Heriot-Watt University

School of Engineering and Physical Sciences

Chemical Engineering

Fire and Explosion Consequence Estimation Tutorial Solutions

(Estimates are very dependent on assumptions made in the calculations).

1. Liquid cyclohexane is burning in a pool fire 6 m in diameter. The heat of combustion of

cyclohexane is 43,800 kJ/kg and the liquid has a density of 780 kg/m3.

Use the point source method to estimate the IR radiation intensity at ground level 75 m
from the edge of the pool (0.5 kW/m2).

Solution:

Assume burn-down rate is 6 mm/min.

R
6

r 75 m
6m
Total horizontal distance to centre = 75 + (6/2) = 78 m

R2 = (78)2 + 62

Solving gives. R = 78.23 m

Combustion rate (kg/s) = burn-down rate(density)(pool area)

= (0.006/60)(780)(πr2) = 2.2 kg/s

Heat generated = 2.2 (43,800) = 96,360 kJ/s

Estimate proportion of heat emitted as IR radiation. Most heat will be lost upwards by
convection. Assuming a value of 40% for the percentage of total heat as IR radiation:

IR = 0.40 (96,360) = 38544 kJ/s = 38544 kW

Area of sphere of radius 78.23 m across which energy is distributed = 8938 m2

Heat flux = 38544 /8938 = 0.5 kW/m2

2. Liquid benzene is burning in a pool fire 4 m in diameter. The heat of combustion of
benzene is 40,545 kJ/kg and the liquid has a density of 877 kg/m3.

Assuming that an IR radiation intensity of 5 kW/m2 will cause pain to unprotected

personnel, with a significant risk of burning on prolonged exposure, find the minimum
‘safe’ distance from the edge of the pool with respect to risk of serious burns (14.4 m).

Solution:

4m R

r x
4m

Total horizontal distance to centre = x + (4/2)

Combustion rate (kg/s) = burn-down rate(density)(pool area)

= (0.006/60)(877)(πr2) = 1.1 kg/s

Heat generated = 1.1 (40,545) = 44,600 kJ/s

Estimate proportion of heat emitted as IR radiation. Most heat will be lost upwards by
convection. Assuming a value of 40% for the percentage of total heat as IR radiation:

IR = 0.40 (44,600) = 17840 kJ/s = 17840 kW

If R is the radius of a hypothetical sphere across which the energy from the fire is distributed:

Assuming that an IR radiation intensity of 5 kW/m2 will cause pain to unprotected personnel,

Heat flux = 17840 /( Area of the hypothetical sphere of radius R) = 5 kW/m2

Area of the hypothetical sphere of radius R = 3568 m2

Solving gives. R = 16.4 m

R2 = (x+2)2 + 42

x = 14.4 m

Hence 14.4 m is the minimum safe distance

3. An 8 m diameter ambient temperature butane storage sphere is 75% full when, as a
result of a nearby fire, it ruptures and produces a BLEVE fireball. The heat of combustion
of butane is 45,678 kJ/kg and the liquid has a density of 600 kg/m3.

i) Use the point source method to estimate the IR radiation intensity at ground level
500 m away from the centre of the base of the sphere (27 kW/m2).

ii) Use the view factor method to estimate the IR radiation intensity at ground level
500 m away from the centre of the base of the sphere (19.4 kW/m2).

iii) Use a blast scaling curve to estimate the overpressure 500 m away if the contents
of the sphere escaped during normal operation (e.g. due to catastrophic failure of
pipework) and exploded in an unconfined vapour cloud explosion (~20 kPa).

Solution:

Sphere volume = (4/3)πr3 = (4/3)π(4)3 = 268 m3

Butane volume = 0.75 (268) = 201 m3

Mass Butane = 600 (201) = 120,600 kg

Fireball D = 5.8M0.333 = 5.8 (120,600)0.333 = 285.4 m

Duration t = 0.45M0.333 = 0.45 (120,600)0.333 = 22 s

Assume that the proportion of heat radiated as IR is 25-40%, with 35% as a reasonable
estimate.

Part a

R
285.4/2 m

500 m

From Pythagoras’ theorem,

R2 = (142.7)2 + 5002

Solve. R = 520 m

IR released = 0.35(120,600)(45,678)(1/22) = 8.76 x 107 kW

Area of sphere across which energy is distributed = 4πr2 = 3,244,800 m2

Heat flux = (8.76 x 107)/( 3,244,800) = 27 kW/m2

Part b

2
R 
F   e 
 Rr 

Where Re = fireball radius

Rr = radius to exposure point
F = view factor

Assume emissivity of 250 kW/m2 for a fireball.

Re = 142.7 m
Rr = 520 m

F = (142.7/520)2 = 0.075

Heat flux = 0.075 (250) = 18.8 kW/m2

Part c

r
z  1
3
W

z = scaled distance (m/kg1/3)

r = 500 M
W = TNT equivalent mass (kg)

To calculate W:
TNT liberates 4700 kJ/kg when it explodes, while butane liberates 49700 kJ/kg on complete
combustion. Assuming an explosion efficiency of 4% for the unconfined butane explosion:

11,500 
Butane TNT equivalence 0.04  =
 = 0.42 kg TNT/kg
 1,120 
TNT equivalent mass = 0.42 (120600) = 50652 kg
W1/3 = (50652)1/3 = 37 kg
z = 500 /37 = 54 m kg-1/3 13.5

From chart, this gives an overpressure of approximately 20 kPa.

 Blast Scaling Curve

1000

100
Overpressure (kPa)

10

1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Scaled Distance z (m/kg1/3)