Date : 18th February, 2021

Grade : Ten

Lesson : Fourteen (14)

Subject : Agricultural Science

Topic : Soil and Soil Fertility
Sub-Topic : Soil Formation

Objective
To describe the process of soil formation

Soils
Soil is the upper most layer of the earth’s crust. It is a mixture of weathered rocks and organic matter. Soil is a
major component of the earth’s eco system.
Soil acts as:
- a medium for plant root support
- an engineering medium
- a habitat for soil organisms
- a recycling system for nutrients and organic wastes
- a regulator of water quality
- provider of oxygen for respiration

Soils can effectively remove impurities, kill disease agents, and degrade contaminants. Soils provide readily
available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead organic matter into various nutrient forms.

Weathering
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes of
temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the removal of rock material. Weathering breaks down
and loosens the surface minerals of rock so they can be transported away by agents of erosion such as water,
wind and ice.

Types of Weathering

There are three types of weathering, physical, chemical and biological.

 Physical (Mechanical) Weathering

Physical weathering is the breaking down of rocks into soils by the forces of nature without changing their
chemical composition. The process is caused by:
 temperature changes- In locations with high temperatures, the sun heats up the surface of rocks causing
them to expand. At night, when the temperature drops, the rock cools and contracts. Over time, the
alternate expansion and contraction causes the surface layers break away. This is also called onion-skin
weathering.

onion skin weathering

 freezing and thawing- occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes and expands, eventually
breaking the rock apart. This is mostly common in cold regions.

 abrasion by water, wind – weathering regularly occurs when moving water in rivers or waves at the coast causes
rocks to collide, disintegrate and get worn down into smaller pebbles and eventually mineral particles. In very
dry regions, wind containing sand particles has an abrasive action and wears away the surface of rocks. The
particles of rock can be carried to other sites where they are deposited.
Wind and water abrasion

Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is when chemicals in rain and moving water react with rocks and minerals to change or
weaken them in some way. Chemical weathering always causes some type of chemical reaction within the rock
or mineral itself.
The main factors that cause chemical weathering are water, oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Where does it occur?

These chemical processes need water, and occur more rapidly at higher temperature, so warm, damp climates
are best. Chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis and oxidation) is the first stage in the production of soils.

The main factors that cause chemical weathering are water, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Water (Hydrolysis) -- the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.
Rocks are made of materials that have different levels of solubility. For example, sodium chloride
(common salt) is soluble and is only found as a solid (rock salt) in very dry areas. Other rocks that are
soluble, but less so, include gypsum (calcium sulphate) and limestone (calcium carbonate). Silica, a
component of sand, is only slightly soluble in water. Water can change the minerals in rocks. If water
is added to some soil minerals, it causes chemical changes and new minerals are formed. For example,
potassium may be removed from the rock known as feldspar, leaving aluminium and silicon. These can
then re-crystallise to form clay.

- Oxygen and Carbon dioxide - Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving
iron-rich rocks a rusty-coloured weathered surface.
Oxidation occurs when minerals in rock combine with atmospheric oxygen or the oxygen dissolved in
rainwater. The minerals are converted to oxides, which are more likely to break down or undergo
 weathering. For example, when water combines with the iron-containing rock, olivine, ferrous oxide is
released. The ferrous oxide becomes oxidized by oxygen in the atmosphere to ferric oxide, known as
haematite.
Carbonation - when carbon dioxide in air dissolves in rainwater, carbonic acid is formed. This is a
weak inorganic acid. As rainwater filters through rock containing carbonate, such as limestone, the
minerals in the rock dissolve and the rock breaks up. Decaying plants and animals put carbon dioxide in
the soil and then when it rains it mixes with the soil.

Hydrolysis Oxidation Carbonization

Biological Weathering
This is the disintegration of rocks and the formation of soils through the activities of living organisms.
If there are cracks in a rock, some soil will gather. If a seed germinates in this soil, its growing roots exert
pressure and eventually the rock splits. Animals that tunnel into the soil, such as worms, ants and moles,
contribute to weathering by bringing new material to the surface where it is exposed to rainwater and the
atmosphere.
Plants rot and are decomposed by micro-organisms in the soil. In this process, organic acids called humic acids
are released into the soil and break down rock minerals. The plant roots also release carbon dioxide into the soil
and carbon dioxide breaks down carbonates.
Even the tiniest bacteria, algae and lichens produce chemicals that help break down the rock on which they live,
so they can get the nutrients they need.
The Importance of a Soil Profile

A soil profile is a vertical section dug down through the soil showing the natural sequence of horizontal layers
in the soil. It can be revealed by digging a rectangular pit so that one wall of the pit exposes the colours and
textures of the different layers. Alternatively, a soil auger can be used to remove a core of soil and the different
layers can be identified. Figure 5.3 shows a soil auger in use.

Soil horizons
Each layer, or soil horizon, has different physical and chemical properties. The development of soil layers is
affected by the topography of the land, soil texture, drainage and soil erosion.
In a typical, undisturbed, well-drained forest soil, at least four major horizons can be recognized. Horizons are
named O, A, B and C and may contain one or more sub-horizon.

Name of Horizon Characteristics

O horizon • Formed on the surface.
Organic or litter layer • Consists of plant and animal material at different
stages of decomposition.
A horizon • Consists of a mixture of humus and mineral soil.
Zone of leaching or eluviation • Normally dark brown, dark grey or blackish in
colour due to leaching of materials from the O
horizon.
B horizon • Usually lighter in colour than the A horizon.
Zone of accumulation or illuviation • Leached clay, iron and aluminium oxides, calcium
carbonate, sulphates and other salts accumulate in
this horizon.
• An impervious layer called ‘hardpan’ may develop.
C horizon • No biological activity or soil formation takes place.
Parent material • May or may not be the same material from which
horizons A and B were formed.
Horizons and their characteristic features.
A typical soil profile A soil showing different horizons

For the farmer, the soil profile is relevant so that he or she can decide what land preparation is needed before
planting crops. During ploughing, the furrow slice or topsoil is cut and inverted by the ploughshare. Depending
on the thickness of horizons O, A and B, this slice may include horizon O and part of horizon A, or horizon O,
horizon A and part of horizon B.
The area beneath the furrow slice is referred to as the subsoil. If there is a hardpan or impervious layer, resulting
from the accumulation and compaction of leached deposits, then the subsoil may need to be broken up with a
subsoiler.

Review Questions
1. Explain which horizons are affected when the land is ploughed.
2. Write a definition for the term “weathering of rocks”.
3. List the different types of weathering.
4. What are the effects of rain water on carbonate rocks?
5. Describe how physical weathering occurs.
6. How does plant root contribute to weathering?
References

S. Ragoonanan, agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean Educational Publishers

R. Ramharacksingh, agricultural science for C.S.E.C examinations macmillan publishers.

Internet
Https://en.Wikipedia.Org/wiki/soil
Https://www.Geolsoc.Org.Uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3461.Html
Http://www.Waterencyclopedia.Com/tw-z/weathering-of-rocks.Html

Video link
https://www.Youtube.Com/watch?V=amt-spibgk0
Https://www.Youtube.Com/watch?V=vowgadfhht8
https://www.Youtube.Com/watch?V=gezx6uovruq