Giambattista Vico

Giambattista Vico (born Giovan Battista Vico /ˈviːkoʊ/;

Giambattista Vico
Italian:  [ˈviko]; 23 June 1668 – 23 January 1744) was an Italian
philosopher, rhetorician, historian, and jurist during the Italian
Enlightenment. He criticized the expansion and development of
modern rationalism, finding Cartesian analysis and other types of
reductionism impractical to human life, and he was an apologist for
classical antiquity and the Renaissance humanities, in addition to
being the first expositor of the fundamentals of social science and
of semiotics. He is recognised as one of the first Counter-
Enlightenment figures in history.

The Latin aphorism Verum esse ipsum factum ("truth is itself

something made") coined by Vico is an early instance of
constructivist epistemology.[8][9] He inaugurated the modern field
of the philosophy of history, and, although the term philosophy of
history is not in his writings, Vico spoke of a "history of
philosophy narrated philosophically."[10] Although he was not an Born Giovan Battista Vico
historicist, contemporary interest in Vico usually has been
23 June 1668
motivated by historicists, such as Isaiah Berlin, a philosopher and
Naples, Kingdom of
historian of ideas,[11] Edward Said, a literary critic, and Hayden
Naples
White, a metahistorian.[12][13]
Died 23 January 1744
Vico's intellectual magnum opus is the book Scienza Nuova or (aged 75)
New Science (1725), which attempts a systematic organization of Naples, Kingdom of
the humanities as a single science that recorded and explained the Naples
historical cycles by which societies rise and fall.[14]
Education University of Naples
(LL.D., 1694)
Biography Notable work Principî di Scienza

Born to a bookseller in Naples, Italy, Giovan Battista Vico Nuova

attended several schools, but ill health and dissatisfaction with the De antiquissima
scholasticism of the Jesuits led to his being educated at home by Italorum sapientia
tutors. Evidence from his autobiographical work indicates that
Vico likely was an autodidact educated under paternal influence, Era 18th-century
during a three-year absence from school, consequence of an philosophy
accidental fall when the boy was seven years old.[15] Giovan Region Western philosophy
Battista's formal education was at the University of Naples from
Italian philosophy
which he graduated in 1694, as Doctor of Civil and Canon
Law.[15] School Christian humanism
Counter-
In 1686, after surviving a bout of typhus, he accepted a job as a
tutor, in Vatolla, south of Salerno, which became a nine-year Enlightenment[1]
professional engagement that lasted till 1695.[15] Four years later,
in 1699, Vico married Teresa Caterina Destito, a childhood friend, Italian
and accepted a chair in rhetoric at the University of Naples, which Enlightenment
he held until ill-health retirement, in 1741.[15] Throughout his
Natural law[1]
academic career, Vico would aspire to, but never attain, the more
respectable chair of jurisprudence; however, in 1734, he was Perspectivism[2][3]
appointed historiographer royal, by Charles III, King of Naples, at Institutions University of Naples
a salary greater than he had earned as a university professor.
Main Epistemology,
interests humanities,
The rhetoric and humanism of Vico jurisprudence,
philosophy of
Vico's version of rhetoric is a product of his humanistic and history, philosophy
pedagogic concerns. In the 1708 commencement speech De Nostri
of science, poetry,
Temporis Studiorum Ratione (On the Order of the Scholarly
political philosophy,
Disciplines of Our Times), Vico said that whoever "intends a
career in public life, whether in the courts, the senate, or the pulpit" rhetoric
should be taught to "master the art of topics and [to] defend both Notable Class struggle[1]
sides of a controversy, be it on Nature, Man, or politics, in a freer ideas
Criticism of
and brighter style of expression, so he can learn to draw on those
rationalism and
arguments which are most probable and have the greatest degree
of verisimilitude"; yet, in Scienza Nuova, Vico denounced reductionism
defending both sides in controversies as false eloquence. Humanities as
human science or
As Royal Professor of Latin Eloquence, Vico prepared students for social science
higher studies in the fields of Law and of Jurisprudence; thus, his
Ideal eternal history
lessons were about the formal aspects of the canon of rhetoric,
including the arrangement and the delivery of an argument. Yet he Philosophy of
chose to emphasize the Aristotelian connection of rhetoric with history
logic and dialectic, thereby placing ends (rhetoric) at their center. Theory of political
Vico's objection to modern rhetoric is that it is disconnected from
mythology
common sense (sensus communis), defined as the "worldly sense"
that is common to all men. "Verum esse ipsum
factum" (an early
In lectures and throughout the body of his work, Vico's rhetoric form of
constructivist
begins from a central argument (medius terminus), which is to be epistemology)
clarified by following the order of things as they arise in our
experience. Probability and circumstance retain their proportionate Influences
importance, and discovery—reliant upon topics (loci)—supersedes Plato · Aristotle · Cicero · Varro ·
axioms derived through reflective, abstract thought. In the tradition Tacitus · Augustine · Duns Scotus ·
of classical Roman rhetoric, Vico sets out to educate the orator Aquinas · Dante · Machiavelli ·
(rhetorician) as the transmitter of the oratio, a speech with ratio Suárez · Selden · Hobbes ·
(reason) at the centre. What is essential to the oratorical art (Gr.
Tesauro[4] · Malebranche · Bacon ·
ῥητορική, rhētorikē) is the orderly link between common sense
and an end commensurate with oratory; an end that is not imposed Grotius · Pallavicino[5] · Pufendorf ·
upon the imagination from above (in the manner of the moderns Leibniz · Herodotus
and dogmatic Christianity), but that is drawn from common sense, Influenced
itself. In the tradition of Socrates and Cicero, Vico's true orator will
Alberdi · Auerbach[6] · Berlin ·
be midwife to the birth of "the true" (as an idea) from "the certain",
Castoriadis · Cattaneo[6] · Coleridge
the ignorance in the mind of the student.
· Collingwood · Cortés · Croce ·
Rediscovery of "the most ancient wisdom" of the senses, a Cuoco[6] · Evola · Ferrari[6] ·
wisdom that is humana stultitia ("human foolishness"), Vico's Foscolo[6] · Frye · Goethe[7] ·
emphases on the importance of civic life and of professional
obligations are in the humanist tradition. He would call for a Gramsci · Hegel · Hillman · Hösle ·
maieutic oratory art against the grain of the modern privilege of the Joyce · Levi[6] · Lomonaco[6] ·
dogmatic form of reason, in what he called the "geometrical Maistre · Marx · McLuhan · Michelet
method" of René Descartes and the logicians at the Port-Royal- · Preve · Quinet · Said · Sorel ·
des-Champs abbey. Voegelin · White

Response to the Cartesian method

As he relates in his autobiography, Vico returned to Naples from Vatolla to find "the physics of Descartes at
the height of its renown among the established men of letters." Developments in both metaphysics and the
natural sciences abounded as the result of Cartesianism. Widely disseminated by the Port Royal Logic of
Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole, Descartes's method was rooted in verification: the only path to truth,
and thus knowledge, was through axioms derived from observation. Descartes's insistence that the "sure
and indubitable" (or, "clear and distinct") should form the basis of reasoning had an obvious impact on the
prevailing views of logic and discourse. Studies in rhetoric—indeed all studies concerned with civic
discourse and the realm of probable truths—met with increasing disdain.

Vico's humanism and professional concerns prompted an obvious response that he would develop
throughout the course of his writings: the realms of verifiable truth and human concern share only a slight
overlap, yet reasoning is required in equal measure in both spheres. One of the clearest and earliest forms of
this argument is available in the De Italorum Sapientia, where Vico argues that

to introduce geometrical method into practical life is "like trying to go mad with the rules of
reason", attempting to proceed by a straight line among the tortuosities of life, as though
human affairs were not ruled by capriciousness, temerity, opportunity, and chance. Similarly, to
arrange a political speech according to the precepts of geometrical method is equivalent to
stripping it of any acute remarks and to uttering nothing but pedestrian lines of argument.

Vico's position here and in later works is not that the Cartesian method is irrelevant, but that its application
cannot be extended to the civic sphere. Instead of confining reason to a string of verifiable axioms, Vico
suggests (along with the ancients) that appeals to phronēsis (φρόνησις or practical wisdom) must also be
made, and likewise appeals to the various components of persuasion that comprise rhetoric. Vico would
reproduce this argument consistently throughout his works, and would use it as a central tenet of the
Scienza Nuova.

The principle of Verum factum

Vico is best known for his verum factum principle, first formulated in 1710 as part of his De antiquissima
Italorum sapientia, ex linguae latinae originibus eruenda (1710) ("Of the most ancient wisdom of the
Italians, unearthed from the origins of the Latin language").[16] The principle states that truth is verified
through creation or invention and not, as per Descartes, through observation: "The criterion and rule of the
true is to have made it. Accordingly, our clear and distinct idea of the mind cannot be a criterion of the mind
itself, still less of other truths. For while the mind perceives itself, it does not make itself." This criterion for
truth would later shape the history of civilization in Vico's opus, the Scienza Nuova (The New Science,
1725), because he would argue that civil life—like mathematics—is wholly constructed.

The Scienza Nuova

The New Science (1725, Scienza Nuova) is his major work and has
been highly influential in the philosophy of history, and for
historicists such as Isaiah Berlin and Hayden White.

Influence
Samuel Beckett's first published work, in the selection of critical
essays on James Joyce entitled Our Exagmination Round His
Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress, is "Dante...
Bruno. Vico.. Joyce". In it, Beckett sees a profound influence of
Vico's philosophy and poetics—as well the cyclical form of the
Scienza Nuova—on the avant-garde compositions of Joyce, and
especially the titular Work in Progress, viz. Finnegans Wake.

In Knowledge and Social Structure (1974), Peter Hamilton

identified Vico as the "sleeping partner" of the Age of
Enlightenment.[17] Despite having been relatively unknown in his
18th-century time, and read only in his native Naples, the ideas of
Vico are predecessors to the ideas of the intellectuals of the Title page of Principj di Scienza
Enlightenment. Moreover, recognition of Vico's intellectual Nuova (1744 ed.)
influence began in the 19th century, when the French Romantic
historians used his works as methodological models and guides.[17]

In Capital: Critique of Political Economy (1867), Karl Marx's mention of Vico indicates their parallel
perspectives about history, the role of historical actors, and an historical method of narrative.[18] Marx and
Vico saw social-class warfare as the means by which men achieve the end of equal rights; Vico called that
time the "Age of Men". Marx concluded that such a state of affairs is the optimal end of social change in a
society, but Vico thought that such complete equality of rights would lead to socio-political chaos and the
consequent collapse of society. In that vein, Vico proposed a social need for religion, for a supernatural
divine providence to keep order in human society.[19]

In Orientalism (1978), Edward Said acknowledged his scholar's debt to Vico,[20] whose "ideas anticipate
and later infiltrate the line of German thinkers I am about to cite. They belong to the era of Herder and
Wolf, later to be followed by Goethe, Humboldt, Dilthey, Nietzsche, Gadamer, and finally the great
twentieth century Romance philologists Erich Auerbach, Leo Spitzer, and Ernst Robert Curtius."[20] As a
humanist and early philologist, Vico represented "a different, alternative model that has been extremely
important to me in my work", which differed from mainstream Western prejudice against the Orient and the
dominating "standardization" that came with modernity and culminated in National Socialism.[20] That the
interdependence of human history and culture facilitates the scholars' task to "take seriously Vico's great
observation that men make their own history, that what they can know is what they have made, and extend
it to geography. As geographical and cultural entities—to say nothing of historical entities—such locales,
regions, and geographical sectors as 'Orient' and 'Occident' are man-made."[20]

Works
Opere di G. B. Vico. Fausto Nicolini (ed.), Bari: Laterza, 1911–41.
De Antiquissima Italorum Sapientia ex Linguae Originibus Eruenda Libri Tres (On the Most
Ancient Wisdom of the Italians Unearthed from the Origins of the Latin Language). 1710,
Palmer, L. M., trans. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1988.
Institutiones Oratoriae (The Art of Rhetoric). 1711–1741, Pinton, Girogio, and Arthur W.
Shippee, trans. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi B.V., 1984.* "On Humanistic Education", trans.
 Giorgio A. Pinton and Arthur W. Shippee. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1993.
On the Study Methods of Our Time, trans. Elio Gianturco. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1990.
Universal right (Diritto universale). Translated from Latin and Edited by Giorgio Pinton and
Margaret Diehl. Amsterdam/New York, Rodopi, 2000
On the Most Ancient Wisdom of the Italians: Unearthed from the Origins of the Latin
Language, trans. L. M. Palmer. Ithaca, Cornell UP, 1988.
Scienza Nuova (The First New Science). 1725, Pompa, Leon, trans. Cambridge: Cambridge
UP, 2002.
The New Science of Giambattista Vico, (1744). trans. Thomas G. Bergin and Max H. Fisch.
Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2nd ed. 1968.

See also
New Vico Studies (Institute for Vico Studies at Emory University)
Recapitulation theory
Finnegans Wake

Notes
1. Bertland, Alexander. "Giambattista Vico (1668—1744)" (https://iep.utm.edu/vico/). Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
2. Gambarota, Paola (2017). "Giambattista Vico, the Vernacular, and the Foundations of
Modern Italy". Irresistible Signs. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 99–144.
doi:10.3138/9781442695269-004 (https://doi.org/10.3138%2F9781442695269-004).
ISBN 9781442695269.
3. Lollini, Massimo (2011). "Vico's More than Human Humanism". Annali d'Italianistica. 29:
381–399. JSTOR 24016434 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24016434).
4. Tedesco, Salvatore (2005). "La retorica arguta di Emanuele Tesauro e il problema del
paralogismo". Laboratorio dell'ISPF. I: 257–266. ISSN 1824-9817 (https://www.worldcat.org/i
ssn/1824-9817).
5. B. Croce, Estetica (Bari, Laterza, 1922), pp. 253-4; Storia della età barocca in Italia (Bari,
Laterza, 1929), p. 228; F. Nicolini, Fonti e riferimenti storici della seconda Scienza Nuova
(Bari, Laterza, 1931), I, 94.
6. Piperno, Martina (2018). "Giambattista Vico's 'Constructive' Language and its Post-
Revolutionary Readers". Comparative Critical Studies. 15 (2): 261–278.
doi:10.3366/ccs.2018.0292 (https://doi.org/10.3366%2Fccs.2018.0292). S2CID 149891225
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149891225).
7. "Vichian Theories of Language, Genius, and History in Goethe's FAUST | Comparative
Literature" (https://www.cmlt.uga.edu/news/stories/2013/vichian-theories-language-genius-a
nd-history-goethes-faust).
8. Ernst von Glasersfeld, An Introduction to Radical Constructivism.
9. Bizzell and Herzberg, The Rhetorical Tradition, p. 800.
10. The contemporary interpretation of Vico is by Verene, Donald Philip. See: "Giambattista
Vico" (2002), A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, Steven M. Nadler, ed.
London:Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-21800-9, p. 570.
11. Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas
12. Giambattista Vico (1976), "The Topics of History: The Deep Structure of the New Science",
in Giorgio Tagliacozzo and Donald Philip Verene, eds, Science of Humanity, Baltimore and
London: 1976.
13. Giambattista Vico: An International Symposium. Giorgio Tagliacozzo and Hayden V. White,
eds. Johns Hopkins University Press: 1969. Attempts to inaugurate a non-historicist
interpretation of Vico are in Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy [1] (http://www.int
erpretationjournal.com/), Spring 2009, Vol. 36.2, and Spring 2010 37.3; and in Historia
Philosophica, Vol. 11, 2013 [2] (http://www.libraweb.net/sommari.php?chiave=5).
14. The Penguin Encyclopedia (2006), David Crystal, ed., p. 1,409.
15. Costelloe, Timothy. "Giambattista Vico" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vico/). Retrieved
6 March 2014.
16. His wording was "Verum et factum reciprocantur seu convertuntur" ("The true and the made
are convertible into each other"), an idea which can be found also in occasionalism and
Scotist scholasticism
17. Hamilton, Peter (1974). Knowledge and Social Structure (https://archive.org/details/knowled
gesocials0000hami/page/4). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. pp. 4 (https://archive.org/d
etails/knowledgesocials0000hami/page/4). ISBN 978-0710077462.
18. Marx, Karl. Capital, Book 1. pp. Book 1, part IV, chapter 13, n. 89 (footnote).
19. Chaix-Ruy, Jules-Marie. "Giambattista Vico" (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/6
27497/Giambattista-Vico). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
20. Said, Edward (2003) [1978]. Orientalism. Penguin Classics. pp. xviii, 4–5.

References
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Vico, Giovanni Battista"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_
Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Vico,_Giovanni_Battista). Encyclopædia Britannica.
Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Fabiani, Paolo. "The Philosophy of the Imagination in Vico and Malebranche". F.U.P.
(Florence UP), Italian edition 2002, English edition 2009. (https://unifi.academia.edu/PaoloF
abiani)
Goetsch, James. Vico’s Axioms: The Geometry of the Human World.. New Haven: Yale UP,
1995.
Mooney, Michael. Vico in the Tradition of Rhetoric. New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1985.
Pompa, Leon. Vico: A Study of the New Science. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990.
"Giambattista Vico" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vico/) entry in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Further reading
Andreacchio, Marco. "Epistemology's Political-Theological Import in Giambattista Vico (htt
p://journal.telospress.com/content/2018/185/105.extract)" in Telos. Vol. 185 (2019); pp. 105–
27.
Bedani, Gino. Vico Revisited: Orthodoxy, Naturalism and Science in the Scienza Nuova.
Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1989.
Berlin, Isaiah. Vico and Herder. Two Studies in the History of Ideas. London, 1976.
Berlin, Isaiah. Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder. London and
Princeton, 2000.
Bizzell, Patricia, and Bruce Herzberg. The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical
Times to the Present. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Macmillan; Boston, Ma: Bedford Books of St
Martin's Press, 2001. Pp. Xv, 1673. (First Ed. 1990). 2001.
Colilli, Paul. Vico and the Archives of Hermetic Reason. Welland, Ont.: Editions Soleil,
2004.
 Croce, Benedetto. The Philosophy of Giambattista Vico. Trans. R.G. Collingwood. London:
Howard Latimer, 1913.
Danesi, Marcel. Vico, Metaphor, and the Origin of Language. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1993
Fabiani, Paolo, "The Philosophy of the Imagination in Vico and Malebranche". F.U.P.
(Florence UP), Italian edition 2002, English edition 2009. (https://unifi.academia.edu/PaoloF
abiani)
Fisch, Max, and Thomas G. Bergin, trans. Vita di Giambattista Vico (The Autobiography of
Giambattista Vico). 1735–41. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1963.
Giannantonio, Valeria. Oltre Vico – L'identità del passato a Napoli e Milano tra '700 e '800,
Carabba Editore, Lanciano, 2009.
Gould, Rebecca Ruth. “Democracy and the Vernacular Imagination in Vico’s Plebian
Philology (https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/699295?mobileUi=0),”
History of Humanities 3.2 (2018): 247–277.
Grassi, Ernesto. Vico and Humanism: Essays on Vico, Heidegger, and Rhetoric. New York:
Peter Lang, 1990.
Hösle, Vittorio. "Vico und die Idee der Kulturwissenschaft" in Prinzipien einer neuen
Wissenschaft über die gemeinsame Natur der Völker, Ed. V. Hösle and C. Jermann,
Hamburg : F. Meiner, 1990, pp. XXXI-CCXCIII
Levine, Joseph. Giambattista Vico and the Quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns.
Journal of the History of Ideas 52.1(1991): 55-79.
Lilla, Mark. G. B. Vico: The Making of an Anti-Modern. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1993.
Mazzotta, Giuseppe. The New Map of the World: The Poetic Philosophy of Giambattista
Vico. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
Miner, Robert. Vico, Genealogist of Modernity. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press,
2002.
Schaeffer, John. Sensus Communis: Vico, Rhetoric, and the Limits of Relativism. Durham:
Duke UP, 1990.
Verene, Donald. Vico's Science of Imagination. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1981.
Verene, Molly Black "Vico: A Bibliography of Works in English from 1884 to 1994."
Philosophy Documentation Center, 1994.
Alain Pons, Vie et mort des Nations. Lecture de la Science nouvelle de Giambattista Vico,
L'Esprit de la Cité, Gallimard, 2015

External links
Works by Giambattista Vico (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Vico,+Giambattista) at Project
Gutenberg
Works by or about Giambattista Vico (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subjec
t%3A%22Vico%2C%20Giambattista%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Giambattista%20Vic
o%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Vico%2C%20Giambattista%22%20OR%20creator%3A%
22Giambattista%20Vico%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Vico%2C%20G%2E%22%20O
R%20title%3A%22Giambattista%20Vico%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Vico%2C%20
Giambattista%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Giambattista%20Vico%22%29%20OR%2
0%28%221668-1744%22%20AND%20Vico%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:softwar
e%29) at Internet Archive
Institute for Vico Studies (http://ivs.emory.edu)
Entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/vico)
Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vico)
 Entry in the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory (http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkin
s_guide_to_literary_theory/entries/giambattista_vico.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20020520204450/http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/gia
mbattista_vico.html) 2002-05-20 at the Wayback Machine
Verene, Donald Phillip. Essay on Vico's humanism (https://web.archive.org/web/200205202
04450/http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/giambattista_vico.h
tml) at the Wayback Machine (archived May 20, 2002), archived from Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Vico's Poetic Philosophy within Europe's Cultural Identity, Emanuel L. Paparella (http://www.
ovimagazine.com/art/1772)
Leon Pompa, Vico's Theory of the Causes of Historical Change (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20180816065759/http://i-c-r.org.uk/publications/monographarchive.php), archived at The
Institute for Cultural Research
Portale Vico - Vico Portal (http://www.giambattistavico.it/)
Text of the New Science in multiple formats (https://archive.org/details/newscienceofgiam03
0174mbp)
Essays on Vico's creative influence on James Joyce's Finnegans Wake (http://www.sunypre
ss.edu/p-877-vico-and-joyce.aspx)
Samuel Beckett's essay on Vico and Joyce (https://ourexagmination.wordpress.com/2008/1
1/12/samuel-becketts-dantebrunovicojoyce/)
Vico's creative influence on Richard James Allen's The Way Out At Last Cycle (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20120820134257/http://www.physicaltv.com.au/PoetryTheWayOutAtLastCyc
le_653_1458_3_0.html)
Vico's Historical Mythology (http://lucianofsamosata.info/wiki/doku.php?id=2012:vico-historic
al-mythology)
Rafferty, Michael (1913). "VICO (1668-1744)". In Macdonell, John; Manson, Edward William
Donoghue (eds.). Great Jurists of the World (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.1332
6). London: John Murray. pp. 345 (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13326/page/n3
76)-389. Retrieved 11 March 2019 – via Internet Archive.

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