Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SURFACE AREA 2004 Jenness
SURFACE AREA 2004 Jenness
Jeff S. Jenness
Abstract There are many reasons to want to know the true surface area of the landscape, especially
in landscape analysis and studies of wildlife habitat. Surface area provides a better esti-
mate of the land area available to an animal than planimetric area, and the ratio of this
surface area to planimetric area provides a useful measure of topographic roughness of
the landscape. This paper describes a straightforward method of calculating surface-area
grids directly from digital elevation models (DEMs), by generating 8 3-dimensional trian-
gles connecting each cell centerpoint with the centerpoints of the 8 surrounding cells,
then calculating and summing the area of the portions of each triangle that lay within the
cell boundary. This method tended to be slightly less accurate than using Triangulated
Irregular Networks (TINS) to generate surface-area statistics, especially when trying to
analyze areas enclosed by vector-based polygons (i.e., management units or study areas)
when there were few cells within the polygon. Accuracy and precision increased rapid-
ly with increasing cell counts, however, and the calculated surface-area value was con-
sistently close to the TIN-based area value at cell counts above 250. Raster-based analy-
ses offer several advantages that are difficult or impossible to achieve with TINS, includ-
ing neighborhood analysis, faster processing speed, and more consistent output. Useful
derivative products such as surface-ratio grids are simple to calculate from surface-area
grids. Finally, raster-formatted digital elevation data are widely and often freely available,
whereas TINS must generally be generated by the user.
Key words elevation, landscape, surface area, surface ratio, terrain ruggedness, TIN, topographic
roughness, rugosity, triangulated irregular network
Landscape area is almost always presented in be calculated by dividing the surface area of that
terms of planimetric area, as if a square kilometer in region by the planimetric area. For example,
a mountainous area represents the same amount of Bowden et al. (2003) found that ratio estimators of
land area as a square kilometer in the plains. Mexican spotted owl (Strix occidentalis lucida)
Predictions of home ranges for wildlife species population size were more precise using a version
generally use planimetric area even when describ- of this surface-arearatio than with planimetric area.
ing mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) and Many wildlife species are identified with topo-
pumas (Felis concolor). But if a species' behavior graphic attributes, including the topographic
and population dynamics are functions of available roughness or ruggedness of the landscape. For
resources, and if those resources are spatially limit- example, Wakelyn (1 987) found greater numbers of
ed, I suggest assessing resources using surface area Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis
of the landscape. canadensis) in mountain ranges with higher meas-
Surface area also is a basis for a useful measure of ures of topographic relief, and Gionfriddo and
landscape topographic roughness. The surface-area Krausman (1986) found that desert bighorn sheep
ratio of any particular region on the landscape can (0.c. mexicana) generally were found at or near
Author's address: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2500 S. Pine Knoll
Drive, Flagstaii, AZ 86001, USA; e-mail: jeffj@jennessent.com.
-
I - -- - - - - - - --
830 Wildltfe Society Rtilletin 2004.32(3):829-839
Surtace
Triangle Planimetric Elevation Surface length ( m i
edge lencth (m) difference im! lencth im! 2
Testirzg
I tested the accuracy of this method by generat-
ing a surface-area grid in which the cell value for
Fig~ire4. Surfnre area within the cell should only reflect the each cell reflected the surfiice area within that cell.
areas oi triilnglcs i-viii [a), so trim the triangles to [he cell
I,o~~ndnriesi b ~
by dividing all the triangle siclc lengths Ily 2. I then calculated total surface area within several
sets of polygons randomly distributed across the
landscape. I initially calculatccl polygonal surface
cells are 100 m o n a side and that elevation values areas using the methods described in this paper
are also in meters, begin by calculating the 16 tri- and then coinpared those with surface-area values
angle edge lengths for the 8 3-dimensional triangles calculated viaTINs. As 3D vector representations of
radiating out from the central cell E (Figures 2a, the landscape, theseTINs provide a true continuous
3n). Divide these s u r h c e lengths in half to get the surface based o n the DEM elevation values. They
sides for triangles i-viii in Figure 4 (Table I), and provide a good baseline t o compare against
use those lengths to determine the surface areas for
each triangle (Table 2). The area of a triangle given
the lengths of sides a. 6, and c (Abramowitz and Table 2. Calculations o i true surface area for triangles i-viii
(Figure 4aj based on the 1h edge lengths from Table 1 .
Stegun 1772) is calculated as:
- - - - ~
Triangle
Triangle Edges Edge lengths (nil area im2)
- .-
i Ellipse Circumference
Perfect Circle Circumference
equal to 1 . I used SPSS 9.0 (SPSS. Inc. 1998) for all
statistical analyses.
Results
The ratios of TIN-based
to grid-bascd surface-area
values for the 500 rectan-
gles tended to be very
close to 1 in all size class-
es (Figure 7 ) ,with slightly
more variation at the
lower s i x classes. The
TIN-based values tended
to be slightly but consis-
tently higher than the
grid-based values at cell
counts >2,500,with mean 8
0.99975 N.19 19 16 15 52 68 59 35 75 56 34 27 25
ratio valucs ranging from
250 750 2.500 7,500 15,000 25,000 40,000
1 . 0 0 0 0 0 7 - I . 0 0 0 0 18.
500 1,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 30,000
Regression through the
origin produced a slope Number of cells in rectangle
(SE < Figure 7. Hoxplots representing the ratio of TIN-lmed surtace area over grid-bawd surface
0.0001, 95% CI = 1.000- area, for the 500 randomly distributed rectangles irom Figure 6a. The edges o i these rectan-
- - , gles
1.000).T ~ ~ ~ T I Nsur- ~ ~perfectly
~ ~ correspond with the edges of the underlying g r d cells. Horizontal bars within
boxes represent the median, the tops and bottoms o i the boxes represent the 75th and 25th
face areas and the grid- quant~les,and the whiskers represent the range excluding outliers and extremes. Outlicrs (vai-
based surface areas were ues >1.5 box lengths from box) are displayed with the symbol "o" ;and extremes ivalues >3
highly (rs > box lengths irom the box i are displdyecl with the symbol *'*".
0.999). The ratios among
the 983 watersheds also
tended to come close to 1 in all size classes (Figure gons was lower than with the larger polygons (rs=
8). Again, the greatest variability was at the smallest 0.825). Regression through the origin produced a
size class (cell count<250). TIN-based c:llculations slope value of 0.999 (SE = 0.001, 95% CI =
again were highly correlated with grid-based calcu- 0.998- 1.001.).
lations (I:, > 0.999). Re-
gression through the ori-
gin produced a slope
value of 1.000 (SE <
0.0001, 95% CI = 1.000-
1 .000).
The set of 700 standard- %
ized ellipses showed a
general trend toward
increasing accuracy and O
precision as the area-to-
edge ratios approached 1.
with the mnge of values in
each class becoming pro- ?
gressively narrower (Fig- f 0,9
ure 9). The median value
was close to 1 in all 250 750 2,500 7,500 15,000 25,000 40.000
cases, but the correlation 500 1,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 30,000
between TIN-based and
Number of cells in watershed
grid-based calculations
rigure 8. Boxplots representing the ratio of TIN-based surface .lrea over grd-hasecl surface
among these smaller poly- area, for the 983 watershed, from Figure 66.
tions, this method still
came extremely close to
duplicating results from
TIN-based surface-area
calculations. Accuracy
and precision increased as
the number of cells
increased. Under ideal
conditions in which the
test polygon edges corre-
sponded exactly to the
cell edges, this method
produced nearly identical
surface-area calculations.
The regression slope val-
ues and extremely low
standard error values
demonstrated that there
Standardized ratio of area over edge was no apparent bias in
Figure 9. Boxplots representing the ratio of TIN-l~asedsurface area over grid-hasrd surface this method. Surface-area
area, for the 700 standardized ellipses from Figure 6c-. These ellipses have a constant internal
area but random shapes, orientations, and locations. They are classified according Lo their
values computed using
standardired ,ires-to-edar ratio, where 0 reflects a n infinitely stretched ellipse and i reflects a this method did tend to
be slightly lower than
those con~putedwithTIN-
based methods, but only
Discussion on the order of about 0.1-0.2 mvlla, suggesting
Raster data sets such as DEMs and surface-area that this method did well at duplicating TIN-based
grids are inherently less accurate and precise than values for grid cells that do not lie on polygon
vector data sets such as TINS and polygons. The boundaries.
most accurate measure of the surface area within a Under conditions more analogous to real-world
polygon should include all the area within the poly- situations, this method produced variable accura-
gon and no niore. Except in unusual circum- cies when there were < 2 5 0 cells in a particular
stances, raster data sets do not meet this criterion polygon and good-to-excellent accuracy at cell
because cells in a raster data set d o not sit perfect- counts >250. At higher cell counts, the grid-based
ly within polygon boundaries. Cells typically over- values were almost identical toTIN-based values.
lap the polygon edges, and GIS packages generally The analysis of the 983 watersheds showed con-
consider cells to be "inside" a polygon only if the siderably more variability when the polygons con-
cell center lies inside that polygon. Therefore? tained <250 grid cells (Figure 8 ) : which is reason-
raster representations o f polygons have a stair- able considering the inherent imprecision in grirl-
stepped appearance. incorporating some areas out- based processes. Polygons containing relatively
side the polygon and missing some areas inside. few grid cells would be most affected by errors
Cells lying directly on the border always lie partly caused by grid cells lying on the polygon boundary.
inside and partly outside a polygon. but they are The proportion of interior cells to edge cells
always classified as being entirely inside or outside increased as overall cell counts increased, causing
the polygon. Therefore, the accuracy of a surface- niore of the total polygon surface area to be derived
area measurement within a polygon is affected by from the highly accurate interior cell values. This
what proportion of the cells lie along the polygon trend was also illustrated in the calculations involv-
edge. This proportion typically decreases as the ing the 700 standardized ellipses, in which variabil-
number of cells increases. so accuracy should also ity steadily decreased as area-to-edge ratios
increase as the number of cells increases. approached I . The range of values in the 0.0-0.1
Although cell-based calculations are inherently class was 4 times as large as the range in the 0.5-0.6
less precise and accurate than vector-based calcula- class and 7 times the range in the 0.9- I .O class
(Figure 9). The ellipses with area-to-edge ratios clos- with than raster data sets. A process that takes min-
er to 1 had proportionally fewer edge cells, and utes or seconds with a raster data set may take sev-
therefore more of the surface-area calc~~lationseral hours with a TIN.
were based on accurate interior cell values. ,Ifow consistml and coinpamblt. outbut. TINs
often are generated according to a specified accu-
Advantages and disadvantages qf t/Xs racy tolerance in which the surface must come
method over using TINS within a specific vertical distance of each elevation
Given that the testing and comparisons present- point, meaning that aTIN surface rarely goes exact-
ed in this paper assume that TIN-based calculations ly through all the base elevation points on the land-
are thc most accurate, it is natural to wonder why scape. This also means that 2 TINS may have been
we should not just useTINs. TINs offer many atlvan- generated with different tolerances, and therefore
tages over raster data sets for many aspects of sur- surface statistics derived from those TINs may not
face analysis. As vector objects. they are not affect- be comparable. This is especially problematic
ed by the edge-effect problems that are unavoidable when the TINs are derived using whatever default
with raster-based methods and are considerably accuracy is suggested by the software, which gen-
more reliable antl accurate over areas with relative- erally varies from analysis to analysis based on the
ly low cell counts W a n g and Lo 1999). They gen- range of elevation values in the DElM. The method
erally take up much less space on the hard drive described in this paper, however, will always pro-
than raster data, and they are often more aestheti- duce a surface-area grid that takes full advantage of
cally pleasing t o display (~Mahdi et al. 1998). all the elevation points in the DEM. Surfwe-area sta-
However, the methods described in this paper offer tistics derived from any region may then be justifi-
advantages that are difficult o r impossible to ably compared with any other region.
achieve with TINs. Data is readi@ avuila6le. Digital elevation mod-
Surface-ureu mtio griefs. Surface-area grids may els, at least within the United States, are widely
easily be standardized into surface-area ratio grids available and often ti-eely downloadable off the
by dividing the surface-area value for each cell by Internet (Gesch e t al. 2002,USGS 2002). Worldwide
the planimetric area within that cell. Thcse surface- data from the 2000 Shuttle Radar Topography
area ratio gricls are useful as a measure of topo- Mission is steadily becoming available (Jet
graphic roughness or ruggedness over an area and Propulsion Laboratory 2003). TINs, however. are
conceivably could be used :is friction or cost gricls rarely available (the author has never seen them
for analysis of movement (such grids would steer available o n the Internet) and therefore must be
the predicted direction of movement based on the generated by the user.
topographic roughness of a cell). Because thesc Mow accurutc. proportiom of' available
ratio grids are in raster format, they also lend them- resources. By weighting resource maps with under-
selves t o neighborhood-based statistics as lying surface-area values, land managers and
described below. researchers can generate more accurate extents
Neighbothod nndysis. In many cases w e are and proportions of resources within a particular
not interested in values of individual cells but region. This is especially true if any of the resources
rather the values in a region around those cells. are especially associated with particularly steep or
This is especially common when w e are interested flat areas.
in phenomena over multiple spatial scales. For The method described in this paper provides a
example, neighborhood analysis can be applied to straightforward antl accurate way to generate sur-
surface-area grids to produce grids representing the face-area values directly from a OEM. People w h o
sum, maximum, minimum, mean, or standard devia- use this method will h c e accuracy and precision
tion of surface areas within neighborhoods of errors when they calculate surface areas within
increasing size surrounding each cell. These neigh- vector-based polygons simply because of problems
borhoods can take o n a variety of shapes, including inherent in extracting data from raster-based
squares, doughnuts, wedges, and irregular shapes sources (like grids and DEMs) and applying them to
(ESRI 1996:103). Neighborhood analysis is simple precisely defined vector objects (like management
with raster data but very difficult withTINs. units and study areas). However, accuracy and pre-
Fustc.1-proc~wingspeed. Given comparable res- cision problems diminish rapidly as cell counts
olutions, TINS take longer to generate and work increase and become negligible for most purposes
at cell counts >250. The calculations involved, GLS(:H.D., M. OIMOIW. S. GKEENI.~E, C . NEI.SOS,bI. STB~!(.K, .\XI)
while most effectively computed in a GIS package, D. T'IWR. 2002. The national elevation clatasct. Photo-
gnlmmetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 68: 5- 11.
also could easily be clone in :t spreadsheet. For GIONI.RII)I)O, J. I?,ASI) I? R. K I L U W . ~ 1986.. Summer habitat use
users of ESRI's ArcView 3.x softwarc with Spatial by mountain sheep. Journal o f Wildlife Management 50:
Amalyst, the author offers a frce extension that 551-3.36,
automates the process and directly produces sur- HOI~SON. R. D. 1072. Chapter X - surface nmghness in topognt-
face-area and surface-ratio grids from grid-formatted phy: quantitative approach. 221-245 in R.J. Chorley.
editor. Spatial ;knalysis in geomorphology. Harper Sr Row.
DEMs. This extension may be downloaded from the
New York. New York. IISA.
author's website at http://www.jennessent.conl/ Horx,sos. IM.E. 1095. What cell size cloes the computed
arcview/surface-areas,htm or from the ESRI slopc/aspect angle represent? Photog~mnmetricEnginecring
Arcscripts site at http://arcscripts.esri.com/ & R e m o t e Sensing hl:513-517.
tletails.asp?dbid=l1697. l n ~ ~ r s s , 2000.
J. The effects of fire o n Mexic;tn spotted owls in
Arizona and New Mexico. Thesis. Northern A r i r o m
Ilniversity. Flagstaff. IISA.
Acknowledgments. I thank J. Aguilar-~Manjarrez, Jesses,. J. 20010. Surface awas and ratios from elevation grid.
L. 1. Engelman,J. L. Ganey, L. M. Johnson, R. King. D. (ArcView 5.x Extension). Jenncss Enterpriseb. Avail;~hle
Whitaker, G. White, and : ~ nanonymous reviewer for online :it 1~ttp://w~vn..jennessent.com~1rcview/s~1rhce~
their va1u:tble assistance with reviewing early drafts areits.htm (accessed October 2003).
Jmurss, J. 20010. Surk~cctools for points. lines and polygons.
of this mnnuscript.
(ArcView 3,s Extension). Version 1.5. Jenness Enterprises.
Avaihhle online at http:Nwwm~.jcnr~essent.con~~arcvie%v/s~~r-
f:~ce-tools.Iltm [date :~ccesscclOctobcr 20051.
Literature cited Jlrr P u o n . r . s ~ oL~U O I M ~ ) R Y2005.
. Shuttle R ~ d a Topography
r
hwaiowrr7, kl..,\s~)I.A. S ~ ; I ! V1072. H:lndhook of mathemat- Mission (Web Page). Available online :it http://
ical functions with formulas, grr~plls and mathematical \m~~~~~.jpl.nasa.gnv/srtrn/ (;lccessed October 2005).
t:tbles. 1)over Publications. New York, New York. IJSA. L,\sl, N S. N.. A N I ) L. DI.(:OI.A. 1'90.3. Fmctalb in geogrrlphy PTR
I%~\h041. S. L. 1 9 8 3 . A tecllniquc fnr assessing lend surface Pmtice-H;ill, Englewoocl (:lifSs. New Jersey. I!SA.
ruggeclness. Journal of Wildlife ~Managcment47: 1 163-1 166. LOIIIMI.IL N. D.. R. G. HAIGIHKAUI) R.A. I.l;.,\~n: 1994. 'She fractal for-
HIXRY.J. K 2002. lise surSace area for realistic calculations. est: liactnl geometry ;inti applications in forest science.
Geoworld 1i(9): 20-21 United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.
Ro\vr)~,s.I). C.. G. <:.Wl~rrr:,A.H. FRASKI.IN. .\XI)J. L. Ghslil: 2005. North Central Forest Experiment Station, General Technical
Estimating popu1:ltion size with correlated sampling unit Report: N<:-170. St. P;iul, Minnesota. IJSA.
estimates. Journal o f Wilcllife management 67: 1- 10. ;MNII)I, A,. C. WYNSI:.E. < : t r o ~ w . L. KO\. (1x1) K. S H ~ .1908.
ESVIUO>~II'SIAI SYSIIMSRI~WAIKII I s s ~ r r i w . 1996. Llsing the Rcyresentltion of 5-D elevation in terrain clat:rbases using
Arcview spatixl analyst: adwinced spatial analysis using rrtster h i e ~ ~ r c h i c atriangulated
l irregular networks: a comparative
:tnd vector data. Environmental Systems Research Institute, analysis. Internation:~lJournal 01' Geographical Information
Redlands. Californi;~.USA. Science 1L:XiS-887.
E,\~II{O.\~IP.>,I;\I.
SYS~EW R~:sl;\ac.ilI s s r ~ nn:. 1997. Ilsing Arcview MASIXI.BR~YI: B. U. 1085. Tht. fract:il gcometry of nature. W. H.
3D :~n;~lyst: .?it) surface creation. visualization, and ;~nalysis. Freeman. New York. New York, IJSA.
Environmental Syztcms Research Institute. Redlancls. POIIDORI. L.. J. CHOIIO\VI(.%,ANI) R. GIIII.IASI)I!. 199 l . Description of
(21lih)rnia.IISA. termin as :I fractal surface,and applic;~tiont o digital elevation
E w I R ~ N . \ ~ ~ sSI Y
; \ IS.T ~ W
RI:sI:.\K(:HINSIrl'l 7 I:. 1998. Arcview 31) modcl quality assessment. I'hotograrnmetrlc Engineering &
a~xllyst.(Arcview S.x Extcmsiun). Version 1 Environmental Remote Sensing 57: 1329- 15.32.
Systems Rcse;~rchInstitute. Red1;tndh. California. IISA. Q~LINI.I~I;~IIVI. I ~ C I S I O N S1009.
. Reproject Grids (Arcview 5 , s
E U V I R O X A ISY?IWMS
I ~ I L ~ II<PSL\R(
. 11 I~fl'i'i'ii'rr.. 2 0 0 0 1 ~Arcview GIS extension): Quantitative Decisions. Avaihhle onlinc at
S.2a. Environmental Systems Research Institute. Recll:~ntls. http://arcscripts.t.sri.com/details.aspltIhid=I 1.568 (accessed
Oalifornia, IrSA. Octoher 200.5).
ESVIIKI~II:SI~AI SYY~EAIS RISI;M.H ISS'IITII'I:. 2000h. ArcVicw spik SPSS. IN(.. I90X. SPSS 9.0 for Windows. SPSS. Chicago. Illinois.
t i d an:tlyst. (ArcVicw 5.x Extt.tision). Version 2 . IJSA.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Retll:~ntls. I l ~ r n : Sljvr~s ~) GL:OI.OLK:AI. S I ~ R V I 2002.
Y. 1:250.000-sc:lle digital
C;~lifornia,IlSA elevation models. (\Vch Page) Available online at:
Erc:~11). 19iO. Thc thirteen books of' Euclid's elements: tn~nsl:tt- ftp://eclcftp.crusgs.go~~/pi1b/d~1t1/DE/250/ [date accesscd
ccl with introduction :mcl commentary by Sir Thomas 1,. October ZOOS].
Hr;~th.Volume 3 (Ilooks 111-I?(). Seconel Edition I Inabridged WAKEI.YS. L. A. 1'987 (:hanging halitat conclitions on highom
Dover I'ublicationh. New l'ork. New York. IJSA. sheep ranges in C o l o ~ ~ d oJournal . of Wilcllifc M:~nagcmenl
G;\\W. 1. L.. <;. (1. \%'lll'l't. A. fi. FIL\SKI.IU, ANI) J. I! WAUL). JR. 1999. i1:904-912.
Monitoring population trends o f Mexican spotted owls in WANK , . . I ? I . I 0 0 9 An asscssnicnt of the accuracy of
Arizom mil Ncw ,Mexico: a pilot study. Study plan RM triangulated irregular network!. (TINs) and 1;rttict.s in
5 1 -1 Rocky Mount;iin Kese:lrch Station. Flagstaff, AKC/INFO. Transactions in GIS 5: 161-174.
Arizona. IJSA. W;\RRI(:L. (;. D..ANI) U. L. CYI'IIPII.1998. Factors affecting the sp;c
- - -
Calculating surface area Jenness 839
of Snn Joaquin kit foxes. Journal o f \Viltllife
t k ~distril>utic)t~
l
Management 62: 707-717
Vi/rc.c.m~, E. F?.ANI) S. L. RCASOI\I. 1986. Clxlracterization of sym-
patric or adjacent habitats o f 2 deer- bpc-cies i n West 'rex;~~.
Journal o f Wildlife Management 5 0 , 129- 1.34.
I
iree Arcview tools have been downloaded from his website and
the ESRl Arcscripts site over 100,000 times.