Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Technology
Electromechanical Engineering Department

Design and Construction of Solar Still

Graduation project submitted to the Electromechanical

Engineering Department in partial fulfilment of B.Sc. degree in
Energy and Renewable Energies Engineering
By

Abbas Hassan Mohammed

Muhammad Mahdi Saleh

Supervised by
Assistant
Dr.Haider Qassem Alwan

2022-2023
‫سورة طه ﴿‪﴾114‬‬
 Acknowledgement

First of all, I would like to thank our God for his merciful and continuous help
through our life. We are very thankful for Dr.Haider Qassem Alwan the
supervisor for my study for the help in the research.
And thanks to the head and the staff of the Electromechanical
Engineering Dept. University of Technology for their support. Finally, I
may not forget the patience, support, encouragement and help of my
family to succeed in this work.

Research Team
2023
 Abstract

Solar still is a simple device that utilizes the evaporation–condensation technique to

convert impure saline water into the distilled water by eliminating dissolved salts as
well as other dissolved impurities and suspended solids. This project aims to
produce fresh drinking water from saline water with solar still in the context of Iraq.
For this project, a pilot-scale solar still with an effective surface area of 0.214 m2 is
fabricated with glasses. At first, solar still productivity is evaluated by varying basin
water amount by 3.5 L, 4 L and 4.5 L gulf water. Experimental investigations show
a decrease in water production with an increase in basin water amount. The optimum
basin water amount is found to be 3.5 L at which distillate production is maximized.
Then, the effect of salt concentration is assessed by synthetic solutions with 2000
ppm, 5000 ppm and 8000 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS). An inverse relation is
found between salt concentration and freshwater production.
Contents:

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1.Introduction……………………………………………………………..1
1.2. Aim of Project …………………….....…………………………..…….2
1.4. Project Outline…………………………………………………………2

Chapter Two: Theoretical background

2.1. Introduction…………………...…………………………..…….…..…..3
2.2. Working of a solar still …………………………..………………….....4
2.3. Classification of solar still:…………………………………………….5
2.4. Passive Solar Still…………………………………………………….. 6
2.4.1. Single basin single slope passive solar still …………………………7
2.4.2. Single slope fin-type passive solar still …………………………….11
2.4.3. Single slope acrylic mirror boosted passive solar still ……………...11
2.4.4. Weir-type cascade passive solar still ………………………………..12
2.4.5. Single slope inverted absorber passive solar still……………………13
2.4.6. Single basin double slope passive solar still ………………………...14
2.4.7. Single basin greenhouse type double slope passive solar still……….15
2.4.8. Pyramid solar still…………………………………………………….16
2.4.9 Hemispherical & Spherical solar still ………………………………...16
2.5. Active solar still ………………………………………………………..17
2.5.1. Hybrid solar still ……………………………………………………..18
2.5.2. Single basin double slope passive solar still with
vibratory harmonic effect…………………………………………… 19
2.6. Solar still advantage ………………………………………………...20
2.7. Solar still disadvantage ……………………………………………...20
2.8. General parameters affecting Solar Stills efficiency ………………..20
2.8.1. Climatic conditions ………………………………………………..20
2.8.2. Water depth……………………………………………………….. 21

Chapter Three:Experimental procedure

3.1. Setup specification…………………………………………………..22
3.2. Effect of basin water depth…………………………………………..24
3.3. Effect of salt concentration…………………………………………..25

Chapter Four:Results and Future works

4.1. Result……………………………………………………....................26
4.1.A Effect of basin water depth…………………………………..……..26
4.1.B Effect of salt concentration…………………………………………28
4.2. Conclusion….……..…………………………………………………..29
4.3. Future work…………………………..…..…………...…...…..30

References………………………………..………………………………..31
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Energy transfer process ………………………………………………..4

Figure 2.2 Schematic diagram of a simple basin type solar still…………………. 5

Figure 2.3 Figure (2-3): Classification of solar still ………………………..…..…6

Figure 2.4 Schematic diagram of passive solar still ………………………………7

Figure 2.5 (a) Abdallah's solar still, (b) Abdallah's stepped basin………………... 8

Figure 2.6 Sahoo's single basin solar still ………...…………………………….....9

Figure 2.7 Overall schematic diagram of Badran's single slope solar …………...10

Figure 2.8 Dev and Tiwari's single slope passive solar stills with an inclination

angle of 15°, 30°, 30°, 45° from left to right ………………………...10

Figure 2.9 Cross-sectional view of a solar still integrated with basin type (a) fins,

(b) sponge and (c) wick, respectively……………………………….. 11

Figure 2.10 (a) Shanmugan's acrylic mirror boosted solar distillation unit, (b)

Efficiency of the acrylic mirror boosted solar distillation unit. …….12

Figure 2.11 Weir-type cascade still……………………………………………….13

Figure 2.12 Tiwari's inverted absorber solar still…………………………………14

Figure 2.13 Single basin double slope solar still…………………………………15

Figure 2.14 Schematic diagram of single basin greenhouse type double slope solar

Still…………………………………………………………………..15

Figure 2.15 Actual Experimental Setup for comparison at three different top glass

cover Angles………………………………………………………..16
Figure 2.16 Photographic view of Arunkumar's hemispherical solar still………..17

Figure 2.17 (a) Singh's hybrid single basin DS solar still integrated with PV

collectors, (b) Schematic diagram of the solar still………………… 18

Figure 2.18 Schematic diagram of single basin double slope solar still with

vibratory harmonic effect…………………………………………...19

Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of solar still with dimensions ……………………22

Figure 3.2 Solar still system………………………………………………………23

Figure 3.3 Side view of Solar still system…………………………………………23

Figure 4.1 Variation of daily yield with different basin water amount…………...26

Figure 4.2 Basin water Temperature with Time………………………………… 27

Figure 4.3 Effect of salt concentration on Basin Water Temperature…..……….29

Figure 4.4 Effect of salt concentration on Yield Water Temperature…………….29

 CHAPTER ONE
Introduction

1.1. Introduction:
Shortage of water is a major global challenge. Until 2025, Water shortage
is expected to impact 1/4 of the world's population, and two-thirds of the
world 's population faces water-stressed conditions. With up to 31 percent
of the population, African regions are currently under high stress from
water. Asia, America and Europe were followed by 25 percent, 7percent
and 2 percent respectively. Sea and brackish water desalination methods
are extensive, including Distillation by flash, Osmosis to the reverse,
exchange of forward ions, deionization capacitive, electro dialysis
multieffect distillation, membrane distillation, and greenhouse technology
with seawater.
The desalination energy can come from fossil fuels or from renewables
for example, wind, geothermal energy, solar power, biomass or waste heat
production. There are many different ways to desalinate solar energy and
one of them is using solar distillers, Solar stills have many Benefits
include ease of use, Low Price, Suitable for easy
maintenance and No effect on the environment. And the disadvantage of
solar still is low efficiency, Solar also typically acts on evaporation and
condensation processes.
Within the solar power the brine is still evaporated, and the condensate is
stored as the distilled water output. Using multiple effects helps to
maximize productivity along with cost losses associated with it. The use
of active parts, such as pumps and fans, is another way to improve
performance, but it also introduces penalties for costs and complexity.
Today, efficiency and productivity will measure the solar production.

1
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the condensed water's latent heat
energy to the total incident quantity of solar energy. Instant efficiency
defines performance over a limited period of time (Usually just 15
minutes), whereas total efficiency for the entire day is defined.
Productivity is still the water production per solar area per day.
Productivity is still only about (2–5 L / m2. Day) for a simple passive
solar; therefore, a minimum of 1 m2 of space is needed to meet one
person's critical needs. [1]

1.2. Aim of Project

In this project, design solar still device and study the water properties
(TDS, PH, EC) placed in the device before and after evaporation occurs,
and the auxiliary factors to obtain a larger amount of pure water.

1.3. Project Outline

This project is organized into four chapters including introduction chapter.

Chapter two: Provide a theoretical background.
Chapter three: Provides experimental parts
Chapter four: Gives the results for the configured work and suggests
future works.

2
 CHAPTER TWO
Theoretical background

2.1. Introduction:
Freshwater is an essential matter of life and the environment. [2]
Freshwater is also being considered as the most vital health hazard issue
in today's world. The freshwater amount on the earth's surface is only 1%,
whereas salty water is 97% and icebergs are 2.6%. Though the population
and pollution increase with the technological, industrial and transportation
development, freshwater consumption is rising, and freshwater sources
are fast decreasing [3]. At present, with human consumption, industrial
and agricultural consumption of water is also increasing. The effect of this
global industrialization is creating an imbalance between the source and
consumption. The situation would be worse because most of the water
found on earth is naturally impure and needs proper treatment to use [4].
Also, there are infrequent rainfall in the desert, rocky and arid regions of
the world, leading to acute groundwater shortage. For these causes,
obtaining potable or freshwater from brine or saline water source,
desalination may be the only solution worldwide [5].
Solar still would be a solution to purify impure water, where solar energy
is sufficient. Conventional energy sources to purify water is expensive and
scarce, but solar still is less economical and environment friendly [3]. In
coastal areas where drinkable water is scarce and unavailable, solar still
could be an alternative solution [6]. A solar still system uses green energy
(sunlight) to purify contaminated water, making it advantageous over
other water distillation systems [7].
Solar stills use solar energy to produce desalinated water and have been
thoroughly studied and tested. Many researchers have observed and
identified the effect of ambient temperature, wind velocity, solar input and
3
water depth on the solar still performance. Many papers have addressed
various arrangements of solar stills, including double-basin solar still
[9,10], hemispherical solar still [11-13], triple basin solar still [14],
pyramid solar still [11–14], hybrid solar still [15,16]. The objectives of
this paper are to review different types of solar still has been discussed.

Figure (2-1): Energy transfer process [17]

2.2. Working of a solar still:

A solar still system requires desalination to purify saline water (i.e.,

seawater) [18]. Like hydrologic cycle evaporation and condensation
process is used in the solar desalination process. Solar still uses energy
transfer process, radiation from the sun known as green energy, to
decontaminate impure water into freshwater (as shown in Fig (2-1)) [19].
In this process, the solar still basin is initially filled with contaminated
water. The sunlight penetrating through a condensing cover heat the
water, and the water temperature rises to its evaporating point. The water
vapor then condensed on the inclined glass cover, and these impurities
and contamination-free water droplets trickled down under gravity
towards a distillate trough and collected for use. [7,20]. Therefore, solar
still productivity is fully dependent on the incident solar radiation [21].
The schematic diagram of a simple basin type solar still is shown in Fig
(2-2).

4
Figure (2-2): Schematic diagram of a simple basin type solar still. [22]

2.3. Classification of solar still:

Single-effect solar still is known as the original construction of solar still.

Various design and modification have been performed to develop the
system. Passive and active solar stills are the major types of solar
distillation. Passive solar stills are well known for their more accessible
construction, size, operation and lower cost. In this system, solar energy is
the primary source for the evaporation and production of water. In
contrast, PV cell or waste heat from industries are used as an external
energy source for active solar stills. Depending on harnessing the solar
energy, passive and active solar stills can be classified as given in Fig (2-
3).

5
 Figure (2-3): Classification of solar still. [20]

2.4. Passive Solar Still:

In a passive solar still, concrete, cement, or galvanized iron sheet seal the
basin containing contaminated or saline water. A transparent material like
glass, plastic, etc., is used to cover the upper side of the still. To attain
maximum absorption of solar energy, the inner surface of the basin is
black coated. The system should be well insulated to prevent heat losses.
The sun rays entered the basin, and the temperature of water increases
when heat generation starts. After that, when the water absorbs adequate
heat, evaporation starts. The evaporated water vapor is condensed on the
inclined glass plate and collected in the collection chamber [21]. Thus,
passive solar still effectively purify seawater, raw sewage by removing
salts/minerals, bacteria, parasites, heavy metals, etc.
Passive solar distillers have many advantages. These are (1) By using
unutilized solar radiation, it can reduce fossil fuel use. (2) For having no
moving parts, it does not require electricity, (3) For its low investment and
maintenance cost, distilled water can be generated for domestic and

6
commercial purposes. The basic design of passive solar still is shown in
Fig (2-4).

Figure (2-4): Schematic diagram of passive solar still. [22]

Passive solar stills performance can be affected by climatic conditions,
designs and operation. Several researchers intensively studied the
improvement of a passive solar still, and these studies make this system an
economical and environmentally friendly way to produce fresh potable
water. In this section, multiple researchers' important studies on different
designs and performance parameters of passive solar stills have been
reviewed.

2.4.1. Single basin single slope passive solar still:

Abdallah et al. [23] investigated three modified designs of a single basin

single slope solar still. These were: (a) interior reflecting mirrors fixing,
(b) A flat type water basin was manufactured instead of a step-wise water
basin, and (c) a sun tracking system coupling with the step-wise solar still.
In this system, the single slope solar performance was still improved by
increasing distilled water production, as shown in Fig (2-5). The
experimental result indicates that thermal performance improved up to
30% with internal mirrors fixing. In addition, the step-wise basin had also

7
enhanced the performance up to 180%. Finally, the highest thermal
performance with an average of 380% was evaluated with the coupling of
the step-wise basin with the sun tracking system.

Figure (2-5): (a) Abdallah's solar still, (b) Abdallah's

stepped basin. [23]
Sahoo et al. [24] developed single slope solar still to remove fluoride from
drinking water at IIT Guwahati. The base area of the still was 0.73m ×
0.73m, and it fabricated with FRP (4mm). The 8mm thick glass cover was
used in this system, and it was inclined at a 10º angle with the horizontal
edge. A rubber gasket was used to make it sealed from the vapor leak Fig
(2-6). The pure water output rate was tested by varying the basin's input
rate. Using "solar still", fluoride reduction was found 92–96% compared
to untreated samples. The efficiencies of the solar still were observed
increased for the increase of water amount. Efficiencies of 7.28%, 7.78%
and 8.1% were examined for the basin water input of 10, 15 and 20 L,
respectively.

8
 Figure (2-6) :Sahoo's single basin solar still. [24].

Badran [25] used the following components for the study: single slope
solar still with a constant head tank and a feeding tank as shown in Fig(2-
7) Two different basin liners, asphalt and glossy black paint, were used to
increase the absorptivity. It was made of a 1.4 mm thickness iron sheet of
90 × 110cm with a maximum height of 5cm. 4 mm thickness glass cover
at an angle of 32° with the horizontal was used in this system. The effect
of wind speed (2-5 m/s), temperature (1-99°C) and solar radiation (0 to
1.2 kW/m2) over productivity distillate output was measured. The
observation of the study was: the use of asphalt increases productivity by
29%. The addition of sprinkler with the asphalt was found more efficient.
And the productivity was increased by another 22%. The study also
concluded that the wind speed and temperature directly affect the still
productivity.

9
 Figure (2-7): Overall schematic diagram of Badran's single slope
solar still. [25]

Dev and Tiwari [26] experimented with the performance of single slope
passive solar stills with several condensing cover inclination angles (15º,
30º, 45º) for a 0.04m of water depth. At the 45º angle of the glass cover,
the highest water production in summer and winter was observed. For 30º
angle, the performance of solar still in summer weather condition at 0.04
m, 0.08 m, 0.12 m, and 0.16 m water depth was observed and higher
yields was found at 0.04 m. However, at 15° inclinations and 0.01 and
0.04 m water depth, the maximum output was evaluated at 0.01 m. Fig(2-
8) shows the different solar still used in the experiment.

Figure (2-8): Dev and Tiwari's single slope passive solar stills with an
inclination angle of 15°, 30°, 30°, 45° from left to right. [26]
10
2.4.2. Single slope fin-type passive solar still:

Velmurugan [27] experimented with single basin solar still by using fins,
sponges and wick to augment its evaporation to increase the production of
distilled water as shown in Fig (2-9). Several experimental observations
were made using fins, sponges and wick, and up to 45.5%, 15.3% and
29.6% of increased productivity were attained compared with ordinary
solar still. The maximum deviation between theoretical and experimental
analysis was evaluated as 10%, which was consistent with the theoretical
one.

Figure (2-9) Cross-sectional view of a solar still integrated with basin

type (a) fins, (b) sponge and (c) wick, respectively. [27]

2.4.3. Single slope acrylic mirror boosted passive solar still:

Shanmugan [28] evaluated the performance of a solar distillation unit with

a boosted acrylic mirror as shown in Fig (2-10). A booster acrylic mirror
was attached just above the glass cover of the experimental solar still, and
the performance has been analyzed. The booster acrylic mirror reflects the

11
solar radiation over water, and the mirror was adjusted with the sun
moving angle for perfect reflection. About 4.2L of water was attained per
day with this system. Without the booster mirror, 35% of solar still
efficiency was observed, but with the integration of mirror booster, it was
increased to 45%, as shown in Fig (2-10 b).

Figure (2-10) (a) Shanmugan's acrylic mirror boosted solar

distillation unit, (b) Efficiency of the acrylic mirror boosted solar
distillation unit. [28]

2.4.4. Weir-type cascade passive solar still:

Tabrizi [29] constructed weir-type cascade solar still Fig (2-11), which
consisted of 15 steps dull black painted absorber plate. The height of each
weir was 5mm, and the length was 59 cm, and this design increased water
residence time in the still. The results of the study were reported that the
rate of flow of feed water affected daily productivity. It was evaluated that
with an increase in feed water flow rate, the daily productivity was
decreased. The maximum yield of the still was found at 7.4 kg/m2/d with
a 0.065 kg/min water flow rate.

12
 Figure (2-11): Weir-type cascade still. [29]

2.4.5. Single slope inverted absorber passive solar still:

Tiwari [30] presented an analysis of inverted absorber solar still. The

schematic diagram Fig(2-12) shows that the solar radiation transmitted
through the glass cover g1 and reflected back to the inverted absorber
plate. The absorbed solar radiation heated the brackish water, and the
water started evaporation. The rest of the incident solar radiation was lost
to the atmosphere through the glass covers g1 and g2. Bottom heat loss
reduction and inverted absorber plate absorptivity increased the water
temperature of the still. This process increased the output of the still by a
factor of two.

13
 Figure (2-12): Tiwari's inverted absorber solar still. [30]

2.4.6. Single basin double slope passive solar still:

Kalidasa Murugavel [31] constructed a single basin double slope solar

still and measured the performance with different energy-storing materials
in the basin Fig (2-13). The solar still was theoretically modelled. A mild
steel plate was used to construct the basin with 2.08 m × 0.84 m × 0.075
m inner size and 2.3 m × 1 m × 0.25 m outer size. Initially, the solar still
was tested with a 0.5 cm depth of water and different sensible heat storage
materials like ¼ in. quartzite rock, ¼ in. washed stones and mild steel
scraps. ¼ in. quartzite rock was found higher production in comparison to
other materials. Another experiment was carried out with ¾ in. quartzite
rock, 1¼ in. red brick pieces and 1½ in. cement concrete pieces and 0.75
mm depth water. The ¾ in. sized quartzite rock was found the most
efficient basin material.

14
 Figure (2-13): Single basin double slope solar still. [31]

2.4.7. Single basin greenhouse type double slope passive solar still:

Eugenio et al. [32,33] studied solar integration in a greenhouse. The result

of the study evaluated that a greenhouse solar still reduced production of
freshwater compared to a conventional still Fig (2-14). This happened for
the use of transparent basins to transmit the maximum solar radiation to
the crop area. Thus, the solar radiation absorbed inside the still reduced
and the water temperature and productivity were decreased.

Figure (2-14): Schematic diagram of single basin greenhouse type

double slope solar still. [33]

15
2.4.8. Pyramid solar still:
Kabeel et al. [12,34] constructed three types of square pyramid solar still
as shown in Fig (2-15) with three different glass cover angle (30.47°, 40°
and 50°) and investigated the yield under the climatic condition of Tanta
City-Egypt (φ=30.47°N). The experiment was carried out with the same
basin area of 0.64 m2 and a saline water depth of 2 cm. The distilled water
productivity was obtained at 4.13 L/m2 day for 30.47° angle, 3.5 L/m2
day for 40° angle and 2.93 L/m2 day for 50° angle. The study concluded
that the yield of pyramid solar still decreases as the glass cover angle
increase above the latitude angle. And when the glass cover angle and
latitude angle is equal, the maximum output can be achieved.

Figure (2-15): Actual Experimental Setup for comparison at three

different top glass cover Angles. [34]

2.4.9 Hemispherical & Spherical solar still:

Arunkumar et al. [8] constructed a hemispherical type of solar still Fig (2-
16) of 0.95m diameter and 0.10m height using mild steel. With a 3mm
thick transparent acrylic sheet with 88% solar transmittance, the top cover
of the 0.945m diameter and 0.20m of height were constructed. The outer
box was fabricated using 4 mm thick wood, and the dimension was 1.10
m × 1.10 m × 0.25 m. The basin bottom was filled with sawdust up to a
16
height of 0.15m sawdust to support the weight of the still. Glass wool was
used as an insulating material to reduce the conduction heat loss. About
42% efficiency was achieved with cooling water, whereas 34% of
efficiency was observed in conventional still. The daily output with
cooling was 4180 to 4200 ml/m2/day, whereas without cooling, it was
3580 to 3680 ml/m2/ day.

Figure (2-16): Photographic view of Arunkumar's hemispherical

solar still. [32]

2.5. Active solar still:

Active solar still was developed to overcome the low productivity of
passive solar still. Also, passive solar still is wholly dependent on solar
radiation. During winter days, water temperature and evaporation
decreases, thus productivity lowers. In an active solar still, an external
energy source is used to increase the evaporation rate and, as well as its
productivity. With the help of some external energy source such as PV
integration, the water temperature and evaporation and condensation rate

17
increase. The review of the study is also extended to some active solar
distillation systems.

2.5.1. Hybrid solar still:

Singh et al. [35] designed and fabricated a modified photovoltaic thermal

double slope active solar still for remote locations Fig (2-17). A PV
operated DC water pump was used between the solar still and PV
integrated flat plate collector. The water re-circulates through the
collectors and transfer it to the solar still. A higher yield from the system
was observed for the parallel forced mode configuration. About 7.54
kg/day of distilled water was obtained with an energy efficiency of 17.4%.
About 2.3% of increased exergy efficiency was observed for the hourly
observation. About 1.4 times higher yield was obtained for hybrid (PVT)
single slope solar still. The fabricated still cost was calculated about 14%
less than hybrid (PVT) single slope solar still, and for commercial
production, the cost will further reduce.

Figure (2-17) :(a) Singh's hybrid single basin DS solar still integrated
with PV collectors, (b) Schematic diagram of the solar still.

18
2.5.2. Single basin double slope passive solar still with vibratory
harmonic effect:

A vibratory harmonic effect is used in a solar still to enhance the

performance by disturbing saline and brine water and increasing the
evaporation and condensation rate of the still. Khaled et al. [36]
experimented with a new concept of active vibratory solar Fig (2-18). A
flexible packed media (helical coiled copper wires) and a vibrator were
used to observe the performance. Improved efficiency of 60% and a daily
output of 5.8 L/m2day was achieved with a vibrator (resonator), whereas
3.4 L/m2day with an efficiency of about 35% was acquired from the
addition of helical wires. This concept of solar still is very useful for
constructing solar still with low cost.

Figure (2-18): Schematic diagram of single basin double slope solar

still with vibratory harmonic effect. [36]

19
2.6. Solar still advantage:

1- The simple in design and installation.

2- Small-size
3- Method works at a lower cost for providing pure water in houses and
small communities, without used stationary accessories (vane, motors,
etc.).
4-It is a friend of the environment where it requires renewable energy
only and does
not produce any pollution of the environment.
5-Does not require an operator with extensive knowledge of work or
maintenance or
any possible failure. [38]

2.7. Solar still disadvantage:

1-This method requires large tracts of land that are prosperous with solar
radiation for installation and work.
2-It can be affected by weather conditions.
3-Low efficiency and productivity. [38]
2.8. General parameters affecting Solar Stills efficiency:

2.8.1. Climatic conditions:

Solar radiation intensity is the main climatic parameter affecting

productivity. At constant efficiency, daily productivity will be
proportional to solar irradiation (kJ/m2.day). However, wind speed and
ambient temperature also affect performance. An experimental study by
showed that the productivity of a solar still increases with wind speed
only below the critical speed of 4.5 m/s. the effects of various climatic
conditions in active and passive distillation systems, and found that wind

20
increased performance up to this same critical speed of 4.5 m/s beyond
which the productivity remained constant. This is because wind enhances
heat transfer from the cover and thus condensation up to the critical speed,
beyond which there is little further enhancement [1].

2.8.2. Water depth:

Water depth affects the efficiency of solar stills with respect to the
duration of operation in the following manner. For short durations (less
than two days) smaller depth generally increases efficiency. Over longer
durations, more depth may be required to prevent the still from drying out.
a performance study under Indian climatic conditions on active and
passive still and inferred that water depth, together with inclination of
condensing cover and collector, have a strong effect on the annual yield.
A study in 2006 compared various depths such as 0.05 m, 0.1 m and 0.15
m for both active and passive stills and concluded that productivity was
maximized at 0.1 m. The decrease at large depths may occur because it
takes more time to warm up the larger volume of water [39].

21
 CHAPTER THREE

Experimental procedure

3.1. Setup specification:

For the experimental studies, a single solar slope. The solar still has an
effective area of 0.214 m2 with a basin dimension of 650 mm x 330 mm.
The front wall is 100 mm high and rear wall is 240 mm high. Transparent
glass of 5 mm thickness is used as a cover at an inclination of 23° effect
of water amount, effect of salt concentration and solar still performance
with gulf water.

Figure (3-1): Schematic diagram of solar still with dimensions

22
 Figure (3-2): Solar still system

Figure (3-3): Side view of Solar still system

23
The experiments are performed on clear sunny days and are triplicated to
have a clear understanding of the experimental findings. Before the
commencement of the experiments, inside of the basin is washed by water
flushing. The experiments are conducted for 8 h of direct operation under
solar radiation from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., and then 16 h of indirect operation
from 5 p.m. to 9 a.m. of the following day. During 8 h of direct operation,
ambient temperature, glass cover temperature, basin water temperature,
relative humidity and distillate production are recorded in each hour.
During 16 h of overnight operation, only accumulated distillate is
recorded before 9 a.m. of the following day. The ambient temperature,
basin water temperature and relative humidity are recorded with a digital
thermometer, whereas glass cover temperature is recorded with a laser
thermometer.
The distillate is measured using a measuring cylinder with a resolution of
1 mL. The glass cover is oriented toward south–east direction up to 12
p.m., and then orientation is changed toward south–west direction. The
distillate is collected in a PET bottle during each experiment.

3.2. Effect of basin water depth:

Amount of basin water is the most important parameter that affects the
solar still productivity. Since the operation of solar still is entirely
dependent on solar radiation and no external energy is supplied, the
amount of basin water plays a crucial role in the solar still productivity.
The basin water amount is recommended to be within 2 cm to 6 cm.
However, for this study, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.1 cm brine water depths are
considered initially which equal around 3 L, 3.5 L, 4 L and 4.5 L basin
water for the fabricated setup. In case the distillate production shows an
increasing trend, further experiments are to be conducted.

24
For each water amount, experiments are performed for 3 days with the
synthetic saline solution prepared in the laboratory with an approximate
TDS of 5000 ppm.

3.3. Effect of salt concentration:

The concentration of salt in basin water also affects freshwater production

from solar still. For this study, synthetic solutions are prepared with total
dissolved solids of 2000, 5000 and 8000 ppm by adding sodium chloride.
Experiments are carried out with optimized water amount found in
Experiment1. The setup is operated for 3 days for each amount of salt
concentration. We study the effectiveness in improving the water quality.

25
 CHAPTER FOUR
Results and Future works

4.1. Results:

4.1.A Effect of basin water depth:

The solar still productivity is evaluated with different basin water amount
of 3.5 L, 4.0 L and 4.5 L Fig (4-1)

Depth effect on yeild

3.5L 4L 4.5L

450

Cumulative Yield (mL)

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9

Time (Hr)

Figure (4-1): Variation of daily yield with different basin water

amount
Highest water productions from solar still fed with 3.5 L,4 L and 4.5 L are
found to be 421 mL, 371 mL and 340 mL, respectively, whereas average
water productions are 203 mL, 170 mL and 150 mL, respectively. With
the increase in basin water amount from 3.5 to 4.0 L, average water
production from solar still reduces by 16.25%. Average water production
further reduces by 26.1% when basin water amount is increased from 3.5
to 4.5 L, from this study,3.5 L, also analogous to 1.6 cm water depth, is

26
selected as the optimum basin water since the highest average yield of 203
mL (0.94L/m2-day) is obtained from this configuration.
freshwater production is inversely proportional to the basin water amount,
lower basin water amount results in higher water production and vice
versa. With the increase in basin water amount, the heat capacity of water
increases that delays the evaporation process. As a result, freshwater
production is also reduced. But too less basin water may develop dry spots
in the basin that has a negative impact on the solar still productivity. The
formation of dry spots may also cause outgassing of basin material which
is not desirable.
Basin water temperature is directly related to the amount of water in the
solar still basin that eventually affects solar still productivity (Fig. 3–2).
When basin water amount is increased, basin water temperature is lower
in the early hours but is higher in the afternoon in case of greater water
amount. Highest average basin water temperatures were recorded to be 63
(1 p.m.), 60 (1 p.m.) and 59 °C (1 p.m.) for 3.5 L, 4 L and 4.5 L basin
water respectively.

Basin Water Temperature with time

3.5L 4L 4.5L

65
60
55
Temperature C

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
TIME

Figure (4-2): Basin water Temperature with Time

27
Water mass temperature decreases for the same solar radiation when the
basin water amount is increased. As a result, shallow water depth gains
temperature quickly from the incoming solar radiation due to its lower
heat capacity ,and evaporation is initiated quickly as compared to the
solar still with higher basin water depth. This phenomenon also explains
the decrease in solar still productivity with an increase in basin water
depth. The ‘time lag’ between solar intensity and heat absorption by the
basin water explain the delay in the occurrence of the highest hourly yield
at 2 p.m., while the highest basin water temperature is observed at 1 p.m.

4.1.B Effect of salt concentration:

The effect of salt concentration on the solar still productivity is studied

with synthetic saline water consisting of the approximate TDS value of
2000 ppm, 5000 ppm and 8000 ppm with the optimized basin water
amount of 3.5 L. From the experimental investigations, the average yield
of solar still is found to be 58.73 mL, 51.95 mL and 49.66 mL for basin
water TDS value of 2000, 5000 and 8000 ppm. With the increase in TDS
from 2000 to 8000 ppm, water production drops by 15.44 %.
The experimental results explain in Fig (4-3) the increase in salt
concentration up to saturation point, water production decreases at a linear
rate, also the temperature of basin water increase when the salt
concentration decrease.

28
 Basin Water
2000ppm 5000ppm 8000ppm

70

Basin Water Temperature C

65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
Time

Figure (4-3): Effect of salt concentration on Basin water

Temperature

Yeild Water
2000ppm 5000ppm 8000ppm

100

80
Yield (mL)
60

40

20

0
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
Time

Figure (4-4): Effect of salt concentration on Yield water

Temperature

4.2. Conclusion:
 The productivity of a solar still is inversely proportional to the
basin water amount; lower basin water yields higher freshwater and

29
 vice versa. With the increase in brine depth from 1.6 cm (3.5 L) to
1.8 cm (4 L), average freshwater production reduces by 16.25%.
Water production reduces by 26.1% when brine depth is increased
from 1.6 cm (3.5 L) to 2.1 cm (4.5 L). Optimum basin water depth
is found to be 1.6 cm for this study, which in terms of water amount
is 0.94 L/m2.
 Freshwater production decreases by 15.44 % when basin water salt
concentration is increased from 2000 to 8000 ppm.
 Relationship between depth of basin water and temperature
inversely where the temperature of basin water increase when the
depth of it decrease.
 Relationship between salt concentration of basin water and
temperature inversely where the temperature of basin water
increase when the salt concentration of basin water decrease.

4.3. Future work:

1.We design a large size of solar still have two slops to increase yield
water and study the effect of PH, Electrical conductivity, initial turbidity
of 303 NTU yield water.
2.Study the wind speed effect on yield water productivity and temperature
of basin water.

30
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 ‫الخالصه‬
‫التقطير الشمسي هو جها ًزا بسيطًا يستخدم تقنية التبخر والتكثيف لتحويل المياه المالحة غير النقية إلى ماء‬
‫مقطر عن طريق التخلص من األمالح الذائبة وكذلك الشوائب المذابة األخرى والمواد الصلبة العالقة‪ .‬يهدف‬
‫هذا المشروع إلى إنتاج مياه الشرب العذبة من المياه المالحة باستخدام الطاقة الشمسية في العراق‪ .‬في هذا‬
‫المشروع ‪ ،‬تم تصنيع منظومة التقطير شمسي على نطاق تجريبي بمساحة سطحية فعالة تبلغ ‪ 0.214‬متر‬
‫مربع بزجاج‪ .‬في البداية ‪ ،‬يتم تقييم إنتاجية الطاقة الشمسية الثابتة من خالل تغيير كمية مياه الحوض بمقدار‬
‫‪ 3.5‬لتر و ‪ 4‬لتر و ‪ 4.5‬لتر من مياه الخليج‪ .‬تظهر النتائج انخفاضًا في إنتاج الماء مع زيادة كمية مياه الحوض‪.‬‬
‫تم العثور على الكمية المثلى من ماء الحوض لتكون ‪ 3.5‬لتر حيث يتم تعظيم إنتاج نواتج التقطير‪ .‬ثم يتم تقييم‬
‫تأثير تركيز الملح بواسطة المحاليل التركيبية ذات ‪ 2000‬جزء في المليون و ‪ 5000‬جزء في المليون و‬
‫‪ 8000‬جزء في المليون من إجمالي المواد الصلبة الذائبة (‪ .)TDS‬تم العثور على عالقة عكسية بين تركيز‬
‫الملح وإنتاج المياه العذبة‪.‬‬