INTRODUCTION

ving organisms live in different environments. They possess difterent organs Derke
All these organismsare made up of basic building blockS, called cells, which have rform ng
These blocks are called cells. The cells are the smallest structural and functional neCOm
eng
Vari

units of lte various

forkeeping an organism alive and functional. The study of cells with the subcellular cornneGt
ue
is known as componech pree
cytology or cell biology. ents
and
ther
w

AINVENTION OF THE MICROSCOPE

Cells are
microscopic entities which are not visible to naked eyes. Invention
ofmicroscopewas a
milestone towards
learning the intricate details of the internal arrangementof the cell.
The earliest
simple types ofmagnification instruments were magnifying
glasses which were
usedforprobing tiny insects. But, it was Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723),a Dutch
and scientist (one draper
ofthe founders of microscopy), who in the late 17th century became the
man to nmake and use a real first

microscope. An
adutbod
Work of Anton van Leeuwenhoek urman

contairns
Anton van Leeuwenhoek took inspiration from the approkte10
glasses used
by drapers to examinethe quality trillionce

of cloth. He himself
explored new methods for polishing tiny lenses which
gave finest and
exceptional magnifications at that time. These lenses led to the of his
building microscopes,
considered the first workable ones.

Fundamentally, all his

microscopes comprised single biconvex lens which had considerable
magnifying ahil
ablity

Lens

Sampleholder
Focus knob

Screw
Info
Bytest
Anton van
Leeuwenhoek is Figure 1.1 Leeuwenhoek'ssimple microscope
called Father of

microbiology. As shown in above

figure, in his microscope, the eye was placed close to the lens and
0
the

was mounted on needle-like screw on

the opposite side of the lens.
 timeline of milestones in the invention
Table 1.1 A brief of
microscope

Timeline/Year Inventor/s Features

1590 7acharias Jansen and Mounted two lenses in a tube, the first
his father Hans compound
microscope

1609 Galileo Galilei Constructed acompound microscope with a

concave lens convex anda
1674 Anton van Constructed an extremely simple
instrument,usinga
Leeuwenhoek single lens mounted on a tiny hole in
brass

a
plate that
makes up the body of the instrument

Discovery of the Cell

The Englishman Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was an architect and scientist, published his book
in 1665 and used the word cell'for the first time to describe the basic unit of life. His Bytest
Micrographia

most famous observations were made in his study of thin slices of cork, describing The term 'cell
the 'cells'he is

derived from
observed. Hooke had been examining the cell walls in cork tissue. Latin
cella
meaning small
In he coined the term 'cells' for the box-like compartments cork.
actuality, of room.

Figure 1.2 Microscope used by Robert Hooke

to make his observations and Hooke's
observations of cellular structure of cork

Ordinary Compound Microscope

The compound
A CompOund microscope is an optical instrument that consists of two convex lenses ofshort focal lengths.

object uP to 1000.
microscope can magnify the image
of a tiny

Principle of Compound Microscope

focus Ot tac
the o
A compound microscope works on the
lens, a virtual, inverted
principle
and highly magnified image of the object
that when a tiny

is
object is
formed
placed

at
just beyond
the least distance of distinct
Vis1On
o
eye held close to the eye piece.
 Electron Microscope
An electron microscope isa type of
mIcroscope that uses electron beams to
magnified mage. ft magnifies to over 2,00,000 times the
illurmina
nate a
mnagnification of an
ordinary
specimene
undnic
Eyepiece

Observation tube

Nose piece
Neck
Objective lens

Stage
Coarse focus
Fine focus

Light source

Base

Figure 1.3 Ordinary compound microscope

Figure 14 Electron
microse

Table 1.2 Contributors to the

study of cells

Scientist
Contribution

Zacharias Janssen (1590) Invented the first

compound microscope.
Robert Hooke (1665)
Discovered dead cells from cok.
Leeuwenhoek (1674)
First observed cells of bacteria,
living
sperm and
Robert Brown protozca
(1831) Demonstrated the presence of nucleus in the
cells.
Johannes Purkinje (1839)
Named the fluid
content of the cells as
S.J. Singer protoplasm.
and G. L Nicolson Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane.
Camillo Golgi
Discovery of Golgi complex.
George Emil Palade
Observation of ribosomes in animal cell.
Carl Benda Coined the term
'mitochondria.

ACELL THEORY
In 1838,
Matthias Jakob Schleiden, a German
botanist was the first to
plants. In 1839, assert that cells are the buu
another German physiologist,
Their discoveries led to Theodor Schwann stated that cells are the or
the formulation fundamenta hhow
of the 'Cell Theory.
cells arise. However, the cell theory failed to
In 1855,
Rudolf Virchow, a German
that new cells come from the physician and anthropologist, stated "OmIs
'Omnis cellula ecellua
ulropologist,stated in Latin
Latin
pre-existingcells.
 Cel-Fundimes Ut of Lie 1.5

of leafcells
of a leaf under Figure 1.6 Magnification showing
1.5 Cellular structure chloroplast which is site for photosynthesis
Figure
microscope

ot cell theory are as follows:

The three main postulates

are made of cells.

1. Allliving organisms
and basic unit of living organisms.
2. Cell is the fundamental
cells.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing

of Cell Theory
Explanation
the postulates of
rose plant to understand
Let us take example of a
the Cell Theory.

of life: Take any part

ofa rose plant
Cells are the structural unit
as the
under a microscope,
we will observe cells
and examine it

structural units of organzation.

unit of life: In rose plant, food is

Cells are the functional
that occurs in the
the process ofphotosynthesis
prepared through
ofwater and minerals from the soil
is

cells of the leaves. Absorption

roots which are specialized to
do so.
Figure 1.7 Division of a pre-existing
cell leads
done by the cells present in the to formation of new cells
a organism is essentially
Hence, any function in the body of living
due to the of the cells.
activity

die and are

Most of the ofthe rose plant continuously
cells
Omnis cellula e cellula (All cells arisefrom pre-existing cells.): of already
Hence,all new cells arise from
division
new cells which are formed as the products of
cell division.
replaced by
cells.
existing

from Cell Theory are as follows.

Important takeaways

All organisms are composed of cells.

Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.

starts its life as a single cell.

Every organism
from the pre-existing cells.
No cell arises and develops into an organism. All cells arise
spontaneously
All the are basically alike in chemical and metabolic activities
cells composition

The functions of an organism as a whole correspond to the functions carried out by its cells.
 OF A TYPICAL CELL
LL
MORPHOLOGY AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE
and thhe strtcture cositute the oee
varoas apects ofthe cel, such
as size, shape
The FfoOwever, the basieorphologY
of ce
creofa
on the conmplexityofthe organsn.
shapes of cels vary depending
struct

or les sanse tor all the organisns a

tyo

Unicellularand Multicellular Organisms

clasified into unicellular and
on the namberofcells organisns are multicellula
Basesd present,
more complex organisns are fO
life
may be unicellular, consisting of just one cell, while multicellul

than one cell

Unicellular Organisms
A organism is an organism that consists of one
All
unicellular

dagestion,excretion,control and coordination occur inside

cell

one cell.
only. life
processes, such
1hey are generally
rallymicroce d
e
with the naked eye microscopicannd
cat
Unicellular organisms can belong to either prokaryotic or eukaryotic forms of life. Eukar
Eukaryotes have a nucleus where the DNA
they can be unicellular or multicellular.
is stored
responsible
for
energy generation,
and other organelles carry
out
different functions. the Tmitoche On c
consist of a single cell with no membrane-bound
organelles and nucleus. exists freely in
DNA
cases, the organism also has to adapt to other in the
ways of carrying out various cellular
cellular
functions ctopa
tunctions,
nutriion, waste excretion, circulation, etc., since it does not have any such
specialized organelles.
Examples of unicellular organisms: Bacteria,Amoeba, Paramecium, Yeast, etc.

Multicellular Organisms
A multicellular
organism is an organism that consists ot more than one cell. These
of labour, that is, various functions of an organisms are characte
organism are carried out by different groups of
carried out by a specialized
groupof cells at a particular location.
cells. partil A
Multicellular organisms assign biological such as digestion,
responsibilities/functions,
sexual
reproduction, etc., to
organ systems such as the digestive system,
specitic
circulation, respiration, sma
reproductive system, etc. These organ systems
respiratory system,circulaonvo
comprise various different organs that work togethertoperfom
tasks. Further, these
organs are composed of various
types of cells that are responsible for
For example, rod and cone cells of the doing their specitic
eye have photoreceptors that help in
the nervous that have absorbing light, whereas neuronsar
system axons to carry nerve impulses.
Examples of multicellular
organisms: Hunman beings,
mango plant, banyan tree, cat, dog, etc.

Table 1.3 Comparison between unicellular and multicellular

organisms
Feature
Unicellular organism
Multicellular
Cell
organism
number One
Many
Function
Performed by one cell
Different cells perform different functions
Division of labour
Absent
Present
Life
span Shorter
Longer
 Cel-Fundaental lofLi

Konnect
A colony is a

cluster of identical
unicellular
organisms
living together The
difference between a
multicellular
organism
and a is
colony that
individual ore-celled

organisms from a

colony can survive orn

their own after
being
separated while cells
from a multicellular
Figure 1.8 Bacterial colonies present on media; each colony is an association of identical
organism Cannot.
bacterial cells

Cell Size
Cells are usually small in size and can be seen with the help of microscopes. There are two main
reasons becauseof which
cells are small in size.

1. For a cell to function efficientdly, in quick and rapid communication and transfer
small size results of substances
between the components of the cell.
different

2. Small size presents larger surface area/volume ratio.

Surface Area/Volume Ratio

Imaginea cube with each 30 um. The total surface area of the cube
of its side measuring

becomes 30 um x 30 umx 6, which

5400 sq. um. Now, cut the cube into 27 equal smaller
is,
Bytes!
cubes by reducing the length of its each side to 10 um. The total surface area of these 27
smaller cubes becomes 10um x 10 um X 6 x 27, which is, 16,200 sq. um. In both the cases,
The smallest
cell
-Mycoplasma
volume of the cubes remains the same. However,the total area of the smaller cubes is double galliseptium (0.1
that of the original one. um), which is an

inter-
organism
mediate between

virus and bacteria.

Largest cell

Egg of Ostrich

(18cm long).
30 um 10 um|
Longest cell
Nerve cell which
has axon of 3m
length (giraffe).
In human body
the spermatozoon

is the smallest cell

and ovum is the

Surface area Total surface area
cell. Nerve
of one large cube of 27 small cubes largest

= 5400 um = 16,200 um2 cell is the longest

cell with an axon

of 1m length.

Figure 1.9 Illustration of surface area-to-volume ratio

 It facihitates
ways.
in followin
ratio is helptul

1helarger surtace area/volane

subetances
Greatet difthusion ofthe
ofdanaged cells
Easy repair
the cel the outside of
into the cell to of the cell
inside of
asy passage ofnutrients wastes
from the
cell and
carbon dioxide out
of
e
Covenientexit of metabolic into the the cell
i.e., oxygen
gases,
Basy exchange
ofrepiratory

Cell Shape to the functuon

t performs
is related

in shape. The shape

ofthe cell
Cels vary sgnificantly the
so as to provide greater Surface are
are bi-concave
cells) of human beings on the other hand,are i
RBCs (red blood
the capillaries.
WBCs (white
blood cells),

walls andhence
h
and for easy passage through
to squeeze
out through narrow capillary theyCan
their shapes. This helps them
change act as scavengers,
of injury for defence. In this way, they
to the site
of impulses from to
oneregionto
the conduction the or

Nerve cells are long and brached to facilitate

in movement.
are and contractile because they help
elongated need
and tubular to suit their to
transport water and
The conducting cells in plants are elongated

RBC Neuron Muscle Cels

Cocci Bacilli Others

Spinilla
CoccuS DiplococC
Bacillus
Coccobacillus

Sarcina
Tetrad
Coryrebacterum

Diplobacili

Streptococci

Vibrios
Streptobacilli

Staphylococci

Palisades

Spirochete

Figure
1.10 Various shapesof cells
 in
Bacterial cells alo vary greatly shape, ollowing are the majorshapes in which bacte
ane und

1,Coccus The cocei coccus) (oingoular:

are spherical or
oval bacteria
2.Rod or Bacill (ingnslar:
bacillas: bacillus)
are
rod-shaped bacteria
one ofthe following
3. Spiral Bacteria in any spiral shapes.
bacteria
a.Vibrio: Comma-shaped Byiest
and
with thick rigid spiral
b. Spirillum: 1Bacteria

Bacteria with thin and fexible spiral

The size of acell s
c. Spirochete: usually
determined
by its dlameter and
not by the
Structure of a Typical Cell length

Although the livingcells show wide variabons in the parameters such as size,
shape and structural
features, a typical cell showssonme common characteristic features.
A cell is bound bynmembranes which give shape to the cell. An animal cell 1s bound by
membrane, called pam

a
singde
membrane or cell membrane.A plant cell 1s bound by another covering, called cell wall, in
addition to plasmameh
The plasma membrane encloses the protoplasm. Protoplasm contains nucleus and cytoplasm. Nucleus icthe.
most
important structure found in the cell and it controls all the activities of the cell. Cytoplasm is a
jelly-like substance found
und
within the cell, surrounding the nucleus. Within the cytoplasn, there are tiny membrane-bound
living structures called
cell
organelles.

The organelles are found fHoating in the cytoplasm. hese cell organelles
cell are
responsible for
specific functions
within the cell. The cell organelleshave the same status in the cell as the organs have in the body of the orzanism

In to the cell organelles, present the cytoplasm. These are not

addition many non-iving materialsare inside rar
membrane
bound and do not carry out any metabolic activity in the cell. These are called cytoplasmic inclusions.

Cell

Membrane covering Protoplasm

Nucleus Cytoplasm

Cell organelles inclusions

Cytoplasmic

Figure 1.11 Broad classification of a typical cell

COMPONENTSOF A CELL
The typical structures of aplant cell and an animal cell show many similarities. However, there are few striking diferences

of the two. The between the

between the structure basic differences a plant cell and an animal cell are with respect to

following two aspects:

1. The membranes covering the cell: An animal cell has the plasma membrane as the outermost covering of the cell.

A plant cell has an additional covering called cell wall, which is present around the plasma membrane.
2. The presence or absence of certain cell
organelles:
A plant cell has chiloroplasts in the cytoplasm, whereas an animal
cell lacks
chloroplast.

Membranes Covering the Cell

An animal cell is covered by only one membrane which is plasma membrane or cell membrane. A plant
cell 5 cOvered oy

two membrane and cell wall.

membranes Plasma
 Cel emlrae

he dsbs
Seiecure
sbvgon pemeshle (partially
or selectvely permiealle)
menbr
eraeki

Lecstion

The orl iebeei the outer covering of the cell, enclosing the cytoplasn and
ucle
heesees e iyeph nd the cell wall
leus.In
pla

Functions
to the eell tas acts & barrier and
Cel membene gives shape mechanical protects thecell
owee of varkos naterialh into and out of the cell, also It maintains a constant enviro
nment
h

Extracellular fluid

Carbohydrates
Transmembrane
glycoprotein
Pore
Glycolipid

Vetes UNotedeoofefofebe

Cholesterol
Peripheral Transmembrane Channel protein
protein protein

Cytoplasm

Figure 1.12 Structure of cell membrane

Fluid Mosaic Model

The fluid model was first proposed by S. J.
mosaic for the stru
Singer and G. L. Nicolson in 1972 to acco
account
cell membranes. T his model describes that plasma membrane is Vith variou

composed of a phospholipla Dluay

molecules floating within it.
 Extracellukar

Phosp
bile

ydrophoticta

Intracellular Hydrophilic head

Figure 1.13
Phospholipid moleculesdescribing
hydirophobic and hydirophilic ends

A phospholipid
ahydrophobic tail. Thecomprisestwo layers ot phospholipds. Each phospholipid
bilayer
is

heads areattracted to the water in the

hydrophilic composed bsdcic he of

et

a
in the cytoplasm ot the cel
surroundingsof thecell, whereasthe
hydrophobrC tais are wel
because of this attraction and repeled by water and are atacted
repulsion that the bilayer Ba stable structure

s
each ohe
in spite
fuidir o is
The arrangementis tiuid
because thevarious macromolecules embedded in the
matrix can move around the surtace phosphoipid
ot thecell. Owing to this
often tiuidity such membranes are
called plasma. Konnect
The model Concerenen
is called

different constituents like

mosaic because it

proteins, carbohydrates,
suggests that the membrane 1S made up ot
and lipids, which make the surface
man
of the
gredientees
harge in
gradua
t e
cell similar to the
individual tiles of
an ordinary mosaic. This complex structure alows the TeconETen
membrane to pertorm multiple tunctions. For
example, certain proteins nmay act as channels SOutes resent
allowing particular molecules to pass through the membrane while others may
serve as
solution acess tw
receptors allowing recognition of the cell.

Transport of Substances Through Plasma Membrane

The passage of substances across the cell membrane takes
place by three modes listed as follows
1. Passive transport
2. Active transport
3. Bulk transport

Passive Transport
Passive transport is a mode of transport which takes place without the expenditure of energy It takes either by
place
diffusion or osmosis.

Diffusion: Diffusion process in which movement of molecules takes place from a region
is the ot their hrher

concentration to a region of lower concentration the concentrations become equal on both the sides. Ths s
till

and
applicable for the moement of gaseoussubstances. The taking in of carbon dioxide
from
generally the air
release of oxygen into the air The
by the plants during the process ofphotosynthesis takes place by
difusion. akng
in of oxygen into the blood from lungs and the release of carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs also
taa
place by diffusion.
 12
Surface of Capillary

rntestine Villus

Flow of
Food
blood
molecules

blood by
food molecules
into diffusion
1.14 of
Figure Absorption

reasons.
Lattusion is
sigificant to biological systems because of the following
It helps in uniform distribution of substancesin the cytoplas

which is critical to processes, such as

It assists in exchange of gases respiration,
photosynthesjs ,etc
In
flowering plants, it helps in attracting insects for pollination by spreading the scented chemical
With the help ofdiffusion,nutrient chemicals get absorbed into the cells in the intestine
ofthe
dign
Osmosis: The movement of the solvent (water) molecules from a solution
of their higher concentrati
rations
a semi-permeable membrane is known as osmosis. The process
lower concentration through of oSTmoit
DS1Sin
is affected
by the external environment. If a cell is in an environment of a hypertonic solution
(solution
concentration), the movement of water molecules takes place from the cell into the outside
solution T
called exosmosis or plasmolysis. This leads to shrinkage ofthe cell. If a cell is
placed in a hypotonic solutim
high-water concentration), the movement of water molecules takes place from the outside
solution into t
process is called endosmosis or imbibition. This results in
swelling of the cell. If the cell is placed in an isotoni
(same concentration of water inside and outside of the
cell), no osmosis takes place in either
direction.
Osmosis is significant to
biological systems because of the following reasons:
It helps in absorption ofwater by the roots from the soil.

helps in
It and opening of stomata
closing on the leaves.
It assists in cell-to-cell
movement of water.

Water

O
Solute
O
o oo
Direction of osmotic water
movement
Isotonic solution
Hypotonic solution
(nomal) Hypertonic solution
(dilute) (concentrated)

Figure 1.35 Illustration of osmosis in red blood cell

Active Transport
and electrolytes, which takes
place across themembrane b
Active transport is the movenent ottos
movement of ions into or out of the cell

produced by thecell Forexanple,

to an area of their lower concenteutic
higher concentration
ot thelr
ln weneral,molecules move fhoman area occurs when molectules move
across cell membranef a
theexpense of energy by dituston or oshosis. Active transport
of their higher concentration. In order
to
get molecules move
to egion a ASt he
a region of their lower concentration is required
work must be done, hence energy
concentration gradient,

The the
particles are transported against

concentration gradient

active transport

The particles
The particles
are in low
are in high
concentration
concentration cell membrane
here.
here.

Active transport of molecules across

a cell membrane
Figure 1.16

Bulk Transport
and polysaccharides which can only
movement of macronutrients, such as proteins
pass
Bulk transport involves the
cross the membrane in bulk by

membrane.Large molecules as well as larger particles, generally

through ruptured plasma There are two such
in vesicles. It takes place by using the energy produced by the cell.
mechanisms that involve packaging
and endocytosis.
processes namely, exocytosis
is known
The which materials move from inside to outside of the cell
Exocytosis: process by
out of the secretory and excretory materials from the
in releasing
as exocytosis. This is useful
the outside the Info
of the proteins and other materials formed
in cell to
cell. For example, release Bytest
cell.
of the food and Phagosome is a
which materials move into the by engulfing
cell
Endocytosis: The process by membrane-bound
the environment is known as endocytosis. For example, engulfing of formed
other substances from external vesicle in

foreign substances, dead cells, pathogens, etc. a cell by an inward

of the
is an umbrella term that describes two processes: phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
folding
Endocytosis cell membrane to
such as cells or macromolecules, and
eating. In
It means 'cell this process, large particles, hold engulf
Phagocytosis:
For example, when
microorganisms invade the human body, neutrophis particles by
are taken in by a cell. foreign

and them. phagocytosis.

(type of WBCs) eventually
will engulf destroy

In bulk transport of fluid matter takes place across

Pinocytosis:
It means cell eating'.
this process,

the cell membranes by forming small vesicles.

 Solidpa

Ene Citpliasm
esice

Fgu 15 lusarian af pihagnrytnsis and pimcytisis

nmeniane

Acte tasga
whau e uesenerg Euilk Tansc

Thcwing ut
Enguitimg

genuE e
SuCSarCE
axtem@

sdiution

Sdang
SiniagE
asT Acsorpico
scie
Pasmos imbicn

Figure 118 Types af

transportprocesses
acrussplasma membrane
Cell Wall
Cel wl is peset a piat celi,
amd
muemmibane 2s co Lhe cel w angThe peotectivese-aransparemt membeane
a Cl wzil. bacteria
wal is wariabile
depending os dhe pe ot
2hzsascociated wih the cell membrane
onga s.in most of
pciyaccharide(compiez
permeabie and alos
carbcydezte) called
suibstacesan the dorn
theplants, cel wal s gn
ceiiose. In Sangi, it s
generaly made up
ofsolution to enter and lezve o
cd
chic
the cell wichour
hup
 Cell-Fundanmental Unitof Lfe L.15

Structure
are: middle lamella,
ismultilayered with usually three layers. The three layers primary cell wall
middle lanmella and primary cell wall. Secondary cell wall
wall. All plant cells invariably posses

may not be present

Middle Lamella
It is the outermost layer of cell
wal1

which contains calcium and magnesium

It is composed of a polysaccharide pectin
Pectin helps in cell adhesion (binding) and hence, this layer acts as a cementing layer which binds
che cell walls of
the adjacent cells.

Cytoplasmic strands arise from the

middle lamella forming interconnections between the
cells. These strands are
facilitate the
called plasmodesmata (singular:plasmodesma). They transport ofproteins and other
materials between
the cells.

Plasmodesma

DO
Ceil wall

Cytoplasm

Vacuole

Figure 1.19 Location of plasmodesma

Primary Cell Wall

It is the layer inner to the middle lamella.

between middle lamella and plasma membrane.

mainly formed in the growing plant
cells
It is

It is elastic and extensible layer

of growing cells and contains large proportion of water.

It is of cellulose fibres within a gel-like matrix made of cellulose and pectin.

composed
It and required to allow the growth of cells.
provides strength flexibility

Middle lamella
Primary wall

Secondary
wall layers

Figure 1.20 Illustration of LS of plant cell showing cell walls of two adjacent cells
 Secendary Cell Wali

RReogh and
khomed te
righl layer

the peimary
foned ater
cell wall
the cell reaches matueity

by the deponition
of materials over the
over .
theexsting
feeonposition of sevondary cell walls is variable surf

ne asabstance called may be depostted on the secondary

ofsome
walls

o
ases, lignin

ligsification cell
Thi
suberin on the wills
n sonie regions, the deposition of a substance called
makes
makesthe
the wall
Functions

Cell wall provides a fiamework and definite shape to the cell.

Rgives Figidity and support to the tisstues in plants.

Cell wall gives mechanical to the cell to facilhtate the to

strength plant supportits lon
helpS in
balancing and mamtaining osmotic presstire
and prevents bursting
of cellk
ndta
lt
protects protoplastn against intections.

t helps un the transport of water and minerals over long distances.

Protoplasm

Protoplasn is
the colourless material
containing the living content of the cell.
cell. The
living
e The
living
cytoplasnm. Various cell organelles are found floating in the These contentin
cytoplasm. organelles are Trec
various cellular activities. Substances called inclusions are also in ole
cytoplasmic present it.

Nucleuss

Nuceus is a
body. It the centre of the cell. Most of the cells comti
large is located in
spherical generally
condidon is called uninucleate condition. In multinucleate the cell contains more
condition,
than one nuclew
cells and cells in fungi. Multinucleate cells are produced under special
cases in which nuclear
division ocCurs ui
The nucleus is made up of the following four thou
components:
1. Nuclear membrane 3. Nucleolus
2. Nuclear sap or Nucleoplasm 4. Chromatin material
NuclearMembrane
The nuclear membrane is double with space between the outer and inner
layered
membranes.
It
separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm.
It is made up of lipids and proteins.
It has minute nuclear
pores which allow for the exchange of material between
cytoplasm and nucleus.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Inner nuclear

membrane

Nucleoplasm

Nuclear pore

Nucleolus

Chromatin net

Ribosome
Figure 1.21 Illustration of nucleus tne
Figure 1.22 Electron micrograph shoWing
a nucleus (gold) with a very promine
enve
(red

blue) and a remarkable nuclear

Nucleoplasm
and grOund substance of the mucleus
Itis transparent, dense
fibres and nucleoli are suspended it.
Tvonuclear structures called chromatin in

nuclear membrane
It is surroundedby the

Nucleolus
body found inside the Bytest
.Itis a spherical nucleoplasm.

or more in number. Ribosomes are

It may be one the site for protein
It is not surrounded by a membrane. syrithesis,

It is rich in proteins and

RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecules.

It is a site for the formation of ribosomes.Hence, nucleoli are kown as the ribosome
factories

Chromatin Material

The nucleus contains fine thread-like structures called chromatin fibres.

Chromatin fibre is composed of the genetic material called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

DNA stores and transmits all the hereditary information from one generation to the
next.
thick ribbon-like structures called
During cell division, the chromatinfibres get condensedinto chromosomes.
Chromosomes contain the hereditary material, that is DNA. The fragments of DNA present in the
chromosornes
are called genes. These genes are the fundamental, physical and functional units of
heredity

Functions of Nucleus
main controlling centre of the It plays a major role in cell division. All the cells
The nucleus is the cell. undergo cell
form new cells. The cell division is or mitotic cell division and or
division to basically of two types Mitosis meiosis
meiotic cell division.

Mitosis or mitotic division takes place in the somatic cells. Somaticcells are the cells which are not concerned with
cell

This cell division is mainly responsible for the growth of the organism.
the fertilization process ofsexual reproduction.

in the reproductive cells or germ cells. This is the type of cell division
Meiosis the type of cell division which occurs
is

which is involved in the formation of male and female in the cell is

gametes higher organisms. This division responsible for
the transmission ofheredity characters from one generation to the next. The nucleus controls the metabolic activities that take

The synthesis and regulation of these enzymes controlled the nucleus.

place in the cell which are controlled by enzymes.
is by

Cytoplasm
substance. It occupies a major part of the cell and is constantly
Cytoplasm is a living, colourless, semi-liquid, homogeneous
of cytoplasm is water and
moving. It is limited on the outside of the cell by the cell membrane. About 90% component
the remaining are amino acids, vitamins, enzymes, fats and carbohydrates.

The part of the

organelles. Each organelle performs specific function.
cell a
It contains many specialized, living
the cell organelles is called cytosol. lt also contains non-lhving cell inclusions
which are also known
cytoplasm excluding
inclusions include reserve food material starch grains, glycogen granules, fat droplets, etc.,
as ergastic bodies. The cell
like

and excretory or secretory products, such as oils, alkaloids, tannins, resins, gums, latex, etcC.

The various cell organelles are:

Mitochondria
Centrosome and centriole
Plastids
Endoplasmic reticulum
Vacuoles
.Ribosomes
Peroxisomes
Golgi body
Lysosomes