0.686395 x 0.558 x 1.8 x1000 = 689.4151 kg/ m3

Mass of F.A = Volm of all in Agg x Volm of F. A x Sp.gr of F.A x 1000

= 0.686395 x 0.442 x 2.534 x1000 = 768.781 kg/m3

Summary:

Table 3.12: Mix Design proportions for Concrete with AFA

Coarse
Description Cement Sand water
aggregate
Quantities of materials (in
383.16 768.781 689.4151 191.58
Kg/m3 )
Mix proportion
1 2.006 1.8 0.5
(by weight)

3.5 Slump Test

to evaluate the workability of the fresh concrete, a slump test was conducted on both mixes. The
observations made during the test showed that the slump value for the mix with NA was 45mm,
while the slump value for the mix with AFA was 30mm. These results suggest that the mix with
NA had better workability than the mix with AFA. The water-cement ratio (W/C) was also 0.5 for
both mixes during the test. The slump test is an important test to evaluate the quality of fresh
concrete, as it helps ensure that the concrete can be easily placed, compacted, and finished.

3.6 Test on Hardened Concrete

3.6.1 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of concrete is a critical parameter that determines its overall structural
stability and durability. Six cubes with size of (150 x150 x150) mm was cast for each mix with NA
and AFA to examine the compressive strength of the concrete specimens. A total of 12 cubes were
tested to measure the compressive strength after 7 days and 28 days of curing period as per the IS
code 10086-1982.

For the 7-day strength test, three samples were taken from each mix. The results showed that the
Avg compressive strength of the NA mix was 20.63 N/mm2, whereas the average compressive
strength of the AFA mix was 28.122 N/mm2. Similarly, for the 28-day strength test, three samples
were taken from each mix. The average compressive strength of the NA mix was 29.93 N/mm2,
and that of the AFA mix was 36.188 N/mm2.

 For 7 days Strength

I. Concrete with NA

Fig 3.6: 7 days Strength with NA

Table 3.13: 7 days Strength with NA

Load in Compressive
Sl. Breadth Weight in
Length (L) Kg Load in
(B) in strength in
No. in mm Kg 1000xN
mm
N/mm2

1. 150 150 47000 8.204 461.07 20.492

2. 150 150 50000 8.362 490.5 21.8

3. 150 150 44000 8.284 431.2 19.6

Average Compressive Strength = 20.63 N/mm2 Average weight =8.283 Kg

 II. Concrete with AFA

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Fig 3.7: 7 days Strength with AFA

Table 3.14: 7 days Strength with AFA

Load in Compressive
Sl. Breadth Weight in
Length (L) Kg Load in
(B) in strength in
No. in mm Kg 1000xN
mm
N/mm2

1. 150 150 63500 7.106 622.935 27.686

2. 150 150 66000 7.128 647.46 28.776
3. 150 150 64000 6.94 627.84 27.904

Average Compressive Strength = 28.122 N/mm2

Average weight =7.028 Kg

 For 28 days Strength

III. Concrete with NA

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Fig 3.8: 28 days Strength with NA

 Table 3.15: 28 days Strength with NA

Weight Compressive
Sl. Breadth Load in Kg
Length (L) in Load in
(B) in strength in
No. in mm 1000xN
mm Kg N/mm2

1. 150 150 68000 8.324 667.08 29.648

2. 150 150 70000 8.228 686.7 30.52

3. 150 150 68000 8.554 667.08 29.648

Average Compressive Strength = 29.93 N/mm2

Average weight =8.368 Kg

IV. Concrete with AFA

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Fig 3.9: 28 days Strength with AFA

Table 3.16: 28 days Strength with AFA

Load in Compressive
Sl. Breadth Weight in
Length (L) Kg Load in
(B) in strength in
No. in mm Kg 1000xN
mm
N/mm2

1. 150 150 85000 7.260 833.85 37.06

2. 150 150 84000 7.136 824.04 36.624

3. 150 150 80000 7.106 784.8 34.88

Average Compressive Strength = 36.188 N/mm2

Average weight =7.167 Kg

3.6.2 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test
Rapid Chloride Permeability (RCPT) test was conducted to determine the total charge passed
through a particular cylindrical concrete sample over a duration of 6 hours. Two cylindrical
specimens were cast for each type of concrete - Two with AFA and Two with NA. These
specimens were 200mm in height and 100mm in diameter and were cured for 28 and 56 days.
After curing period, each sample was cut into three pieces of 50mm thickness and 100 mm
diameter for the RCPT test. The sample was prepared following the guidelines of ASTM
C1202-12 and was vacuum-saturated before testing to ensure consistency. The sample was
placed between two half cells, with the first cell filled with NaOH solution with normality of
0.30N and the second with NaCl solution with a normality of 0.5N. A 60-V power source was
used to connect these cells. The experimental setup and observations of the tests are shown in
the figures below.

Figure 3.10: Experimental setup for rapid chloride permeability test

Figure 3.11: Charges passed in concrete with NA and AFA After a curing period of 28 and
56 days
3.6.3 Slake Durability

Slake Durability Test was performed to evaluate how hardened concrete with NA and AFA
will react to weathering and cyclical immersing and drying. The test was performed according
to ASTM D4644. Six cubes with NA and six with AFA were cast, with dimensions of 150 x
150 x 150 mm, and cured for 28 and 56 days. The samples were taken out after the curing
times, allowed for surface dry, and then broken with a UTM machine and hammer. Ten pieces
from each sample, weighing between 40 and 60 grams, were taken from the centre of the broken
cubes, and all sharp edges were rounded. The collected pieces were then cleaned to remove
dust particles. Before starting the test, all sets of pieces were kept for 24 hours in oven to dry.
The weight of the samples was recorded after oven drying, and all sets of samples for each
combination were put in a wire mesh drum. The drum was half-submerged in a water-filled
trough. the apparatus moved the drum and the sample at a constant speed of 20 rpm for 10
minutes. The sample left in the drum after the first cycle was oven-dried for 24 hours, and its
total mass was recorded. To complete the second cycle, the same procedure was followed. The
ASTM D4644 standard was used to calculate the Slake Durability Index. The formula is as
follows:

Id = [Wf / Wi] x 100%

Where,

Id = Slake Durability Index

Wi = Mass of oven-dried sample before the test

Wfi = Mass of oven-dried sample after the first and second cycle

Observation table, test setup, and pictures of the concrete pieces before and after the Slake
Durability Test are shown below.

Table 3.17 : Observation of the Slake durability test

NA (m/sec) AFA (m/sec)
28 days 56 days 28 days 56 days
Wi 476.5 511.6 519.7 489.2
Wf1 470.1 505.3 514.9 485.3
Wf2 465.7 501.7 511.3 482.1
Id2 (%) 97.73 98.1 98.38 98.55
 Figure 3.12: Setup for slake durability test

Figure 3.13: Specimens of both NA and AFA before the test and after the second cycle

3.6.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)

The (UPV) test used to examine the quality of both concrete with NA and concrete with AFA.
The test was pefromed according to the IS 13311 (Part-1): 1992, using concrete samples with
150 mm 150 mm 150 mm size after 28 and 56 days of curing. An electro-acoustical transducer
produces an ultrasonic pulse in this test. These pulses were reflected numerous times at the
borders of distinct material phases inside the concrete, resulting in a complex system of stress
waves that included longitudinal (compressional), shear (transverse), and surface (Rayleigh)
waves. The receiving transducer recognized the start of the longitudinal waves, which are the
quickest in the system.
Proper acoustical coupling between the concrete and the face of each transducer was required
to guarantee that the ultrasonic pulses generated by the transmitting transducer passed into the
concrete and were detected by the receiving transducer. Greece gel was employed for this
purpose in this investigation. To generate the ultrasonic pulse, the transducer was held in
contact with one surface of the concrete part under test. The vibrations pulse was transformed
into an electrical signal by the second transducer retained in contact with the opposite surface
of the concrete part after crossing a given route length (Q) in the concrete. The transit time (T)
of the pulse was measured using an electrical timing circuit. V = L/T was used to compute the
pulse velocity (V). The observation table, test setup, and velocity-based concrete quality
standards are shown below.

Table 3.18: Concrete quality criteria based on velocity

Pulse velocity (m/sec) Concrete quality

Above 4500 Excellent
3500-4500 Good
3000-3500 Medium
Below 3000 Doubtful

Table 3.19 : Observation of the UPV test

NA (m/sec) AFA (m/sec)
Sample 28 days 56 days 28 days 56 days
1. 4601 4702 4386 4491
2. 4587 4751 4629 4695
3. 4629 4874 4559 4832

Figure 3.14: Experimental setup for UPV test

3.6.5 Sorptivity
This test determines the rate of water absorption per unit of time in concrete samples. In this
study, four cylindrical specimens were cast, including two with NA and two with AFA
aggregate. Each specimen with a height of 200 mm and a dia of 100 mm and was cured for 28
and 56 days. After curing, each cylinder was cut into three pieces with a thickness of 50 mm
and a dia of 100 mm. The specimens were then put in the environmental chamber for three
days at a temperature of 50 °C and RH of 80%, followed by 13 days in a watertight
polyethylene. The Sorptivity test was conducted according to the ASTM C1585-04 code. The
sides of the specimens were sealed with epoxy paint and tape, while the end that was not in
contact with water was half-sealed with plastic tape. The mass of the specimens was recorded
using a balance with a precision of 0.01 gr. the specimens were supported by two plastic rods
in a way that the exposed end of each specimen was immersed in water. The below figure
shows experimental setup for the test.

Figure 3.15: experimental setup for the Sorptivity test

As per the ASTM C1585 (2004) standard, absorption (I) is defined as the cumulative amount
of water absorbed (in mm) at a particular time (t), divided by the cross-sectional area (a) of the
specimen and the density of water (d). the readings were taken at specific time intervals as
specified in the code, and calculations were performed according to following formula.

𝜟 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
I= 𝒂×𝒅

The below tables show the observations and calculations for both NA and AFA at 28 and 56
days.
Table 3.20: Observations and calculations of Sorptivity test for both NA and AFA at 28 days.

Time NA AFA
Days Second √ S Mass(g) Δ Mass(g) I (mm) Mass(g) Δ Mass(g) I(mm)
0 0 937.4 0 0 802.1 0 0
60 8 938.8 1.4 0.1783 803.9 1.8 0.2292
300 17 940.8 3.4 0.4329 805.4 3.3 0.4202
600 24 941.7 4.3 0.5475 806.2 4.1 0.522
1200 35 943.2 5.8 0.7385 807.3 5.2 0.6621
1800 42 944.3 6.9 0.8785 807.7 5.6 0.713
3600 60 946.2 8.8 1.1204 809.8 7.7 0.9804
7200 85 950.8 13.4 1.7061 812.7 10.6 1.3496
10800 104 953.7 16.3 2.0754 816.8 14.7 1.8717
0
14400 120 957.1 19.7 2.5083 821.5 19.4 2.4701
18000 134 959.5 22.1 2.8139 824.7 22.6 2.8775
21600 147 960.2 22.8 2.903 829.2 27.1 3.4505
1 92220 304 961.5 24.1 3.0685 835.5 33.4 4.2526
2 193200 440 961.9 24.5 3.1194 836.1 34 4.329
3 268500 518 962.2 24.8 3.1576 837.1 35 4.4563
4 432000 657 963.1 25.7 3.2722 837.8 35.7 4.5455
5 527580 726 964.5 27.1 3.3105 838.1 36 4.5837
6 622200 789 965.2 27.8 3.4196 838.9 36.8 4.6855
7 691200 831 966.3 28.9 3.5014 839.1 37 4.711

Table 3.21: Observations and calculations of Sorptivity test for both NA and AFA at 56 days.

Time NA AFA
Days Second √ S Mass(g) Δ Mass(g) I (mm) Mass(g) Δ Mass(g) I(mm)
0 0 921.3 0 0 806.7 0 0
60 8 922.2 0.9 0.1146 807.9 1.2 0.1528
300 17 923.4 2.1 0.2674 808.9 2.2 0.2801
600 24 923.9 2.6 0.331 809.5 2.8 0.3565
1200 35 924.9 3.6 0.4584 810.2 3.5 0.4456
1800 42 925.5 4.2 0.5348 810.5 3.8 0.4838
3600 60 926.7 5.4 0.6875 811.9 5.2 0.6621
7200 85 929.5 8.2 1.0441 813.9 7.2 0.9167
10800 104 931.3 10 1.2732 816.7 10 1.2732
0
14400 120 933.4 12.1 1.5406 819.9 13.2 1.6807
18000 134 934.9 13.6 1.7316 822.1 15.4 1.9608
21600 147 935.3 14 1.7825 825.1 18.4 2.3428
1 92220 304 936.1 14.8 1.8844 829.4 22.7 2.8902
2 193200 440 936.3 15 1.9099 829.8 23.1 2.9412
3 268500 518 936.5 15.2 1.9353 830.5 23.8 3.0303
4 432000 657 937.1 15.8 2.0117 831 24.3 3.094
5 527580 726 937.9 16.6 2.1136 831.2 24.5 3.1194
6 622200 789 938.4 17.1 2.1772 831.7 25 3.1831
7 691200 831 939 17.7 2.2536 831.9 25.2 3.2086
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Properties of Angular Fly Ash Aggregates

Angular fly ash aggregates are produced using a mixture of fly ash, Bentonite, and water. After
several trials, combination of fly ash with 32.5% water (by weight of fly ash) and 25%
Bentonite (by weight of fly ash) was chosen to create a high-quality AFA. To ensure the
product's suitability, various tests were conducted following IS: 2386-Part III (1963) and IS
2386-Part IV (1963). All the obtained values are within the limits defined by IS code 383:2016.

Table 4.1 shows the results of the aggregate tests and limitations specified by IS code 383:2016,
showing that the impact, crushing, and abrasion values tests for the AFA are all within
acceptable limits. Moreover, the average specific gravity of the AFA is 1.8, which is lower than
NA (ranging from 2.5 to 3.0). This means that structures constructed with AFA are lighter and
have a lower dead load, contributing to greater sustainability and efficiency.

Table 4.1: Result of AFA’s tests and limitations

Sl.No. Properties Obtained Value Limit as per IS 383:2016

< 30 % Wearing surface
1. Impact value 21.91%
< 45 % Other than wearing surface
< 30 % Wearing surface
2. Crushing value 29.67 %
< 45 % Other than wearing surface
< 30 % Wearing surface
3. Abrasion Value 18.54 %
< 45 % Other than wearing surface
4. Specific gravity 1.802 -
5. Water absorption 6.37 -
6. Bulk Density 0.878 -
7. Voids (%) 51.22 % -

4.2 Properties of Concrete with AFA and NA

4.2.1 Slump test

Slump test was performed to evaluate the workability of the concrete. The test results indicated
that the both concrete mixes with NA and AFA had low workability, with a slump value of 45
mm and 30 mm, respectively. This suggests that the concrete was relatively stiff and difficult
to handle during construction.

to make the concrete more workable Increase the water-cement ratio in the mix design as one
alternative, which might result in more fluid and easier-to-handle concrete. However, this
method should be used with caution since excessive water might reduce the durability and
strength of the concrete.

Another option is to add admixtures into the mix design, which can change the qualities of the
concrete, like its workability, without affecting its strength or durability. Plasticizers and
superplasticizers, for example, can increase the followability of concrete, making it simpler to
handle and place during construction.

4.2.2 Compressive Strength test

The results of the compressive strength of concrete for both concrete with NA and AFA are
shown in the below graphs. Both 7-day and 28-day compressive strength tests were conducted,
and the results indicated that the concrete with AFA had better performance and weighed less
than the concrete with AFA cubes. This finding suggests that with the use of AFA, it is possible
to construct structures with better strength and less dead load.

After 28 days of curing, the concrete with AFA showed a 17.3% higher compressive strength
compared to the concrete with NA and a 30.9% higher compressive strength compared to the
target strength. Moreover, the concrete with AFA was found to be 14.75% lighter than concrete
with NA in terms of weight.

Fig 4.1: Comparison of the compressive strength of samples

 Fig 4.2: Comparison of the weight of samples

Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)

RCPT is an important test to evaluate the durability of concrete. It measures the ability of
chloride ions to penetrate concrete, which can lead to corrosion of reinforcement steel and
eventually cause the failure of the structure. This test involves passing an electric current
through a concrete sample that drives chloride ions through the material. The total passing
charge in a certain period of time is measured in coulombs, and the lower its value, the more
resistant concrete to chloride penetration.

The chloride ion penetration for each concrete mix has compared and presented in Fig.-4.3 at
28 and 56 days of curing periods. The average passed charge of three samples using AFA after
28 days is 3438 coulombs, which is in the moderate range. For concrete with NA after 28 days,
it is 3639 coulombs, which is also in the moderate range. The average charge of two samples
using AFA after 56 days is 2245 coulombs, which is moderate, and for concrete with NA after
56 days, it is 2745 coulombs, which is also moderate.

In comparison to concrete with NA, concrete with AFA showed a 24% and 34% lower total
charge passed during the 28-day and 56-day curing periods, respectively. This is probably
because of AFA contain reactive silica and alumina that can chemically bind with calcium
hydroxide in the cement paste, and can make denser and more impermeable microstructure,
which in turn can reduce chloride permeability.

Also, AFA provide better interlocking with the cement paste, resulting, in a stronger bond
between the aggregate and the cementitious material. This can also result in a more compact
and less porous microstructure, causing to reduced chloride permeability
Additionally, the concrete with AFA showed an 18% lower charge passed at 56 days of curing
compared to 28 days of curing, while the concrete with NA exhibited a 5% lower charge passed
after 56 days of curing compared to 28 days of curing.

This shows that with an increase in curing time for both concrete with AFA and NA. the overall
charge passed is decreasing this is probably because of the development of a denser and
impermeable structure in the concrete over time. As concrete cures, the hydration of cement
particles leads to the formation of a solid matrix that binds the aggregates together, resulting in
a more compact and less porous structure. This makes it harder for chloride ions to penetrate
and pass through the concrete, resulting in a decrease in the overall charge passed through the
samples during the RCPT test. This phenomenon can be observed in both concrete types,
indicating that the curing time plays a critical role in determining chloride permeability in
concrete.

In sum up, it can be said that concrete with AFA has better resistance to chloride penetration
compared to concrete with NA.

Figure 4.3: Total charge passed in concrete with AFA and NA

Slake Durability:

Concrete deteriorates over time as a result of variety of structural and environmental

conditions, such as erosion driven on by water passing over abrasive elements. Slake durability
testing examines a material mass's capacity to withstand physical breakdown into smaller units,
specifically as a result of degradation and periodic immersing and drying. The test is conducted
according to ASTM D4644 (2016), and it is mainly advised for the evaluation of the durability
of weak rocks. Concrete may also be used to simulate the features of material degradation under
wetting-drying cycles, which might affect the material's properties. By conducting the slake
durability test, a slake durability index can be computed, which is a different way of measuring
the quality of concrete. This index is calculated at the end of two cycles of immersing and
drying, and the higher the index, the higher the resistance against disintegration. In this study,
the slake durability test was performed on both concrete with NA and AFA specimens, and the
results were calculated for both after the second cycle.

Figure 4.4 shows a comparison of the Slake Durability Index for both concrete mixes after 28
and 56 days of curing. The AFA specimens had a slake index of 98.38% after 28 days, while
the NA specimens had a slightly lower index of 97.73%. After 56 days, the slake index of the
AFA specimens increased to 98.55%, while the NA specimens had an index of 98.1%.

The concrete with AFA showed 0.7% and 0.46% better resistance to weathering and cyclic
wetting and drying action compared to concrete with NA. Moreover, the pieces of concrete
with AFA had not deteriorated significantly and almost all were similar to their initial
condition. In contrast, the pieces of concrete with NA had broken into smaller sizes.

In conclusion, it can be said that concrete with AFA has a slightly higher resistance to
environmental conditions and cyclical wetting and drying.

Figure 4.4: Slake durability Index for Concrete with NA and AFA

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)

UPV is a non-destructive test method which is used to examine homogeneity, presence of

cracks and voids, and other quality of concrete. In this test, Electro-acoustical transducer
generates ultrasonic pulses that travel through the concrete at a speed that depends on its elastic
properties. When the concrete quality is good in terms of density, homogeneity, and uniformity,
the pulse speed is higher. if there are irregularities in the concrete, such as cracks or voids, the
power of the pulse is reduced, and it takes a longer path, resulting in lower pulse speeds. In
simple words, the higher pulse speed means good quality of concrete and lower speed means
poor quality of concrete.

The pulse speed for each concrete mix has compared and showed in Fig.-4.5 at 28 and 56 days
of curing periods. The average pulse speed of three samples that used AFA after 28 days is
4525 m/s, which indicates an excellent quality range. Similarly, the pulse speed of concrete
with NA after 28 days is 4606 m/s, which also falls under the excellent quality range. After 56
days, the average pulse speed of three samples using AFA is 4673 m/s, which is also considered
excellent quality, and for concrete with NA after 56 days, the pulse speed is 4776 m/s, which
is also in the excellent quality range.

the concrete with NA showed 1.7% and 2.15% higher quality compared to concrete with AFA
after 28-day and 56-day curing periods, respectively. One possible explanation for this
difference is that NA is denser and has less porosity than AFA. This, in turn, can lead to higher
pulse velocity in concrete, resulting in better quality concrete with NA compared to AFA.

Figure 4.5: Ultrasonic Pulse velocity in concrete with AFA and NA

Sorptivity

The rate of water absorption in concrete is a critical factor that influences its durability and
resistance to environmental factors. Sorptivity testing is a widely accepted and reliable method
used to accurately assess this rate. During the test, a concrete specimen's increase in mass over
time due to water absorption is measured when only one surface is exposed to water. The
specimen's exposed surface is immersed in water, and capillary suction drives the initial
contact's absorption process.

Sorptivity values are determined by analysing the slope of the absorption (I) values plotted
against the square root of time (√S). This is achieved by fitting the data with the best-fitting
line using least-squares linear regression analysis.

The resulting plots, showing absorption (I) values plotted against the square root of time (√S)
and best-fit lines obtained through least-squares linear regression analysis, are shown in the
figures below for both NA and AFA specimens after 28 and 56 days of curing.

Figure 4.6: Linear plot rate of water absorption versus (√S) for NA and AFA concrete after 28 days.
Figure 4.7: Linear plot rate of water absorption versus (√S) for NA and AFA concrete after 56 days.

According to the ASTM C1585 (2004) standard, Sorptivity is categorized into two parts: the
initial rate of absorption and the secondary rate of absorption. The initial rate of absorption is
the slope of the plotted line from the 1st minute to 6th hour of the test, while the secondary
rate of absorption is the slope of the line from the 1st to the 7th day of the test. The initial and
secondary rate of water of absorption of each concrete mix is shown in the table 4.2 at 28 and
56 days of curing periods.

It can be seen that concrete with AFA has higher Initial and secondary rate of water absorption
after 28 and 56 days of curing compare to concrete with NA. It is also clear from the table and
the graph that rate of water of absorption in 6 initial hours are high and after 24 hours till 7
days the rate of water absorption is almost constant.

Table 4.2: Sorptivity Values for concrete with NA and AFA at 28 and 56 days

NA AFA
Sorptivity (10-4mm/√ S) 28- days 56 -days 28 -days 56- days
Initial Absorption 200 122 216 147.2
Secondary Absorption 7.9 6.9 8.8 6.1