Centrifugal Gas Compressors Handbook Solar Compressors

Introduction to Centrifugal Compressors for Oil and Gas Applications
Introduction to
Centrifugal
Compressors
for Oil and Gas Applications
Rainer Kurz
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Introduction to
Centrifugal
Compressors
for Oil and Gas Applications
Rainer Kurz
Solar Turbines Short S
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Introduction to Centrifugal Compressors for Oil & Gas Applications, 1st Edition, 2022
© 2022 Solar Turbines Incorporated - All rights reserved.
Printed in the U.S.A.
ISBN: 979-8-3507-0164-7
CONTENTS
Introduction 12
Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression 18
Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors 30
Chapter 3: Aerodynamics of Centrifugal Compressors 42
Chapter 4: Rotordynamics 84
Chapter 5: Mechanical Design 112
Chapter 6: Controls of Centrifugal Compressors 132
Chapter 7: Compressor Drivers 180
Chapter 8: Centrifugal Compressors in

190
Oil & Gas Applications
Chapter 9: Optimizing Compressor Stations 218
Chapter 10: Importance of Testing 236
Chapter 11: Restage: Centrifugal Gas Compressors 266
References 286
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Rainer Kurz – Dr. Kurz is the Manager, Gas Compressor Engineering, at Solar Turbines
Incorporated in San Diego, California. His organization is responsible for the design,
research and development of Solar’s Centrifugal Gas Compressors, including aerodynamic,
rotordynamic, and mechanical design.
Dr. Kurz attended the University of the Federal Armed Forces in Hamburg, Germany
where he received the degree of a Dipl.-Ing. And, in 1991, the degree of a Dr.-Ing. He has
authored more than 100 publications in the field of turbomachinery and fluid dynamics,
holds two patents, and was named an ASME Fellow in 2003. He is a member and former
chair of the ASME Oil and Gas Applications Committee, a member of the Turbomachinery
Symposium Advisory Committee, the Gas Machinery Conference Organizing Committee,
the GMRC Project Supervisory Committee, and the SDSU Aerospace Engineering Advisory
Committee. Many of his publications are recognized as being of archival quality, and he
received numerous Best Paper awards, as well as the ASME Industrial Gas Turbine Award
in 2013.
DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book is dedicated to the more than 8,000 professionals who design, engineer,
manufacture, install, test, service, repair, retrofit and finance Solar Turbines products
for thousands of satisfied customers in more than 100 countries around the world. A
“one-team” mentality assures that everyone is working towards the same goal: making
customers more successful. With decades of experience, the Solar Turbines’ global
teams are committed to exceeding customer expectations in every operational discipline.
Solar Turbines provides best-in-class energy solutions with turbomachinery for power
generation and motor-driven compression applications. Technology and innovation
focused on the entire ecosystem and customer experience are hallmarks of Solar Digital’s
InSight Platform™.
Special thanks go to the people at Solar who supported and encouraged the creation of
this book: Gil Amengual, Janet Barnett, Dan Campion, Mike Cave, Tim David, Kevin Davis,
Peter Davis, Vinnie Delaney, Hans Drenth, Edrees Faizi, Ed Fowler, Aziz Fozi, Sara Goucher,
Min Ji, Klaus Jordan, Roland Kaiser, Matt Lubomirsky, Christina Macatee, Mike McCune,
Greg McLorg, Jay Mistry, Richard Mundy, Daniel Sanchez, Mike Shimek, Avneet Singh,
Marco Vagani, Balaji Venkataraman, Wade Willden, Roman Zamotorin, Lei Zhu and many
others.
I also want to express my special appreciation to the contributors of several chapters:

Daniel Sanchez (Chapter 2), Mike Cave and Min Ji (Chapter 3), Balaji Venkataraman and
Marco Vagani (Chapter 4), Roman Zamotorin and Matt Lubomirsky (Chapter 9), and Avneet
Singh (Chapters 9 and 11).
PREFACE
Centrifugal gas compressors are vital for the transportation and processing of gas in the oil
and gas industry. The compressors operate in harsh environments, providing compression
with high availability and reliability. This book was developed directly from a series of Solar
Turbines Incorporated internal short courses and reference documents that were presented
to audiences with wide-ranging backgrounds. It expands on the applicable thought
processes that were introduced in the companion Introduction to Gas Turbine Theory book
and brings basic concepts into the realm of practical applications.
The book is intended to provide a basic understanding of the thermodynamics,

aerodynamics and rotordynamics that specifically apply to compressors used in the oil
and gas industry. It is not intended as a text book or a design guideline. The book is,
however, intended as a summary and overview, covering the many different subjects and
underlying theories pertaining to the subject matter. In the chapters, explanations on the
components, the design and the function of centrifugal compressors are followed by more
theoretical subjects. Then, practical application issues such as the controls, drivers, testing,
optimization and restaging are covered, as well as a description of typical applications for
these machines.
Throughout the text, the intent is to make relatively complex concepts understandable.
Hopefully you, the reader, will develop an understanding of the many engineering concepts
and disciplines that apply to the gas compression and distribution industries.
NOMENCLATURE
A area
c,u,w velocity
cp heat capacity
 density
D diameter
 flow coefficient
F force
 frequency
g gravity acceleration
h enthalpy
k isentropic exponent
m mass
· mass flow
m
M momentum
M Mach number
N speed
P power
p pressure
Q volumetric flow
q heat
R gas constant
s entropy
T temperature
v specific volume
Wt work
Z compressibility factor
z elevation coordinate
 efficiency
INTRODUCTION
A large number of technical papers, articles and presentations prepared by their respective
authors during the last 25 years served as the basis for developing this book. It is not
a classical textbook, nor is it a product brochure. The primary goal is to help readers
understand basic concepts on how a centrifugal compressor works, how it is built, how
it is controlled, and how it is integrated into the process. All this is discussed with the
background of the oil and gas upstream and midstream industry.
The book is intended as a summary and overview of the many different topics and
disciplines pertaining to centrifugal gas compressors, and an overview of the concepts and
theories involved (Figure 0-1). Throughout the text, readers are provided with simplified
explanations of complex concepts. By following this text, readers will hopefully develop an
appreciation of the many engineering disciplines that are involved in the design, analysis
and operation of centrifugal gas compressors as they are used in the oil and gas industry.
Figure 0-1. Centrifugal Gas Compressor
As mentioned earlier, this is not a product brochure. All authors work for Solar Turbines,
a major manufacturer of centrifugal gas compressors, but every effort has been made to
discuss topics in an objective, technical fashion. Many of the illustrations will show Solar
products, for the simple reason that they are the most accessible. The book will also
focus on compressors used in oil and gas upstream and midstream applications. While
the general concepts of thermodynamics, aerodynamics and rotordynamics apply to any
centrifugal compressor, the other chapters are focused on a discussion related to oil and
gas applications.
Introduction | 13
The topics addressed by the book are organized in chapters.
To start, Solar Turbines team members will explain the thermodynamic principles of gas
compression, introducing the concepts of enthalpy, work, and entropy, as well as methods
to describe gas behavior.
In the next chapter, the major components of a centrifugal compressor will be introduced.
This is an overview of components, following the gas flow through the compressor, and
will serve as a reference for the subsequent chapters.
Next, the aerodynamics of centrifugal compressors will be covered in great detail, starting
with fundamental principles, and developing the concepts that facilitate understanding the
operation of a compressor at design and off-design conditions. In addition, an overview of
computational methods will be provided.
The chapter on rotordynamics attempts to explain the principle ideas used to understand
the rotordynamic behavior of compressors. Both lateral and torsional vibrations are
addressed.
The previous chapters were used to cover the major theoretical concepts needed to
understand centrifugal compressors. With the chapter on mechanical design, we look into
more detailed issues are discussed. This chapter will pick up topics from an earlier chapter
on compressor components, providing more in-depth descriptions. It also will show the
implementation of concepts that are relevant to improving the rotordynamic stability of the
machine.
The next chapter deals with methods to control compressors; in other words how
compressors are integrated with the process they are supposed to support. The
discussion will cover process control, but will also address methods to protect the
compressor from surge.
A discussion of compressor would be incomplete without introducing the different types

and characteristics of drivers frequently used to provide power for these compressors. The
characteristics of the main drivers, gas turbines and electric motors are explained in detail.
The chapter on Oil and Gas Applications provides a description of the major applications,
and the related process conditions, for which centrifugal compressors are used.
Related to the chapter on applications, the concepts of optimizing the operation of

centrifugal compressors and their drivers for a given process will be explained. This chapter
draws heavily from the previous three chapters.
A major topic for users and designers of compressors is methods to test them, in order
to verify the predicted performance of a machine or a train. Concepts developed in earlier
chapters, like aerodynamics and thermodynamics, are used to describe test methods, and
test evaluation methods, and also discusses concepts like test uncertainties.
While centrifugal compressors are extremely flexible in their capability to adapt to changes in
operating conditions, the economics of the application may require restaging the machines.
The process of restaging is described, and guidelines and examples are provided.
14 | Introduction
These chapters provide you with an overview of the key topics and theories essential to
understanding the design and application of centrifugal compressors in the oil and gas industry.
Throughout the text, you’ll be provided with simplified explanations of complex concepts.
THE HISTORY OF GAS COMPRESSORS
The earliest mention of a turbomachine dates back to 150 B.C.E., when Heron of Alexandria
described the Aeolipile (Figure 0-2), using steam, expanded through nozzles, to create
power.
Early turbomachines were

essentially turbines, that is devices
that produced power. In 1705,
Denis Papin in France originated
the idea of a turbopump, and
a turbo blower. Around 1750,
Leonard Euler derived the Euler
equations that describe the energy
transfer in turbomachines, and
Bernoulli explained the relationship
between kinetic energy and
pressure energy in a flow. By the
mid 1800’s, several turbo pump
designs were offered—empirical
designs for relatively low head
and modest efficiencies. Further
improvements were introduced by
Osborne Reynolds, and the first
turbopumps based on his designs
were built in 1887. By the early Figure 0-2. Aeolipile, Heron of Alexandria 150 B.C.E.
1900’s, several companies (Mather
and Platt, Sulzer Bros., Rateau, Byron Jackson, DeLaval, Allis-Chalmers and Worthington)
were building turbopumps.
Gas compression in the early days was the domain of positive displacement machines
(reciprocating compressors, roots blowers). The credit for the invention of the centrifugal
impeller goes to Denis Papin in 1869. Initially, no diffusor was used, but Reynolds patented
a vaned diffusor in 1875. Parsons designed and marketed a 3-stage centrifugal compressor
as early as 1887. Rateau, around 1900 commercialized turbo compressors for ventilation,
especially for mine ventilation. He also realized that his turbo compressors matched the
speed of steam turbines quite well, and thus could be directly coupled.
Early centrifugal compressors were superior to axial compressors, as blade aerodynamics

were not well understood at the time. Aerodynamic developments for propellers and
airfoils during World War 1, that had their roots in research by Otto Lilienthal in Germany
and the Wright Brothers in the US, and research work by Prandtl in Germany, leading to
a better understanding of boundary layer behavior became beneficial in the development
Introduction | 15
of turbocompressors. In the 1930s, the
development of gas turbines (Whittle
in England, v. Ohain in Germany), using
centrifugal compressors (Figure 0-3),
and the use of turbochargers for aircraft
engines (the first flight of an airplane
using a turbine powered turbocharger,
designed by S. Moss, occurred in 1919)
intensified the research in centrifugal
compressors.
The treatment of the rotordynamics

of high-speed shafts goes back to a
publication by Rankine in 1869, who
examined the behavior of a frictionless
uniform shaft. Initially it was assumed
that operation above the first critical
speed would not be possible, but in 1892,
Gustaf de Laval and Charles Parsons
proved the possibility for operation
above the first critical speed. Not until
1919, H.H. Jeffcott laid a comprehensive
groundwork for the treatment of high-
Figure 0-3. Centrifugal compressor as
speed rotors. In the 1920s, several
supercharger for an aircraft engine, late 1930s.
manufacturers offered turbomachinery
running at speeds above the first critical
speed. In 1924, B.L. Newkirk described
the critical influence of bearing behavior
on rotordynamics.
In the 1950s and 1960s centrifugal

compressors became popular in the
oil and gas industry, for example, as
pipeline boost compressors. These
compressors were usually driven by
industrial gas turbines. In the late 1950s,
Solar developed a 1000 hp two-shaft
gas turbine (the Saturn) for marine
applications (Figure 0-4). There was
also interest in using this gas turbine for
Figure 0-4. Solar Saturn gas turbine driving a
pipeline applications, but a compressor
C16 compressor (ca. 1961).
to match the power and the power
turbine speed of this gas turbine was not
available. Therefore, Solar engineers used their expertise with the design of gas turbines,
including the design of centrifugal air compressors for gas turbines, to design a centrifugal
compressor for these applications. Many design features, for example the modular rotor
design, have their origins in the design of gas turbines, but later became very beneficial in
applications for the oil and gas upstream and midstream industry.
16 | Introduction
Over time, Solar Turbines
expanded its portfolio of
2-shaft gas turbines to gas
turbines with over 30,000
hp output, gas compressors
to match the power and
speed of these gas turbines
were developed parallel to
the new gas turbine models
(Figure 0-5). Based on
customer demands, Solar
Turbines also developed
the capability to drive these
compressors with electric Figure 0-5. Titan 130 2-shaft gas turbine driving a
motors (Figure 0-6). Solar compressor.
Figure 0-6. Solar compressor driven by a variable speed electric motor.
Introduction | 17
CHAPTER 1
THERMODYNAMICS
OF GAS COMPRESSION
Understanding the working principles of centrifugal gas compressors can be enhanced by
applying some basic laws of physics. Using the first and second laws of thermodynamics
together with basic laws of fluid dynamics, such as Bernoulli’s law and Euler’s law, the
fundamental working principles of gas compression are readily apparent. By extension,
the operational behavior of centrifugal gas compressors can also be explained. The
thermodynamics of gas compression will be discussed in this chapter, followed by a
discussion of fluid dynamics in the next chapter.
This general description of gas-compression thermodynamics applies to any type of

compressor, independent of its detailed working principles. Compression fundamentally
involves the use of mechanical energy, to increase the energy of a gas that has flowed
through a compressor. The increased energy of the compressed gas is accompanied
by increased temperature, and if the compression process is done properly, increased
pressure and density as well.
GAS BEHAVIOR AND EQUATIONS OF STATE
Gases have properties that can be observed, such as pressure and temperature, plus the
mass and volume that contain the gas. Key features of a gas are that pressure, temperature
and density (the mass of gas contained in a given volume) are related (Boyles law): An
increase in pressure (at constant temperature) leads to an increase in density, while an
increase in temperature (at constant pressure) leads to a reduction in density. For any
consideration of temperature changes, the possibility of heat loss across the system
boundaries must also be discussed. Most compressors are considered adiabatic, which
means that no heat is lost through the cylinder walls.
As used in reciprocating compressors, the simplest compression process utilizes positive-

displacement, typical of a basic bicycle air pump. The idea is to trap an amount of gas in a
cylinder with a piston able to move inside the cylinder (Figure 1-1). By pushing a piston into
the gas, effort or work is required. Because the mass of gas is trapped inside the pump’s
walls, the mass of gas remains constant, while the volume is reduced. Therefore, the
density of the gas (mass divided by volume) is increased.
To describe the compression process, the first and second laws of thermodynamics
apply. The first law says that when transferring one form of energy into another form of
energy, no energy is lost. The second law says that most of these energy transfers are not
reversible. For example, converting a motor’s electrical energy creates mechanical energy,
which can then be used to convert it back to electricity in a generator.

However, the electricity generated in this manner
is less than the electricity originally fed into the
h
motor. Because of these losses, heat is created. 2 p2 ,h2 ,s2 ,w2
This is also referred to as an increase in entropy.
The concept of enthalpy, which describes wt12
the total heat content of a gas, must also be
considered.
q12 =0 2'
h2
Consider a flow process, with a flow entering the p2
system at point 1, leaving at point 2 (Figure 1-1). 1 p1 ,h1 ,s1 ,w1
Mechanical energy, work (W) is also fed into the
Δ hs
system, and the system exchanges heat (q) with
Figure 2 –the
Compression Process in an Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram
environment. Figure 1-1. Compression process
Compression
– Compression Process
Processin aninEnthalpy-Entropy
an Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram
Diagram
Compression Process in an Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram
with a flow Then,
enteringthe the
firstsystem
law of at thermodynamics,
point 1, leaving defining
at point 2 (Figure 2 ). We also feed w12
W into
ntering
w entering the
the system,
system
the and
at the
point
conservation system
1,
of exchanges
leaving
Energy, at point
can be heat
2 q 2with
for the
(Figure
written a2 ).environment,
We feedthen
alsoalso feed…..
the the system at point 1, leaving at point (Figure
2 ).be2We
). We 2
ntering
hermodynamics
ystem,
he and and
system,
ystem, and the
system
the ,
system
at point
defining
steady-state,
the exchanges
system
1, leaving
the
exchanges
system exchanges
heat
flow process: q
heat
at point
conservation
with
q of
the
with
2 (Figure
Energy, can
environment,
the environment,
heat q with the environment, then …..
then
also feed
written
…..
then for
….. a steady state h1
ics , defining
namics , the conservation
defining the conservation of Energy,
of Energy, can can
be written
be for aforsteady
written a statestate
steady
p=p 1
ics , defining the conservation of Energy, can be written for a steady state
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤22 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤12
2 �ℎ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 � − �ℎ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧1 �
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤22 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤22 2 2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2122 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤12 1 2
ℎ2 �ℎ+ 2𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤+ 2 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 � − �ℎ + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 � s1
=+22𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
�12−2+��ℎ −1 �ℎ + 12+ +2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 +1 � 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧1 �
1
ℎ2 + 2 +2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
1𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,12 1
2 2
= 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞12 + 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊+
= 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞= 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
12 +12𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,12
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,12
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,12
with because
q=0 for adiabatic processes,
esses, and gz=0 changes in elevation and are not gz=0 because changes
significant in elevation are
for gas compressors. Wenot significant
velocity
=0
d=0gz=0because into
because for
a
changesgas
total
changes compressors.
enthalpy
in elevation
in elevationby Enthalpy
are not and velocity
significant for can
gas be combined
compressors.
are not significant for gas compressors. We into
We a total enthalpy by:
because changes in elevation are 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 2not significant for gas compressors. We
antototal
a totalenthalpyenthalpy by
a total enthalpy by by 2 ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2= ℎ +
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 2
ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ= + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ℎ + ℎ2+ 2
k 1 we have to apply to 2 affect the change in enthalpy in the gas. The work Wt,12 is related to
multiplying
eapply
to apply to affect it with
to affect thethe change
the mass
change in flow.
enthalpy
in workenthalpy in the gas. TheThe
work Wt,12Wist,12related to to
apply to affect Wt,12the is the change amount of
in enthalpy thatinmust
1in the the gas.
gas. The workwork
be appliedWtot,12
affect is
therelated
is related change
to in enthalpy of the gas.
gwith
it the mass
with
with the mass the mass flow.
flow. flow.
The work W 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃is=related
t,12 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 to the required power, (P), by multiplying it with the mass flow.
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,12
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚=
̇ 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,12
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ̇ 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,12 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,12
nce are thus related by
elated
hus by by
related
elated by The power and enthalpy difference is thus related by:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇�ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,2 − ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,1 �
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚=
̇ �ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇�ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,2 ̇ �ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,2ℎℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,1
− − �ℎ �
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,1 � 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,1
p that combines enthalpy with the pressure and temperature of a gas, we have found the
the
nes gas compression
enthalpy
mbines enthalpyIf a relationship
with the process.
pressure that andcombines enthalpy
temperature of awitha the
gas, wepressure
have and
found temperature
the of a gas can be
nes enthalpy withwith the the pressure pressure and and temperature
temperature of aof
gas, gas, we have
we have found
found the the
ression process.
ompression
fression process.can be assessed by comparing the actual head (which directly relates to the identified.
a compressor
found,
process. the necessary tools to describe the gas compression process have been
to spend
r can
essor for the quality
beThe
be assessed compression) with
byofcomparing the the
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a compressor’s
by comparing actual that(which
the(which
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can isentropic
be
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relatescompression
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r can can
entropic
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assessed by comparing actual
the actual headhead
(which directly
directly relates
relates to the
he compression) with
(whichwith the
directly head that
relates the
to the ideal,
the ideal,
amountisentropic compression
of powercompression would
required to achieve
for the compression)
the compression) with the
the head head
that that the ideal, isentropic
isentropic compressionwould compression) with the
would
iency
fficiency
iency
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂 =
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂 =𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
1 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = =𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠there is no difference between work, head, and enthalpy. In systems with consistent units
Physically,
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
(such as the SI system), work, head and enthalpy difference utilize the same unit (e.g. kJ/kg in SI units).
Only in inconsistent systems (such as US customary units), you need to consider that the enthalpy
difference (e.g. in BTU/lbm ) is related to head and work (e.g. in ft lbf /lbm ) by the mechanical equivalent
g gas at a certain
of heat suction
( e.g. in ftpressure
lbf /BTU).and temperature, and delivering it at a certain output
ead
artain represents
suction
certain the
pressure
suction energy
and and
pressure input required
temperature, by
and and
temperature, adelivering
reversible,
delivering adiabatic
it atita atcertain
a certain (thus
output isentropic)
output
rtain
mpressorsuction
willpressure
require aand temperature,
higher amount of and delivering
energy input it at
than a certain
needed for output
the ideal (isentropic)
ts the
esents energy input required by a reversible, adiabatic (thus isentropic)
ts the the energy
20 input
energy input required
| required
Chapter 1:by by a reversible,
Thermodynamics
a reversible, adiabatic
of Gas
adiabatic (thus(thus
Compression isentropic)
isentropic)
require
will a higher
require a amount
higher of energy
amount of input
energy thanthan
input needed for the
needed for ideal
the (isentropic)
ideal (isentropic)
require a higher amount of energy input than needed for the ideal (isentropic)
at combines enthalpy with the pressure and temperature of a gas, we have found the
gas compression process.
ompressor can be assessed by comparing the actual head (which directly relates to the
pend for the compression) with the head that the ideal, isentropic compression would
head that the ideal, isentropic compression would h
opic efficiency
require. This defines the isentropic efficiency:
2 p2 ,h2 ,s2 ,w2 w22 ht,2
2 2
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 wt12
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ q12 =0 h2
2'
p2 wt12
1 p ,h ,s ,w
(Figure 1-2) For a compressor receiving gas1 at1 a1 1
certain suction pressure and temperature, and
Δ hs
deliveringand
as at a certain suction pressure thetemperature,
gas at a certain
andoutput pressure,
delivering it at a certain output
(thus isentropic) w1
2
the isentropic head represents the energy
represents the energy input required by a reversible, adiabatic input ht,1
required by of
a reversible, adiabatic (thus for
isentropic) h1 2
essor will require a higher amount energy input than needed the ideal (isentropic)
1
compression. The actual compressor will require a p=p 1
higher amount of energy input than needed for the
ideal (isentropic) compression. s1 s2 s
to discuss this behavior of gases,

IDEAL GAS as it is fundamental to the understandingFigure
of gas
1-2. Enthalpy and Entropy for
understand the behavior of gas is to consider an ideal gas. Any gas can be considered
the compression process
At this point, some additional explanation is
required to discuss this behavior of gases, because
erence between work, head, and enthalpy difference.
it’s fundamental to the understanding of gas compression. A simple way to understand the
units (such as the SI system), work, head and enthalpy difference have the
behavior of gas is to consider an ideal gas. Any gas can be considered ideal at low pressure
nits). Only in inconsistent systems (such as US customary units), we need to
and elevated temperature.
difference (e.g. in BTU/lbm) is related to head and work (e.g. in ft lbf/lbm) by
of heat ( e.g. in ft lbf /BTU) .
Unfortunately, the pressures and temperatures relevant to the focus of this book require
consideration of real gas behavior. However, to understand some general relationships, the
ed temperature. Unfortunately, the pressures and temperatures relevant to the topic of
ideal gas behavior will be discussed. In a second step, how real gas deviates from ideal gas
der real gas behavior. However, to understand some general relationships, we can use
behavior will be described.
second step, we will describe how the real gas deviates from ideal gas behavior.
levated temperature. Unfortunately, the pressures and temperatures relevant to the topic of
onsider realan Understanding
gasunderstanding
behavior. However, gas compression
somerequires an understanding of
canthe relationships between
n requires of the to understand
relationship betweengeneral relationships,
pressure, temperatureweand use
in a second
exhibits pressure,
step, we will
the following temperature and density of a gas. An ideal gas exhibits
describe how the real gas deviates from ideal gas behavior.
behavior: the following behavior:
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
ession requires an understanding of the relationship between pressure, temperature and
=behavior:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
gas exhibits the following
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
where𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 R=is𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
nd as such is constant as long as the gas composition is not changed. Any gas at very
the gas constant, and as such is constant as long as the gas composition is not
scribed by this equation.
changed. Any gas at very low pressures (p→0) can be described by this equation.
nt ,can
at andbeasmeasured
such is constant
directly. as Itlong
is aasvalue
the gas composition
that is not changed.
can be calculated once weAny gasthe
know at very
be described Enthalpy is not a property that can be measured directly. It is a value that can be calculated
by this equation.
given gas composition. This is important: The enthalpy of any gas (ideal or real) is
sure and temperature ofonce the gas. the temperature and pressure of a given gas composition are known. This is
Enthalpies are defined as differences.
ty that can be measured important.
directly. The It isenthalpy
a value of anycan
that gasbe
(ideal or real) once
calculated is completely
we knowdefined
the by the pressure and
of a given gas temperature
composition. This is of the gas.
important: Enthalpies
The
t heat capacity, the relationship between enthalpy and temperatures is are
enthalpy defined
of any as
gas differences.
(ideal or real) is
pressure and temperature of the gas. Enthalpies are defined as differences.
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ =For a perfect
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
gas, with constant heat capacity, the relationship between enthalpy and
nstant heat capacity, thetemperatures
relationship between is: enthalpy and temperatures is
uation is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature by 1 degree while
constant. There is a second 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2capacity,
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐heat − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 ) cv, that is defined by the amount of heat
mperature by one degree while the volume of the gas is kept constant. For our gas
ss aequation
functionisofthe the The
amount
only ofheat
heat capacity,
temperature energy for an cp, in this
needed equation
to raise
ideal gas. is the amount
the temperature by of heat energy
1 degree whileneeded to raise the
kept constant. There istemperature a second heat by one degree,
capacity, cv,while
that isthe pressure
defined by of
thethe gas is of
amount kept constant. A second heat
heat
s temperature by one degree capacity, cv, is defined by the amount of heat needed to increase the gas temperature
while the volume of the gas is kept constant. For our gas
, cp is a function of only the temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2 for an ideal gas.
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇1 Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression 21
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
bed by this equation.
heat capacity, the relationship between enthalpy and temperatures is
an beismeasured
ation the amount directly.
of heatItenergy is a value neededthattocan bethe
raise calculated oncebywe1 degree
temperature know thewhile
en gas composition. 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = This 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
is 2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
important: The enthalpy of any gas (ideal or real)
constant. There is a second heat capacity, cv, that is defined by the amount of isheat
and temperature
perature by one degree of the gas. while Enthalpies
the volume are defined
of the gasas differences.
is kept constant. For our gas
tion
a function byonly
is the amount
of one the degree,
of heattemperature while the
energy forvolume
needed ofgas.
to raise
an ideal thethegas is kept constant.
temperature For the
by 1 degree gas compression
while
onstant. There is
at capacity, requirements, a second
the relationshipcpbetween heat capacity,
is a function c , that
of vonly
enthalpy andthe is defined by
temperature
temperatures the amount of heat
is for an ideal gas:
perature by one degree while the volume of the gas is kept constant. For our gas
a function of only 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 ) 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇for
the𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝temperature 2 an ideal gas.
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
1
n is the amount of heat energy needed 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2 to raise the temperature by 1 degree while
stant. There𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎis=a 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐second(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) ⋅ heat=capacity,
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 cv, that is defined by the amount of heat
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
This 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
relationship is valid 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 any type of compression involving an ideal gas. Now, consider a
for
ature by one degree
type of compression of an ideal gas. Now,of
while the volume
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
1 the
we gas is akept
consider constant.
specific For
type of our gas
compression:
unction specific
of only type of compression
the temperature for an ideal such
gas.as the isentropic compression in an adiabatic system.
n adiabatic system.
onsider the concept Before doing of entropy: The second of thermodynamics
entropy:law Thetells us law of thermodynamics
type of compression of an that, ideal2 consider gas. Now,the
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 weconcept
considerofa specific type ofsecond
compression:
says: 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
n adiabatic system. 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) = � 2 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) ⋅1𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 1� 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
nsider the concept of entropy:𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇The second of thermodynamics law tells us
2 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
er due to irreversible ) = � or because
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1losses, + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 hea crosses the syte boundaries at a certain
equation above). For adiabatic 1 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅flows, where no heat q enters or leaves, the change in
e ofgenerated
ses compression in the of an ideal gas. Now,
compression process. we consider
These losses a specific
cometypefromofthe compression:
friction of gas
diabatic
r due to system.
irreversible
ng of gas ofAdifferent change energy losses,
in entropy orlevels. because hea crosses the syte
is either due to irreversible losses, or because boundaries at a certain
heat crosses the
ider the
equation concept
ssion process above).
system of For entropy:
(dq=0,boundaries adiabatic The
sirr=0)2 therefore second
flows,
at a certain of
where
does notthermodynamics
no heat
temperature q enters
change the(the law
or tells
leaves, us the
first temperature
entropy change
of the system, inis equation above).
initthe
ses generated in the compression 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 process. These losses come from the friction of gas
ess. This isentropic For
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 adiabatic compression
2 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 ) = � levels.
flows,+where 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 noassumes
process heat, q enters
that no or leaves,isthe
entropy changeininthe
generated entropy simply
ng
he of gas of
system different
adiabaticenergy
isdescribes (that 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
is, no heat can enter or leave the system except withlosses
the come from the
the losses generated in the compression process. These
1
ssion process
entropy (dq=0,from
canfriction
come sirr=0) therefore does not change the entropy of the system, it is
of gaslosses, with solid whichsurfaces are irreversible.
and the nomixing of gas having different
in the energy levels.
due to irreversible losses, or because hea crosses that
ss. This isentropic compression process assumes the syteentropy
boundaries is generated
at a certain
he system
uation is adiabatic
above). For (that
adiabatic is,flows, noprocess,heat where canTnoenter
heatorq leave
entersthe
or system
byleaves, exceptratio
with(with
inthe
he discharge
entropy can Antemperature
come adiabatic,from
for
losses,
this
reversible which compression
are
2s,is determined
process
irreversible. (dq=0, sirrthe
=0) change
the pressure therefore does not change
generated
heats is strictly in the compression process. These
only a constant for a perfect gas. For an ideal gas, one usually selects losses come from the friction of gas
the entropy of the system. It is isentropic. This is an ideal process. This isentropic
of gas of different energy levels.
compression process assumes that no entropy byisthe
generated during
he
on discharge
process (dq=0, temperature sirr=0) for this process,
therefore does not ,is
T2schangedetermined
the entropy ofpressure
the system, isthe compression
ratioit(with
eats is strictly process.
only
This isentropic compression a Because
constant the
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1 for system
a assumes that no entropy is generated in theor leave the system
perfect is adiabatic
gas. For an(that
ideal is, no
gas, heat
one can
usually enter
selects
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 process 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
system is adiabatic except 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =with𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 �the
(that is, �no flowing heat + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅can gas), the only change in entropy can come from losses, which are
1 enter or leave the system except with the
tropy can come irreversible.
from losses, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 which are irreversible.
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
discharge temperatureFor𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅an2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅for
1 � this
isentropic � compression,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1relate process, + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 T2s,is the discharge
determined bytemperature
the pressure ratio for this
(withprocess, T2s, is
mpression
ts is strictly ofdetermined
a perfect
only a constant gas, for atheperfect isentropic
gas. head,
For an temperature
ideal gas, one and
by the pressure ratio (with k= cp /cv ). The ratio of specific heats is strictly only
pressures
usually selectsby
a constant for a perfect gas. For an ideal gas, a suitable average value is usually selected.
mpression of a perfect gas, relate the isentropic head, temperature and pressures by
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 � � + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1
So for an isentropic compression of a perfect gas, the isentropic head, temperature and
ession of a perfect gas, relate the isentropic head, temperature and pressures by
pressures can be related by:
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 �� − 1�
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1
This means, in particular, that the isentropic head is fully defined by typical process
isentropic head is fully defined
requirements. If the by typical
gas, process
the inlet requirements.
temperate If we know
and pressure the gas,
are known, as well as the
, as well asdesired
the desired discharge pressure, we can define the isentropic head or
discharge pressure, the isentropic head or isentropic work can be defined.
Once the compressor is built and installed on the test stand (and the gas composition is
nd install it on the testthe
known), stand, we can
suction andmeasure
dischargethepressures
suction and
anddischarge pressures
temperatures andmeasured. Then,
can be
as composition). Then, we can calculate from the suction and discharge temperature
the actual amount of work, Δh, (the actual head) that this compressor has absorbed can be
he actual head) that this compressor has absorbed. If we had measure the mass flow
onsumption directly from
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ∆ℎ
22 | Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression
erodynamic performance of the compressor, we can define an efficiency, where we
the isentropic head is fully defined by typical process requirements. If we know the gas,
ure, as well as the desired discharge pressure, we can define the isentropic head or
and install it on the test stand, we can measure the suction and discharge pressures and
e gas composition). Then, we can calculate from the suction and discharge temperature
,(the
and actual
install head) thattest
it on the this compressor
stand, has absorbed.
we can measure If we and
the suction had discharge
measure the mass flow
pressures and
econsumption
gas composition). Then,
directly from we can from
calculated calculate from theand
the suction suction and discharge
discharge temperature
temperature. If the mass flow of gas had been
h (the actual head) that 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
this = compressor has absorbed.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ∆ℎ the power
measured, If we ishad
consumption measure
derived the mass
directly from:flow
consumption directly from
e aerodynamic performance 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
oḟ ∆ℎ
the compressor, we can define an efficiency, where we
mpressor requires with the work a perfect compressor that does not create any losses ,
e aerodynamic performance To determine the quality we
of the compressor, of the
canaerodynamic performance
define an efficiency, where of we
the compressor, efficiency can
mpressor requires with be thedefined
work a by perfect compressor
comparing that Δh,
the work, doesthe
notcompressor
create any requires
losses , with the work a perfect
compressor that does not create any losses, Δhs, would require:
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
REAL GAS
ram for Methane. We can Thesee, Mollierthat diagram for low

indeed, for Methane at low
pressures andpressures and temperatures
temperatures, the gas (Figure 1-3)
, that is the change in enthalpy
demonstrates is onlythat
a function
the gasofbehaves
temperature.
as an ideal gas. Note the change in enthalpy is only a
gram
ram for Methane. We can functionsee, that indeed, for low pressures and temperatures, the gas
of temperature.
,see
thatinisnatural
the change in enthalpy is this
gas compression, onlyequation
a function of temperature.
becomes inaccurate, and an additional
ctor Z, has to be added:For the elevated pressures found in natural gas compression, this equation becomes
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
see in natural gas compression,
inaccurate, this equation becomes inaccurate, and an additional
= 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 and an additional variable, the compressibility factor Z, has to be added:
actor Z, has to be added:𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
= 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
lity factor Z itself is a function
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 of pressure, temperature and gas composition.
ility factor Z itself is aUnfortunately, the compressibility

function of pressure, factor
temperature and gasZ composition.
itself is a function of pressure, temperature and
gas composition.
METHANE
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram Isentropic
Compression
Actual
Compression
Pressure
Ideal
gas
Enthalpy
Figure 1-3. Mollier Diagram for a gas (Methane): enthalpy versus pressure is shown, with lines
of constant temperature, density, and entropy.

agram for a gas (Methane): We see Enthalpy versus pressure, with lines of constant temperature,
y in a real gas, we get additional terms for the deviation between real gas behavior and ideal gas
l, 2001): To calculate enthalpy in a real gas, additional terms for the deviation between real gas
behavior and ideal gas behavior are evident. (Poling et al, 2001):
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = (ℎ0 − ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 )) 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇1 + � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 − (ℎ0 − ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 )) 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇1
H0-H(p1))T1 The
and terms
(H0-H(p(h20)) T2 are
-h(p )) called
1 T1
and (h0departure functions,
-h(p2))T2 are because functions,
called departure they describe the deviation
because they describe
eal gas behavior from the ideal gas behavior. They relate the enthalpy at some pressure
the deviation of the real gas behavior from the ideal gas behavior. They relate and
the enthalpy
e to a reference state at low pressure, but at the same temperature. The departure functions can
at some pressure and temperature to a reference state at low pressure, but at the same
ated solely from an equation of state, while the term ∫ cpdT is evaluated in the ideal gas state.
temperature. The departure functions can be calculated solely from an equation of state,
Figure 4 shows the path of a calculation using an equation of state.
while the term ∫ cpdT is evaluated in the ideal gas state. (Figure 1-4) shows the path of a
calculation using an equation of state.
Isotherms T2
T1 2
Pressure, p
Zero Pressure
A B
Figure 4– Calculation Path for Equations of State
Enthalpy, h
Figure 1-4. Calculation path for equations of state.
While a Mollier diagram is perfectly suited for pure gases, working with gas mixtures is
much more common in typical applications. For gas mixtures, so called Equations of State
(EoS) are used. Equations of state are semi-empirical relationships that enable calculation
of the compressibility factor, as well as the departure functions, for a given set of pressures
and temperatures, or pressures and entropies. Equations of state also consider how the
components of gas mixtures influence each other, thereby providing mixing rules for that
purpose.
For gas compression applications, the most frequently used equations of state are Redlich-
Kwong, Soave-Redlich-Kwong, Benedict-Webb-Rubin, Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling and
Lee-Kessler-Ploecker (Poling et al, 2001). More recently, AGA 8 and GERG are frequently
considered.
In general, all of these equations provide accurate results for typical applications
in pipelines, i.e. for gases with a high methane content, and at pressures less than
approximately 3500 psia. Kumar et al. (1999) and Beinecke et al. (1983) have compared
these equations of state regarding their accuracy for compression applications. It should

quations
pies.
pies.providingof stateof
Equations
Equations ofalso take
state
state into
also
also account
take
take how thehow
into account components
the of gas mixtures
the components of
of gas influence
gas mixtures influence
her,
rules
mixing for that
rules mixing
purpose.
for that rules
purpose. for thatinto account
purpose. how components mixtures influence
mixing rules for that purpose.
compression
tions, the most applications, the most frequently
of stateused equations of stateSoave-Redlich-
are Redlich-Kwong, Soave-Redlich-
applications,
applications,
, thefrequently
the
Benedict-Webb-Rubin,
most
most frequentlyused
frequently equations
used
used equations
equations
Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling ofarestate
of Redlich-Kwong,
state are
are
and
Redlich-Kwong,
Redlich-Kwong,
Lee-Kessler-Ploecker
Soave-Redlich-
Soave-Redlich-
(Poling et al, 2001).
bin, Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling
ebb-Rubin,
ebb-Rubin, Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling
Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling and Lee-Kessler-Ploecker
and
and Lee-Kessler-Ploecker
Lee-Kessler-Ploecker (Poling(Poling
et al, 2001).
(Poling et
et al,
al, 2001).
2001).
AGA 8
ef) are(ref)
ERG and GERG
considered
are (ref) are
frequently. considered frequently.
ERG
ral, (ref)
all are considered
of these considered
equations befrequently.
noted that
frequently.
provide the Redlich
accurate results Kwong
for equation of state in is the most effective equation
with from
a a
ons provide
equations
equations accurate
provide
provide results
accurate
accurate for typical
results
results applications
for typical
for typical intypical
applications
applications in applications
pipelines,
in i.e. for gases
pipelines,
pipelines,
pipelines,
i.e. for
i.e. forwith
gases
i.e. for
gasesa with
with gases
aa al. (1983)
ethane content, and at computational
pressures below point
about of3500
view (because
psia. Kumar the etsolution
al. (1999) is found
and directly rather
Beinecke et than through
have an
pressures
and at
andthese below about
at pressures
pressures below
below 3500
about
about psia.
3500
3500Kumar
psia.
psia. et al. (1999)
Kumar
Kumar et
et al.
al. and Beinecke
(1999)
(1999) and et al. (1983)
and Beinecke
Beinecke et
et al. have have
al. (1983)
(1983) have
ed
state
ons equations
regarding
of state of iteration).
state
their accuracy
regarding their regarding their
for compression accuracy for compression
applications. It should applications.
be noted that It should
thethat be noted that the
ons
htate
Kwongof state regarding
equation theirisaccuracy
of state accuracy
the most
for
for compression
compression
effective equation
applications.
applications.
from
It
It should
should
aofcomputational
be noted
bepoint
noted ofthat
view
the
the(because the
on
on is
of
of the
state
state most
is
is the
theeffective
most
most equation
effective
effective from
equation
equation a computational
from
from a
a point
computational
computational view
point
point (because
of
of view
view the
(because
(because the
the
ner is rather
found directly Beinecke and Luedtke (1983) have conducted thorough evaluations on the accuracy of the
tlythan
tly rather through
than anrather
through
thanLuedtke
through anthan
iteration). through
iteration).
an(1983)
iteration).
an iteration).
einecke and Lee-Kesler-Ploecker
have conducted(LKP) method, the Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling
thorough evaluations on the accuracy (BWRS) method
of the
ke
Luedtke
Luedtke (1983)(1983)have conducted
(1983) have thorough
haveandconducted
conducted evaluations
thorough
thorough on theon
evaluations
evaluations accuracy
on the
the of the of
accuracy the
esler-Ploecker (LKP) the Soave-Redlich-Kwong
method, the (SRK) method.
Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling All accuracy
of the EOS of
(BWRS) the method
mentioned can predict
and the
KP) er
er method,
(LKP)
(LKP) the
method,
method, Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling
the
the Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling
Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling (BWRS) (BWRS)
(BWRS)method and
method
method and
and
ave-Redlich-Kwong properties
(SRK) of hydrocarbon mixtures quite accurately over a wide
predict the properties Still,
range of pressures.
ng
-Kwong
-Kwong (SRK)(SRK) method.
(SRK) All
method.
method. themethod.
of All
All EOS
of
of the
the EOS
EOS
Allmentioned
mentioned of thecan
mentioned
EOS mentioned
predict
can
can predict
predict
canproperties
the properties
the
the properties
drocarbon mixtures deviations
quite of 0.5 to 2.5%
accurately over and
aof greater
wide rangein the values for gas density are common.
quite accurately
xtures
xtures quite
quite over
accurately
accurately aover
wide
over aa range
wide
wide of pressures.
range
range of Still,ofdeviations
pressures.
pressures.
pressures.
Still,
Still, ofStill,
deviations
deviations 0.5 of
of
deviations
0.5
0.5
of 0.5
% and
err in
values
the greater
for gasinfor
thegasvalues
density arefor
Evendensity
more
gascommon.
common.
important
densityEven
than
areEven
common.
the more important
compressibility
Even
factorthanmorethe
is the
important
calculation
than the
of the enthalpy
in the values
essibility values
factor for
is gas
the density
calculation
are
are ofcommon.
the Even
enthalpy
more
more
and
important
important
entropy using
than
than
the
the
the
EOS. Because
ctor
ctor the calculation
is
isofthe calculation
thethe
calculation andof
of the entropy
enthalpy
of the
the using
andthe
enthalpy
enthalpy EOS.entropy
entropy
and
and Because
using using
entropy derivatives
the
using EOS.
the
the EOS. of
EOS. the EOS
Because have to be used to perform
Because
Because
tives EOS have
theseto be used
calculations to perform
(Poling these
et al,(Poling calculations
2001),(Poling
the
etdeviations (Poling et al, 2001), the
ave to
EOS
EOS
ions
be used
have
have
can be
to betoused
be
toeven perform
used
larger
to these calculations
to perform
perform
than for
these
these
the
calculations
calculations
compressibility (Polingal, 2001),
factor.
et al,can
et al, thebe even
2001),
2001), thelarger than those for the
the
arger larger
even than for
larger thefor
than for compressibility
compressibility
the compressibility
compressibilityfactor.
factor.factor.
factor.
even
may differ than
from the
program to program because sometimes different mixing rules are used,
ogram
om
om interactionto
program program
to
program toparameters because
program
program sometimes
because
because sometimes
sometimesdifferent mixingmixing
different
different rules
mixing are
rules
rules used,
are used,
aremixing
used,
ent EOS may differ from
between theprogram
gases to
areprogram
assumed, becauseor adifferent
different rules areofsometimes
treatment the
ameters
nn parameters
parametersbetween theused,
between
between gases
the
the are
gases
gases
different
assumed,
are
are or
assumed,
assumed,
interaction
a different
or
or
parameters
a
a treatment
different
different
between
of
treatment
treatment
the gases
the
are
of
of the
the
assumed, and/or a different
gas
EOS
nn the portion
isEOS
used. inused.
is the EOS
Poling is used.
et al
Poling (2001)
et al Poling
give
(2001) anetoverview
al an
give (2001) of
overview give
thean overview
theory
of the behind
theory ofbehind
the theory behind
the EOS is
on of state procedures.used. Poling
treatment etofal (2001)
the ideal give
gas an
portion overview
in the EOS ofis the
used. theory
Poling behind
et al (2001) provide an
ures.
rocedures.
rocedures. overview of the theory behind equation-of-state procedures.
For real gases (where k, and cp in the equations above become functions of temperature
clk, gases cc(where

in the cpand
k,equations
and pressure), the enthalpy of a gas h(p,T) is thus calculated in a more complicated way,
inabove,
the equations above, become functions of temperature andenthalpy
pressure), the enthalpy
p and p equations
in the above, become functions
become of (Poling
temperature
functions of et al., and
temperature pressure),
and theofenthalpy
pressure), the
k, and
slated
h(p,T) p is thus calculated inequations
in the using
equations above,
a become
more of state
functions
complicated of
way 2001).
temperature
using For apressure),
and
equations gas
of state known
the composition,
enthalpy
(Poling et al., 2001). these
These
in a more
s calculated
calculated in aacomplicated way using
more calculations
complicated wayequations
using of stateof
equations of(Poling
state et al., 2001).
(Poling et al., These These
al., 2001).
2001).
snt relationships in more
that allowcomplicated
to represent
calculateway
the usingrelationships
enthalpyequations
of gas that
of knownenable
state determination
(Poling et
composition, if of
any enthalpy,
These
two of its if any twoits
pressure, of its
low
thattoallow
ssature,
that calculate
allow to the enthalpy
to calculate
calculate the of gas of
the enthalpy
enthalpy ofknown
of gas of
gas composition,
of known
known if any two
composition,
composition, of its
if any
if any twopressure,
two of its
of its
its pressure,
pressure, its
its
eropy
known.
ropy or its entropy arevariables—pressure,
are known.
known. known. temperature, and entropy—are known.
are
refore can calculate
e actual
ulate the head forhead
actual head thethe
compression
for actual headbyfor thebycompression by
the compression
compression
ulate the actual for The the actual head forbythe compression can then be calculated by:
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 )1𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
) −2 ,,ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =) ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
,−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 ) − ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ2= = 1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ 2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 ) − ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
ddisentropic
by
by
head by
and the isentropic head by:
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 )1𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ

) −2ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =) ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
,−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 ,)𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 ) − ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ2= ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
= 2 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 )𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠− = 1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠111 ,=
=𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
) 1 ,, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1)
1 1
1 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 )
uation for the actual head implicitly includes the entropy rise ∆s, because:
ead
ctualimplicitly
ctual head
head implicitly includes
implicitly the
Theentropy
includes
includes equation
the
the entropy for∆s,
rise
entropy the because:
rise
rise actual ∆s, head implicitly includes the entropy rise(s), because:
∆s, because:
because:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 )1𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
) −2 ,,ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅21,)𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 −+ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
,2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)1ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
)𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) )2 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠11, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠+1 )𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) − ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 )
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ2=, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ,−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
)= 1 ,ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2= 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)
2 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 − +1ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1 ,−
= ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅2 ) − ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅1 ) = ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 + 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) − ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 )
3 shows theprocess
compression process inshows
a Mollier diagram.
ion process
mpression
mpression
edefinition
the enthalpy
in
process in aa (Figure
a Mollier
in
definition
diagram.
Mollier
Mollierabove
1-3)
diagram.
diagram.
is on a per
the compression
mass
process in a Mollier diagram. Because the above
on above isabove
definition on a is
above peron
is onmass aenthalpy
a perflow
per mass
mass basis, definition
flowthe
flow basis,
basis,is on
absorbed theaflow
the gasbasis,
per-mass-flow
absorbed
absorbed power gas
gas
thePpower absorbed
gbasis,
power (thatP the
Pis, gas power
the
g (that
power
absorbed
Pg (thatthat
is, the that
power
g (that is, the power that g
is, the power that
gas power P (that is, the
mpressor
to theinto transferred
gas), into the gas), can be calculated as
erred
erred into thecan
the gas),
gas),be calculated
can
can be power
be as
calculated
that theas
calculated ascompressor transferred into the gas), can be calculated as:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
=
= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇̇ ⋅⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
r P necessary to drive the compressor, is the gas absorbed power increased by all mechanical
seals and bearings), expressed The mechanical by a mechanical power (P) necessary
efficiency ηmto(typically drive the in compressor
the order of is 1the
or gas
2% absorbed power
power): increased by all mechanical losses (friction in the seals and bearings), expressed by a
mechanical efficiency m (typically on the order of 1 or 2% of the total absorbed power):
ntial Green 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ =
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
ergy conservation on a different level in turbomachines: The aerodynamic function of a

n the capability to trade two forms of energy: kinetic energy (velocity energy) and potential
gy). This will be discussed in a subsequent section.
The mechanical power P necessary to drive the compressor, is the gas absorbed power m increased by all mechanic
of the (friction
ve the compressor,
losses total absorbed
is the gas
in the power):
absorbed power
seals and increased
bearings), by all by
expressed a mechanical efficiency ηm (typically in the order of 1 or 2%
mechanical
expressed by a mechanical
of the efficiency
total absorbed power):ηm (typically in the order of 1 or 2%
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ =
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂⋅𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
1 Energy conservation 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is also encountered on a𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃different = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇level
⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ in
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚function relies
= turbomachines. As
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚on 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 the capability to
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = discussed𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = in a subsequent section, its aerodynamic
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
trade
We also twoencounter
forms of energy energy:conservation
kinetic energy on(velocity
a different energy)level and potential energy
in turbomachines: (pressure
The aerodynamic function of a
Weenergy).
turbomachine
also encounter reliesenergy on theconservation
capability toon trade two forms
a different level of in energy:
turbomachines: kinetic energy (velocity energy)
The aerodynamic and potential
function of a
energy
level in(pressure
n a differentturbomachine turbomachines:
relies energy). This
on theThe will betodiscussed
aerodynamic
capability twoinforms
function
trade aofsubsequent
a of energy: section.
kinetic energy (velocity energy) and potential
ade two forms If cooling is applied
of energy: kinetic during
energythe(velocity
compression
energy)process,
and for example, with intercoolers
energy (pressure energy). This will be discussed in apotential
subsequent section.
between
If cooling
cussed in a subsequent section. two
is compressors
applied during in series),
the then
compression the increase
process in entropy
(for example is smaller than for anbetween two compressors
with intercoolers
uncooled
series), process.
then the Therefore,
increase in the
entropy power
is requirement
smaller than for
If cooling is applied during the compression process (for example with intercoolers between is an reduced
uncooled (Figure process. 1-4).
Therefore, the powertwo
requirement will i
compressors
sion process reduced
series), (Figure
(for example
then the increase 5).
with intercoolers
in entropybetween
is smaller twothan compressors
for an uncooled in process. Therefore, the power requirement will b
Bringing
aller than forreduced an uncooled gas from
(Figure 5).a certain
process. suction
Therefore, thepressure to a higher discharge
power requirement will be pressure by means of
mechanical work is the task of compression. The actual compression process is often
compared to one
The task ofofgas
twocompression
ideal processes:
is to bring gas from a certain suction pressure to a higher
discharge
The task pressure by means of mechanical
of gas compression is to bring gas work.from The actual compression
a certain
The compression process is isentropic, if the process is frictionless and no heat is added to
suction pressure process
to a ishigher
often
to bring gas from a pressure
compared
discharge certain
to one suction
ofby two
means pressure
ideal of to a higher
processes:
mechanical work. The actual compression process is often
or removed from the gas during compression. With these assumptions, the entropy of the
echanical work.
compared The actual compression process is often
gas does nottochange one of twothe
during ideal processes:
compression process, and it is reversible. Because no heat
esses:
transfer occurs across the system boundaries, if
The compression process is isentropic the
the process
process is frictionless
is often referred to asand no heat is added to or
reversible
removed
The compression process is isentropic if the process is frictionless and noentropy
adiabatic. from the gas during compression. With these assumptions, the heat is of
addedthe gas
to ordoes
pic if the removed
process
not change is frictionless
from during
the gas and
the during no
compression heat is added
process,With
compression. to or
and the
these process is reversible.
assumptions, Because
the entropy there
of the gasis does
no
pression. WithLike the
these
heatchange
not isentropic
transfer cycle,
assumptions,
across
during the the
the polytropic
the
system
compressionentropy compression
of the gas
boundaries,
process, process
the
and the isprocess
does
process reversible,
is often but is not toBecause
referred
is reversible. as reversible
there adiabati
is no
adiabatic. It can be isdescribed as anBecause
infinite number ofisisentropic
process, heat
and the process
transfer across reversible.
the system boundaries, therethe processsteps,
no each interrupted by
is often referred to as reversible adiabatic
ndaries, the isobaric
process heat transfer,
is often such that the
referred toprocess efficiency
as reversible in each step is the same. The heat addition
The polytropic compression is likeadiabatic.
the isentropic cycle reversible, but it is not adiabati
enables the process to yield the same discharge temperature as the real process.
It can
The be described
polytropic as an infinite
compression processnumberis like the of isentropic
isentropic steps,
cycle each interrupted
reversible, bynot
but it is isobaric he
adiabatic
ss is like the isentropic
transfer,
ItWhile
can be such cycle
that
described reversible,
the
as efficiency
an infinitebutin it is
each
number not adiabatic.
step
of is the
isentropicsame.
the compressor’s path from inlet to outlet in the isentropic process is defined The
steps, heat
each addition allows
interrupted by the process
isobaric hea
number of by isentropic
yield
transfer, thesuch
following same steps,
that
a constant each
discharge
the interrupted
temperature
efficiency
entropy, in each
the isentropic byaspath
isobaric
theisreal
step heat
process.
is the
defined same. The heat
by infinitesimal addition allows the process t
steps
each stepyield
is the
of constant same.
the same The
polytropic heat addition
efficiency
discharge allows
(p). This means
temperature the
as the process
thatreal to compression process
the process.
actual
While
ure as the real theof path
process.
consists from number
an infinite inlet to outlet
of steps of (for
the practical
compressor in the aisentropic
purposes, process
large number, suchis as
defined
20 by following a consta
entropy,
While
is sufficient). thethe path isentropic
Each from step inlet pathtoisoutlet
defined
consists of an
by
theinfinitesimal
of isentropic
compressor steps
in theofisentropic
compression
constant polytropic
process
step, followed by an defined byηpfollowing
is efficiency
isobaric
. This means that t
a constan
e compressor actual
entropy,in thethe
heat addition:
compression
isentropic
isentropic process
process consists
path isisdefined of an infinite
definedbybyinfinitesimal (for
following asteps of constant polytropic efficiency ηp. This means that th
practical
constant purposes, a large number, such as 20 is sufficien
infinitesimal number
actual ofofconstant
stepscompression steps. Each polytropic
process step consists of
ofan
efficiency
consists ηisentropic
an p.infinite
This meanscompression
(for step, followed
that the purposes,
practical by number,
a large an isobaric heat
such as addition.
20 is sufficien
n infinite (for
number practical of steps. purposes, Each step a large number,
consists such
of an as 20 iscompression
isentropic sufficient) step, followed by an isobaric heat addition.
1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = ∫𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2step,
isentropic compression 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 followed
= by an isobaric heat addition.
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 1 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = ∫𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
and
and:
and 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ∫𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝21
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = ∫𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑efficiency ηp is defined as:
The𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 polytropic 1
The polytropic efficiency ηp is defined as:
:
The polytropic efficiency (p) is defined as: 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = the polytropic process (Beinecke and Luedtke, 1983) for comparison reasons works fundamentally the sam
Using 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ
Usingasthe
way using the isentropic
polytropic processprocess for comparison
(Beinecke and Luedtke, reasons.
1983) The difference lies
for comparison in theworks
reasons fact that the polytropic
fundamentally theproce
sam
uses
nd Luedtke,way 1983)asthe usingsame
for the discharge
comparison
isentropic temperature
reasons works
process for as the actual
fundamentally
comparison process,
reasons.the sameThe while the
differenceisentropic
lies in theprocess
fact thathas
the a different
polytropic (lowe
proces
Using the polytropic process (Beinecke and Luedtke, 1983) for comparison reasons works
mparison reasons.
uses theThe samedifference liestemperature
discharge in the fact that
as the
the polytropic
actual process
process, processwhile the isentropic process has a different (lowe
fundamentally the same way as using the isentropic for comparison reasons. The
the actual process, while the isentropic process has a different (lower)
difference lies in the fact that the polytropic process uses the same discharge temperature
as the actual process, while the isentropic process has a different (lower) discharge
temperature than the actual process for the same compression task. In particular, both the
aterpillar: Confidential Green
isentropic and the polytropic processes are reversible and adiabatic. In order to fully define
the isentropic compression process for a given gas, suction pressure, suction temperature
and discharge pressure must be known. To define the polytropic process, either the
polytropic compression efficiency or the discharge temperature must also be known.
For designers of compressors, the polytropic efficiency has an important advantage. If a

compressor has five stages and each stage has the same isentropic efficiency (s), then the
overall compressor efficiency will be lower than (s). If, for the same example, it’s assumed
that each stage has the same polytropic efficiency (p), then the polytropic efficiency of the
entire machine is also (p).
Either process can be used for the definition of the operating point and the efficiency of
the compressor. It should be noted that the absorbed compressor power is not impacted
by this choice, because it solely depends on the actual head. Since the site test will be
performed at conditions very similar to the design point in many instances, the isentropic
definition has an inherent advantage. The isentropic head (and thus the operating point) are
fully defined by the process conditions (gas, suction and discharge pressure and suction
temperature). Additionally, the polytropic head depends on the compressor efficiency
which—in itself—is the subject of the test.
The actual polytropic process compared to an isentropic process has the advantage
because the efficiency for an aerodynamically similar point is less dependent on the
actual pressure ratio. However, a disadvantage for the polytropic process is the head for a
given set of operating conditions depends on the efficiency of the compressor, while the
isentropic head does not.
DEWPOINT
When a gas is cooled at constant pressure (assuming the pressure is below the critical
pressure), liquids will eventually form (Figure 1-3). The pressure and temperature at which
the first liquids form defines the dewpoint. At pressures above the critical pressure, there
is no phase change. In general, gas compressors are designed to compress gas. Installing a
separator upstream of the compressor to remove liquids in the gas is common.
DEFINITIONS
1. Pressure
Absolute Pressure is the pressure measured relative to an absolute vacuum. It equals the
algebraic sum of barometric pressure and gage pressure.
Static Pressure is the pressure in the gas measured in such a manner that no effect is
produced by the velocity of the gas stream. It is the pressure that would be shown by
a measuring instrument moving at the same velocity as the moving stream and is the
pressure used as a property in defining the thermodynamic state of the fluid. Pressure tabs
in a pipeline measure static pressure.

Stagnation (Total) Pressure is the pressure which would be measured at the stagnation
point when a moving gas stream is brought to rest and its kinetic energy is converted to
an enthalpy rise by an isentropic compression from the flow condition to the stagnation
condition. It is the pressure usually measured by an impact tube. In a stationary body of
gas, the static and stagnation pressures are numerically equal.
Velocity Pressure (Dynamic Pressure) is the stagnation pressure minus the static
pressure in a gas stream. It is the pressure generally measured by the differential pressure
reading of a Pitot tube.
2. Temperature
Absolute Temperature is the temperature above absolute zero. It is equal to the degrees
Fahrenheit plus 459.69 and is stated as degrees Rankine. In SI units, it is equal to the
degrees Celsius plus 273.15, and is stated as Kelvin.
Static Temperature is the temperature that would be shown by a measuring instrument

moving at the same velocity as the fluid stream. It is the temperature used as a property in
defining the thermodynamic state of the gas.
Stagnation (Total) Temperature is that temperature which would be measured at the

stagnation point if a gas stream were brought to rest and its kinetic energy converted
to an enthalpy rise by an isentropic compression process from the flow condition to the
stagnation condition.
3. Flow
Capacity (Actual Flow) of a compressor is the volume rate of flow of gas compressed and
delivered referred to conditions of pressure, temperature and gas composition prevailing at
the compressor inlet.
Standard or Normal Flow is the rate of flow under certain ‘standard’ conditions, for
example 60°F and 30" Hg (US Standard) or 0°C and 101.325 kPa (SI Normal).

CHAPTER 2
COMPONENTS OF GAS COMPRESSORS
Daniel Sanchez, Rainer Kurz
The thermodynamic considerations in the previous chapter treat the compressor as a black
box. These considerations apply to any type of compression device. In this chapter, the
essential components of a centrifugal compressor (Figures 2-1a-b) that accomplish the task
of compressing a gas are discussed.
The gas enters the compressor at the suction flange, and is then directed axially into the
impeller with the help of inlet guide vanes. After each impeller, the flow enters a diffuser,
followed by a crossover bend. The subsequent turn vane conditions the flow to enter the
next impeller approximately in an axial direction. After the last diffuser, the gas is gathered
using a volute and leaves the compressor at the discharge flange, now at a higher pressure.
Inlet Stator Spacer Crossover Volute

Diffuser Turn Vane
Rotor Spacer 90° Bend Diaphragm

Impellers Splitter
Inlet Guide Vane (IGV)
Figure 2-1a. Compressor cross section showing the aerodynamic components.
Inlet System
Suction Casing
Nozzle
Impeller
Diffuser
Volute
Inlet Vane
Discharge
Shaft
Nozzle
Figure 2-1b. Compressor components cutaway view.
Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors | 31

The only rotating parts of the compressor are the shaft with the impellers, the balance
piston, the trust bearing collar, and the rotating portion of the dry gas seal.
Compressors are typically composed of a module (bundle), casing, end caps, and bearing
and seal assembles. The bundle is composed of the rotor, stators, inlet housing and
discharge volute. The bundle holds all the essential aerodynamic components needed to
perform the required functions. The casing is a pressure vessel containing a vertically or
horizontally split barrel whose main purpose is to contain the bundle. Suction and discharge
endcaps contain the bearings and seal assemblies along with service ports for oil and gas.
Figure 2-1a shows a typical centrifugal compressor cross section. Figures 2-1b and 2-2
show the major compressor components.
Casing and Endcaps
Bearings
and Seals
Rotor with
Impellers + Stators,
Inlet, Volute = Bundle
Figure 2-2. Major compressor components.
Overhung-Style Beam-Style
Figure 2-3. Overhung- and Beam-Style designs.
32 | Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors

Depending on the arrangement of the journal bearings, you can easily identify beam-style
compressors and overhung-style compressors. (Figure 2-3) In a beam-style compressor, all
impellers sit between the bearings, while in an overhung design, the impeller sits outside
the bearing span. Designs with overhung impellers are typically limited to a single impeller
(2 impellers, if each impeller is positioned on either end of the shaft), but allow the gas to
flow axially into the compressor.
COMPRESSOR CASING
The casing is the pressure-containing part of the compressor, and must withstand the
pressure differential between the ambient pressure and the process gas pressure, without
deflection.
Figure 2-4a. Horizontally split casing
While lower pressure applications may allow a horizontally split casing (Figure 2-4b), high-
pressure applications always require a barrel type design (sometimes also called vertically
split). A barrel-type design consists of the center body, which together with two endcaps,
forms the pressure-containing barrel. The bundle can also be vertically or horizontally split
(Figure 2-4a).

Barrel Type Casing -
Horizontally or vertically split bundle
Figure 2-4b. Barrel-type casing.
IN-LINE
Dual-Compartment
Machine
BACK-TO-BACK
Dual-Compartment
Machine
Figure 2-5. Centrifugal compressors with two compartments.

A specific type of compressor is a compressor with two compartments in the same casing
(Figure 2-6). The compressor shown in Figure 2-5 has four nozzles. The gas enters the first
section via the first nozzle, and leaves this section via the second nozzle. Now, the gas
can be cooled by an external heat exchanger. The cooled gas is fed back into the second
section via the third nozzle, and leaves this section and the compressor through the fourth
nozzle. This configuration leads to lower power consumption and allows higher pressure
ratios. This will be discussed in greater detail in the rotodynamic section.
Figure 2-6. Compartment compressor with four nozzles on the test stand, showing the
compressor casing with the flanges for process piping (top), and the end cap (facing) with
service connections.
FLOW PATH
A centrifugal compressor is essentially a series of one or more impellers rotating on a shaft

within a pressure vessel. The gas enters at the compressor inlet flange and flows through
the suction piping to the inlet system. Since the gas enters the compressor from the side or
the top, the inlet system guides the gas (often with the help of guide vanes) to the inlet of
the first stage impeller. The flow at this point is more or less in an axial direction, but it may
have a swirl component. After each impeller, stationary parts such as guide-return vanes
and vane/vaneless diffusers are positioned. The combination of one rotating section and
a stationary section is considered a “stage” of the compressor (Figure 2-7). Between the
inlet flange and outlet flange, a series of stages can be installed. Figure 2-1a shows a typical
compressor with labeled parts.

Inlet Intermediate
Diaphragm Guide Vane To Next
Stage
Inlet Guide
Vane Intermediate
Impeller Diaphragm
Figure 2-7. Flow path.
To compress gas, the centrifugal compressor adds energy to the gas by rotating the
shaft and thus rotating the impellers. The rotating impellers increase the velocity and
static pressure of the gas. Once the gas passes to the diffusor, the flow is slowed down,
transforming most of the kinetic energy of the impeller into an increased static pressure.
After the last stage, the flow is directed out of the discharge flange through a volute
(Figure 2-8).
Figure 2-8. Discharge volute.

An impeller consists of a number of rotating vanes, enclosed on the back of a disk (back
face), that impart mechanical energy to the gas (Figure 2-9). As discussed in greater detail
later, the gas leaves the impeller with increased velocity and increased static pressure. For
oil and gas applications, mostly shrouded impellers (front-face cover) are used. Open-faced
impellers are not common. The impeller hub is the surface of the disk (back face) touched
by the fluid. The entry into the impeller is called 'impeller eye' (Figure 2-9).
Front Face Blade

(Cover)
Shroud
Hub Back Face

(Disk)
Figure 2-9. Impeller cross section.
Impellers are typically manufactured using one of three methods: 1. machining from a single
piece (‘hog out’), 2. precision casting, or 3. machining the vanes and brazing or welding the
shroud onto the vanes. Other methods include additive manufacturing, erosion, and three-
piece impellers where the vanes are welded or riveted to both the back face and the shroud.
Lastly, impellers are typically categorized based on their respective flow ranges in two
primary applications: multistage or pipeline. Impellers will be discussed in greater detail in
the following aerodynamic section (Figure 2-10).
Shroud
Back
Hub
Vane
w
Fl o
w
Lo
w
Fl o
gh
Hi
Figure 2-10. Impellers

ROTOR
When designing a centrifugal compressor, one of two rotor designs is typically used.
A modular design or a solid-shaft design. A solid-shaft design uses a solid rotor with
interference-fit impellers, while a modular rotor uses a tie-bolt (center bolt) pulled in tension
attached to impellers with a suction and discharge stub shaft at the respective ends.
Stub Shaft Impellers Stub Shaft
Spacer Balance Piston
Figure 2-11. Compressor shaft with impellers, spacers and balance piston.
The rotating part of the compressor consists of all the impellers. The rotor runs on two
radial bearings. On all modern compressors, hydrodynamic tilt-pad bearings are used, while
the axial thrust generated by the impellers is balanced by a balance piston. The resulting
force is balanced by a hydrodynamic tilt pad thrust bearing. Each impeller has its own
labyrinth seal on the backside of the impeller to help prevent leakage (Figure 2-11). The
balance piston is exposed to the compressor discharge pressure on its inboard side, and
via a balancing line (i.e. piping that connects to the suction side of the compressor), to the
suction pressure of the compressor on the outboard side. This also has the effect that the
dry gas seals on both the suction and the discharge ends of the compressor are exposed to
the compressor suction pressure.
To keep the gas from escaping at the shaft ends, dry gas seals are used on both shaft
ends (Figure 2-12 and 2-13). Other seal types have been used in the past, but virtually all
modern centrifugal compressors in pipeline applications use dry gas seals (Figure 2-13).
Sealing is accomplished by a stationary and a rotating disk, with a very small gap (about
5m) between them. At standstill, springs press the movable seal disc onto the stationary
disc. Once the compressor shaft starts to rotate, the groove pattern on one of the discs
causes a separating force, making the seals run without mechanically contacting the
sealing surfaces. This is one of the most critical components in a gas compressor and will
be discussed in more detail later.

Dry Seal
Thrust Bearing
Journal Bearing
Figure 2-12. Bearings and seals.
Barrier Separation Sealing

Gas (N2) Gas (N2) Gas
Secondary Primary
Leakage (N2) Leakage
Process Cavity
Bearing Cavity
Figure 2-13. Dry gas seals.

MULTI-BODY TRAINS
If the required pressure ratio exceeds the capability of a single-casing machine, or if side
streams have to be accommodated, multiple-casing trains are employed. This involves
multiple compressor bodies (some of them can have multiple sections), all driven by
the same driver. A gearbox, either between the driver and the compressor, or between
compressors can be used to adapt compressor and driver speeds (Figure 2-14).
Figure 2-14. Designs for high pressure ratios showing a train with a gearbox, a two-
compartment compressor and a single-compartment compressor.

CHAPTER 3
AERODYNAMICS OF CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSORS
Rainer Kurz, Michel J. Cave, Min Ji
In the last chapter, the discussion focused on the impeller, which imparts mechanical energy
to the gas and the diffuser, where part of the kinetic energy (velocity) is converted into
internal energy (static pressure). In this chapter, how this works is described in greater detail.
If you hold your hand, palm down, out the window of a moving vehicle and angle your hand
somewhat upward against the horizontal, you’ll feel the air pushing your hand upwards.
(CAUTION: This is a thought experiment; please do not attempt this in real life).
Why does this happen? It happens because your hand is pushing a portion of the flowing
air downward, and (as Newton’s law about action and reaction states), your hand is pushed
upward. This is the same principle the wings of an aircraft use to keep an airplane in the air
(Figure 3-1). Similarly, if a garden hose is let loose, you’ll see that the same principle also
works for flow channels, pipes and hoses. If you want to change the direction of a flowing
fluid, you have to apply a force.
Figure 3-1. Airfoil creates lift (A) by deflecting air downward.
A force applied does not yet relate to a portion of work applied. Work is done, if a force
is applied over a distance. So, to apply work, it’s not sufficient to simply apply a force. It
must be a force that’s applied to a moving object, such that the force (or at least part of the
force) is applied in the direction of the movement. So, if a force is applied (by changing the
direction of a fluid or gas) in a rotating (i.e. moving) system, work can be transferred. This is
the basic working principle for any type of turbomachinery.
In the following text, this concept will be described in more detail. The fact that a gas is
compressible must also be considered, specifically that its volume changes with pressure
and temperature.
Chapter 3: Aerodynamics of Centrifugal Compressors | 43

ion
air of work applied. Work is done, if a force is applied over a distance. So, to apply work it
downwards
a force that’s applied to a moving object, such that the force (or a least part of the force) is
apply
on a force
of work (by changing
applied. Work isthe direction
done, of aisfluid
if a force or gas)
applied overina adistance.
rotating So,
(ie moving) system,
to apply work it
king principle
a force for any type
that’s applied of turbomachinery.
to a moving object, such that the force (or a least part of the force) is
pply a forceBut(byfirst,
changing the what
consider direction of a fluid
happens or gas)
to a gas in a rotating
if it flows (ie moving)
in a channel system, or reduces
that increases
oncept in more
ing principle itsfordetail, andBernoulli’s
anyarea.
flow type also
of consider
lawthe
turbomachinery. fact that
(which a gas true
is strictly is compressible, that is its volume
only for incompressible flows, but which
can be modified for the subsonic compressible flows found in gas compressors) describes
ncept in more detail, and also consider the fact that a gas is compressible, that is its volume
the interchangeability of two forms of energy: static pressure and velocity. Consider the
s to a gas if it flows in a channel that increases or reduces its flow area:
flow offlows,
or incompressible a gasbut in awhich
duct (Figure can be 3-2):
modified for the subsonic compressible flows we
hangeability
to a gas if it of twoin
flows forms of energy:
a channel static pressure
that increases and velocity.
or reduces its flow We
area:consider here the flow
The incompressible formulation of Bernoulli’s law for a frictionless, stationary, adiabatic
r incompressible flows, but which can be modified for the subsonic compressible flows we
hangeabilityflow of two without any work input is:
forms of energy: static pressure and velocity. We consider here the flow
lis law for a frictionless, stationary, adiabatic flow without any work input
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
s law for a frictionless,2 stationary, adiabatic flow without any work input
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
mes, using the = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + of𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2enthalpy
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 concept = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐discussed earlier:
For compressible 2 flows, the equation becomes, using the concept of enthalpy discussed
es, using theearlier: 2
concept of𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐enthalpy discussed earlier:
ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ℎ + = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2
ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ℎ + = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2
Another requirement is that mass cannot appear or disappear, thus for any flow from point
1 to pointthus
appear or disappear, 2: for any flow from a point 1 to a point 2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌1 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇2 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌2 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄2

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ⋅ 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ⋅ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
and incompressible flows, with the caveat that for compressible flows the density is a function
This requirement is valid for compressible and incompressible flows, with the caveat that
mately a function of the velocity.
for compressible flows, the density is a function of pressure and temperature, and thus
ultimately a function of the velocity.
1
a velocity velocity
pressure pressure
Mass Flow Mass Flow
1
b
1
c velocity velocity
Turbine pressure pressure
blades
Mass Flow Mass Flow
1
d
Compressor
blades
Figure 3-2a-d. Bernoulli’s law.

rinciples of the vanes and diffusers used in turbomachines (Figure 2). Due to requirement for
has a wider flow area at its inlet and a smaller flow area at its exit will require a velocity
is introduced to the
These twosystem,
conceptsBernoulli’s
explain thelawworking
requiresprinciples
a drop inof static pressure
the vanes (Figure 2a).
and diffusers used in
urbine bladesturbomachines
and nozzles, inlet vanes
(Figure in Due
3-2). compressors and others for
to the requirement (Figure
mass2b). Conversely,any
conservation, anyflow
A at its inlet channel
and a larger
that flow
has aarea at its
wider flowexit willatrequire
area its inletaand
velocity decrease
a smaller flow from inlet
area at its to exit.
exit will require
Bernoulli’s law requires a increase in static pressure (Figure 2c). Examples for flow channels
flow channels in impellers, rotor and stator blades of axial compressors volutes and others
44 | Chapter 3: Aerodynamics of Centrifugal Compressors
a velocity increase from inlet to exit. If no energy is introduced to the system, Bernoulli’s
law requires a drop in static pressure (Figure 3-2a). Examples for flow channels like this are
turbine blades and nozzles, inlet vanes in compressors and others (Figure 3-2b). Conversely,
any flow channel that has a smaller flow area (A) at its inlet and a larger flow area at its exit
will require a velocity decrease from inlet to exit. If no energy is introduced to the system,
Bernoulli’s law requires an increase in static pressure (Figure 3-2c). Examples for flow
channels like this are diffusers with or without vanes, impeller flow channels, rotor and
stator blades of axial compressor volutes, and others (Figure 3-2d).
If these flow channels are in a rotating system (for example, in an impeller), mechanical
energy is added to or removed from the system. Nevertheless, if the velocities are
considered in a rotating system of coordinates, the above principles are applicable as well.
W2
p2
y 2
A
2
1
W1 U1 (p1 + w 21) A1
p1 Fx
A1
Fy F
(p2 + w 22) A2
Figure
Figure 3 – 3-3. Conservation
Conservation ofofMomentum
momentum.
Another
Figure Figure 3 concept
important
3 – Conservation – Conservation of Momentum
is the conservation
of Momentum of momentum (Figure 3-3). The change
conservation of momentum (Figure 3). The change in momentum M oftogas
in momentum (M) of gas flowing from a point 1 a point 2 is its
flowing frommass times
a point its velocity
1 to
(m c), and is also the sum of all forces (F) acting. The
ocity (m c), and is also the sum of all forces F acting. The change in momentum is change in momentum is:
econcept is the of
conservation conservation
momentum ��⃗ of(Figure
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
momentum 3). The (Figure
change 3).inThe change inMmomentum
momentum of gas flowing M offrom gas flowing
a point 1fromto a point 1 to
socity
times(mitsc),velocity
and is also (m c), theand sum iṡ of
= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 also
(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
⃗2all−the𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐⃗1 )sum
forces = F𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹⃗ofacting.
all forces The Fchangeacting.inThe change inismomentum is
momentum
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
��⃗ velocity or
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀��⃗
s gas, either by changing Tothe the direction of
⃗1 )the gas (or both),
⃗ either a force is necessary. Figure 5
change
= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐the
⃗2 −momentum⃗ )==𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹̇ ⃗(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐⃗2 of
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐this = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
gas, by changing the velocity or the direction of
of a bent, conical pipe. The 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 gas flows 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 in1through the area A1 with w1, p1, and out through the flow area
the gas (or both), a force is necessary. Figure 3-3 outlines this concept for the case of a
n the force due the pressure (p1A1 and p2A2, respectively), and the fact that a certain mass flow of gas
mentum ofa this
s gas, either by gas,
changing either bent,
Fby
the changing
conical orthe
pipe. velocity
The
ygas or of
flows thethe
indirection
through of
thetheareagasA(or both),
with w1, ap1force is
, andFigure
out necessary.
through Figure 5
the
generates reaction force R. velocity
Split into xthe and direction
coordinates, gas
and (or both),
considering a force
that
1 is necessary. 5
eptoffor the case
a bent, of a pipe.
conical bent,flow conical
The gas pipe.
area A 2 with
flows The
inw gas
through
2
, p 2
flows
. Thethe in through
differences
area A 1
the
within area
the
w 1, p1
A
force
, with
and
1 dueout w
to , p
the
through
1 1 , and out
pressure
the through
flow (p A
area
1 1
the
and pflow
A ), area
2 2
eindifferences in the
the force due the pressure force due
̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(p
respectively),
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 the pressure
A1 1and and 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌p22the (p
A22,𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 A and
respectively),
1fact p A
1 that a2 certain , respectively),
2 andmass the factflow and
that the
of agas fact
certain that a certain
masstoflow
is forced change mass
of gas flow of gas
its direction
1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴11 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2
egenerates
its direction generates
a reaction force a reaction
generates FR. Splita into force
reaction F
x and
R . Split into
y coordinates,
force x and
(FR). Split into y coordinates,
andxconsidering and considering that
that and considering that:
and y coordinates,
dinates, w1y=0)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌12𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤12𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 : 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 ) = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 − (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 )𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
choice ofwcoordinates,
rdinates, w 1y=0)(w =0) due to the choice of coordinates.
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦:1y=0)𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 �𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
yields
2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 � = 1y −(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 )𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
formulation 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 : is also 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1valid for viscous 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤11 )𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1=(𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
: 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 −𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝12𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1−because
flows, 1 )2=
−𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 )1𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴+
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝the 1− 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴forces
friction 2 )𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
become internal forces. So, we
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
�𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤: � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
= 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
−(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 �𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) � =
+ −(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
y deflecting: the fluid 1 flow.
1 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦Now, if we 1 1 2 2 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
would 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 let 2 2 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 our channel spin around an axis in x-direction, at a
ce that moves at a certain speed. In other words, we either extract power (if our flow channel drives
),oted thatabsorb
formulation
or we thisisformulation
also
power valid(if we is drive
for also
viscous valid
theflows, for viscous
shaft because
with a motorflows, the friction
Chapter orbecause
even 3:
the friction
aforces
hand
Aerodynamics crank).offorces
become become
internal
This if internal
forces.
works,
Centrifugal weSo,
have
Compressors
weforces.
|
So, we
45 a
at’s
y created
deflecting by
thedeflecting
fluid flow. the Now,fluid if flow.
we would Now,
s that are capable of changing the direction of the flow. For a rotating row of vanes (no matter we if
let we
our would
channel let our
spin channel
around spin
an around
axis in an axis
x-direction, in x-direction,
at a at
e we get a force that moves at a certain speed.
rce that moves at a certain speed. In other words, we either extract power (if our flow channel drives In other words, we either extract power (if our flow channel drives
l pipe. The gas flows in through the area A1 with w1, p1, and out through the flow area
he pressure (p1A1 and p2A2, respectively), and the fact that a certain mass flow of gas
on force FR. Split into x and y coordinates, and considering that
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2

It should be noted that this formulation is also valid for viscous flows, because the friction
forces become internal forces. So, force is created by deflecting the fluid flow. Now, if
the channel spins around an axis in x-direction, at a certain radius r, a force that moves at
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 ) = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 − (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 )𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
a certain speed is created. In other words, power is either extracted (if the flow channel
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤1 �𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 � = −(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 )𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
drives some load connected to the shaft), or power is absorbed (if the shaft is driven with
a motor or even a hand crank). This works, with rotating blades or flow channels that
so valid for viscous flows, because the friction forces become internal forces. So, we
luid flow. Now, are capable
if we wouldof changing
let ourthe direction
channel spinofaround
the flow.
an For
axisain
rotating row ofatvanes
x-direction, a (no matter
a certain speed. In other words, we either extract power (if our flow channel drives in order
if considered individual airfoils, or as in previous discussions, flow channels)
ower (if we drive to change the shaft with a motor
the velocity of theorgas, even thea hand
vanescrank).
have toThis works,
exert if we
a force have
upon the gas. This is
of changing the directionthe
fundamentally of samethe flow.forceFor (FRy)athat
rotating row
acts in theofprevious
vanes (no matterfor
example wethe pipe. This force
s discussion,has flowto channels) in order toofchange
act in the direction the velocity of
the circumferential the gas,
rotation the vanes
of the vanes have
in order to work on
y the same force that F Ry that acts in the previous example
the gas. According to the conservation of momentum, the force that the for the pipe. This force hasblades exert is
on of the vanes in order to do work on the gas. According to the
balanced by the change in circumferential velocity times the associated mass of the gas.
conservation of
nced by the change in circumferential velocity times the associated mass of the gas.
Figure 3-4 shows a compressor stage that uses the principles outlined above. Since the
blades on the rotor move, while the blades in the stator are stationary, a way must be found
principles we’ve outlined above. Since the blades on the rotor move, while the blades
to describe velocities in a rotating system and in a stationary system. This works by simply
to to describe velocities in a rotating system and in a stationary system. This works by
adding
rotating blades velocity
‘see’ vectors:
the gas The vanessystem
in a coordinate of the rotating blades
that rotates ‘see’
with thethe gasThe
rotor. in a coordinate
system that rotates with the rotor. The transformation of velocity coordinates
solute frame of reference ( c ) to the a frame of reference rotating with a velocity u is from an
absolute frame of reference (c) to a frame of reference rotating with a velocity (u) is by:
��⃗ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐⃗ − 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 �⃗
The
he magnitude of velocities here
the velocity, asare vectors,
well describing both the magnitude of the velocity, as well as its
as its direction.
direction.
of a velocity triangle: If we were to rotate with the rotor, we would experience the
Figure 3-4
or , as the velocity w1,also shows
which we can thisfind
vector addition in the
by subtracting the form
vectorofua1 from
velocity
the triangle.
vector If rotated with
the exit from therotor,
the rotor, wevelocity
the see (while
c1 (instill rotating with
a stationary the rotor)
system) thethe
entering air rotor,
leavingaswith
the velocity w1, which
he stator byisadding u2. In axial
determined machines,the
by subtracting where theuair
vector 1
flows
from themore
vectoror less
c1
parallel
would to This is called
result.
or every constant diameter as a two dimensional problem. This means, that
a velocity triangle. Similarly, at the exit from the rotor, the air leaving u and u
1 with2 the velocity w
2
ry about theisthird spacial
observed coordinate.
(while still rotating with the rotor), and the velocity c entering the stator by 2
adding u2 is derived. In axial machines, where the air flows more or less parallel to the axis
e deflects the air from w1 to w2, and since it rotates , it adds work to the air. It also has
of rotation, this
ccording to Bernoullis law can
(seeessentially
also Figurebe treated
2d). for everyc constant
The velocity diameter as a two dimensional
2 entering the stator is
problem. This means, that
e to increase the flow passage (Figure 2d).u and u are
1 Therefore,
2
about the same, and theincreased.
the pressure is further third spatial coordinate is
or the next stage. The important step is, that the change in the circumferential velocity
nothing to worry about.
blade rotates (u2 and u1, respectively) gives us the entire amount of work that was
massflow ofWhat can be seen
air absorbed in Figure
by this 3-4 is, that the rotor blade deflects the air from w1 to w2, and
compressor:
since it rotates, it adds work to the air. It also reduced the velocity, thus increasing the
pressure according to Bernoulli’s law (also see Figure 3-2d). The velocity c2 entering the
stator is higher than c1, but the stator which also has a shape to increase the flow passage
(Figure 3-2d). Therefore, the pressure is further increased. The exit velocity c 3 becomes
the inlet velocity c1 for the next stage. The important step is, that the change in the
circumferential velocity (cu2-cu1), multiplied by the speed at which the blade rotates (u2 and
u1 respectively) yields the entire amount of work that was transferred to the air, which is
also the power per mass flow of air absorbed by this compressor:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢1 )

This relationship is usually referred to as Euler’s Law, after Leonard Euler, who formulated
o as Euler’sitLaw,
in theafter
18 th Leonard
century. It describes
Euler the conservation
who formulated of18
it in the angular
th momentum
century. at the inlet
It is describing theand
the inlet and outlet of a stage. As mentioned earlier, the only place where work is added is in the
stator does46is convert some of
| Chapter the kinetic energy
3: Aerodynamics (velocity)Compressors
of Centrifugal to a additional pressure. Figure 5
rgy (expressed as total pressure), but both in the form of more pressure, and more velocity. The
outlet of a stage. As mentioned earlier, the only place where work is added is in the rotating
part of the machine. All the stator does is convert some of the kinetic energy (velocity) to
additional pressure. Figure 3-5 illustrates this. The impeller adds energy (expressed as total
pressure), but both in the form of more pressure and more velocity. The diffuser converts
velocity into pressure, but does not add energy to the flow. The important contribution
of Euler’s law is that it connects thermodynamic properties (like enthalpy, or therefore
pressures and temperatures) with aerodynamic properties (velocities).
The axial velocity cz1 = cz2 in this example stays approximately constant. This is a good
assumption for axial machines.
Stator
cz2
a b
U2
3
1 2
β2
h = cu2 • u2 - cu1 • u1
Rotor β1 w2
U1
U c2
w1
α3 α2 cu2
c3
a b α1 cu1
c1
1 2 3 cz1
Figure 3-4. Velocities in a typical compressor stage. Mechanical Work (h) transferred to the air
is determined by the change in circumferential momentum of the air.
Total Pressure (=Energy)

Static Pressure (=Pressure Energy)
et
ye
Inl
Velocity (=Kinetic Energy)

xit
it
tE
t
Ex
V
rE
nle
xit
nle
iG
it
to
or
Ex
rE
rI
rI
Ro
at
to
to
or
to
St
Ro
Ro
at
Ro
2 nd
St
2 nd
2 nd
Figure 3-5. Energy transfer in compressors.

The work input h (also known as actual head) in the equations above does not identify
anything about the pressure increase of the stage. Only when the efficiency of the stage is
known can the amount of pressure rise be gauged.
Stage #11
Compressor Case
Rotor Assembly (left half removed)
Stators Installed
Compressor Case
(right half)
Zero Stage
Figure 3-6. Axial compressor rotor and stator with multiple stages and alternating rows of
stationary and rotating blades.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
In general, the flow of an axial compressor is typically parallel to the axis of the
turbomachine, while in a centrifugal compressor, each stage has a more or less axial flow
into the stage. The gas leaves each stage with a significant radial component. In axial
machines, two dimensional considerations have merit. In a centrifugal machine, all three
dimensions must be considered. However, just as with the axial machines, the important
feature is the force in the direction of the rotational speed, and thus the changes in
velocities in the circumferential direction. While in an axial machine the blade speeds (u)
at the inlet and exit are almost the same, they are quite different in a centrifugal machine.
Figures 3-7 and 3-8 show the impeller (i.e. the rotating blades), and the diffusor of a
centrifugal compressor.

Figure 3-7. Centrifugal compressor stage, showing the spinning impeller feeding the gas
into a diffusor.
Figure 3-8. Centrifugal impeller, showing the velocity triangles at inlet (1) and exit (2).
Figure 3-8 shows the velocity triangles at the impeller, where (u) is the circumferential
blade velocity at the inlet (1) and exit (2). The c1-w1 plane has to be imagined perpendicular
to the c2-w2 plane, because the inlet flow is more or less axial, while the exit flow is more
or less radial. However, the circumferential components of (c1) and (c2), respectively, are in
the same plane.

Cylinder Meridional
Plane
Radial
Plane
Meridional Direction
Circumferential Direction
Figure 3-9. Velocity triangles for a centrifugal compressor.
Figure 3-9 shows these velocity triangles. Just like for the axial compressor, the relative
velocities are found by subtracting the vector of blade velocity (u) from the gas velocity in
the stationary reference frame. The velocity (c1) is the absolute velocity at the inlet to the
impeller, and (c2) is the velocity of the gas entering the diffusor. The relative velocity (w1)
is often the machine’s highest velocity, if the velocity is taken at the tip of the impeller.
The relative velocity (w2) is largely determined by the direction of the blades at the exit of
the impeller. If (w2) points against the direction of rotation (as in Figures 3-8 and 3-9), the
blades are called backwards bent, as opposed to forward bent blades and radial blades.
Most compressor impellers in oil and gas applications utilize the backwards bent design,

les for a centrifugal compressor
because as discussed later, this favors a wider operating range. Rather than using cartesian
city triangles. Just like for the axial compressor, the relative velocities are found by subtracting the vector of
coordinates for impellers, cylindrical coordinates are used here.
as velocity in the stationary reference frame. The velocity c1 is the absolute velocity at the inlet to the impeller,
gas entering the diffusor. The relative velocity w1 is often the
The radial plane and the meridional
highest velocity in the machine, if it is taken at
plane are described as follows:
relative velocity w2 is largely determined by the direction of the blades at the exit of the impeller. If w2 points
tation (as in Figures 7 • andMeridional
8), the blades are called
coordinate (m), backwards bent, as
which increases opposed
from to to
the inlet forward bentofblades
the outlet and
the impeller.
ers of compressors in oil and gas applications are of the backwards bent design, because, as we will later see,
ng range. For impellers,• rather than using
Span-wise cartesian
coordinate (s),coordinates, we have
which increases fromused cylindrical
impeller hub to coordinates:
the shroud.
meridional plane
• Circumferential coordinate (u), which increases from the blade pressure side to the
m), which increases from the inlet to
suction sidetheofoutlet of the
the next impeller.
blade.
which increases from impeller hub to the shroud.
te (u), which increases Additionally,
from the blade (c )pressure side to the suction
is the circumferential side ofofthe
component thenext
gas blade.
velocity, taken in an absolute
u
reference frame at the inlet (1) and exit (2) as shown in Figure 3-8. At this point, one of
omponent of the gas velocity, taken in an absolute reference frame at the inlet (1) and exit (2) (Figure 8). At
the advantages of centrifugal compressors over axial compressors becomes apparent. In
antages of centrifugal compressors over axial compressors becomes apparent: In the axial compressor, the
the axial compressor, the entire energy transfer has to come from the turning of the flow
to come from the turning of the flow imposed by the blade (cu2-cu1), while the centrifugal compressor has
entrifugal forces on theimposed
gas whileby flowing
the blade (cu2-c
from ), while the centrifugal compressor has added support from
u1 diameter at the impeller inlet (u1=π DiN) to the higher
the
xit (u2=π Dtip N) . the centrifugal forces on the gas flowing from the diameter at the impeller inlet (u1= DiN)
to the larger diameter at the impeller exit (u2= Dtip N). But, just as for the axial machines,
achines, Euler’s law also applies
Euler’s lawtoalso
centrifugal machines:
applies to centrifugal machines.
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢1 )
elocity build up in a meridional section of the compressor.
Figure 3-10. Illustrates the velocity buildup in the meridional section of the compressor.

Aaron
D
3 b C
3 2 C
W 3
2
α2
α3
U
2
b
2
3
D
2
Figure 3-11. The diffusor.
As mentioned in the previous chapter, most centrifugal compressors utilized in the

applications discussed in this book have so called vaneless diffusors, due to their
advantages in operating range. In Figure 3-11, the aerodynamics of such a diffusor are
explained. The absolute velocity at the impeller exit (c2) has meridional and circumferential
components. Because the diffuser has no vanes, the circumferential component has to
maintain its momentum, which enforces (cu times r) = const. In other words, (cu) is reduced
when the flow moves from diffuser inlet to diffusor exit. The meridional component is
reduced proportionally to the increase in the diffusor when the radius is increased. The two
effects together mean that the flow path becomes a logarithmic spiral. The more (c2) leans
towards the tangential direction, the longer the flow path through the diffusor becomes.
The shorter flow path applies to situations when (c2) is entirely in the radial direction. In the
absence of flow separation in the diffusor, the velocity energy difference between inlet and
exit from the diffusor is converted into pressure.
OPERATION
Based on the general principles for the operation of a centrifugal compressor introduced
here, the discussion advances to how a compressor operates when operating conditions
change. Understanding the behavior of a compressor stage, running at constant speed, is a
good place to start.
Impeller exit geometry (‘backsweep’) determines the direction of the relative exit velocity
(w2). The basic 'ideal' slope of head vs. flow is dictated by the kinematic flow relationship of
the compressor, in particular the amount of impeller backsweep.

Head
Design Flow
Higher Flow
Lower Flow Flow
Figure 3-12. Constant-speed operation at changing flow.
Any increase in flow at constant speed causes a reduction of the circumferential component
of the absolute exit velocity (cu2), as seen in Figure 3-12. The meridional velocity (cm) is also
impacted. As flow increases, the meridional velocity also increases. The compressor speed is
fixed, thus (u1) and (u2) don’t change The inlet flow is assumed to be strictly axial, so only the
magnitude, but not the direction of (c1) changes. The example is valid even for inlet flow that
is not axial, as long as the flow direction stays the same. Further, the direction of the impeller
exit flow in the relative frame, which is dictated by the blade geometry, will not change. You
can see that the change in circumferential velocity (cu2-cu1) is impacted by the change in inlet
flow. It’s reduced when the inlet flow is increased.
It follows from Euler’s equation above, that this causes a reduction in head. This is shown
on the right of Figure 3-11. The impeller geometry causes a reduction in head with an
increased flow, and vice versa.
So far, losses in the compressor haven’t been discussed. The losses are lowest at the
design point of the compressor, and two types of losses must be considered. First, the
incidence loss (Figure 3-13). The impeller inlet, as well as other components such as the
Head and Loss
diffuser, are sized assuming the gas comes from a specified direction. From Figure 3-11,
you can see that
Ideal (w1) forpoint
Best efficiency
impeller direction, changes when the flow is increased or reduced
head
from the design point. This causes
additional aerodynamic losses in the
Isentropic head
Incidencecompressor.
loss
Figure 3-13 further illustrates this, Low Flow

using an airfoil as an example. At
the 'design flow, the air follows
the contours of the airfoil. If the
Friction High Flow
direction of the incoming
loss air changes, (+)
increasing zones where the airflow (-)
Flow
ceases to follow the contours of the Incidence Losses
airfoil, creation of increasing losses is
evident. Figure 3-13. Incidence of loss at the impeller inlet.

a c
b d
Figure 3-14a-d. Unseparated (a, b), partially separated (c), and fully separated (d) flow over an
airfoil at increasing angle of attack (Nakajima, 1988).
The second type is related to the flow velocity. Increasing the velocity’s magnitude
increases the friction losses in the impeller channels and the diffuser. Adding the influence
of various losses to the basic relationship developed earlier (Figure 3-11) shapes a
compressor’s head-flow-efficiency characteristic (Figure 3-15). Whenever the flow deviates
from the flow for which the stage was designed, the components of the stage operate less
efficiently. This is the reason for incidence losses. Furthermore, the higher the flow, the
higher the velocities, and thus the increased friction losses.
Head and Loss
Ideal Best Efficiency Point

Head
Isentropic Head
Incidence
Loss
Friction High Flow

Loss
(
Flow
Figure 3-15. Head versus flow relationship at constant speed.

Centrifugal compressor behavior can be described by its head-flow-efficiency relationships.
The basic relationship, for a compressor at constant speed is shown in Figure 3-15. The
compressor shows a distinct relationship between head and flow. In the case of machines
with backwards bent impellers (the type generally used in upstream and midstream
compression applications), the head of the compressor increases with reduced flow. Due
to the increase in losses when the compressor is operated away from its design point, the
curve eventually becomes horizontal, and subsequently starts to drop again. The curve
section with positive slope is usually not available for stable operation. When the flow is
increased beyond the design flow, the losses also increase, and increase the slope of the
curve, sometimes to a vertical line.
A compressor operated at constant speed is at its best efficiency point. If the flow through
is reduced, the compressor’s efficiency will be gradually reduced because, for example, the
discharge pressure that the compressor has to overcome is increased. At a certain flow,
stall will occur, probably in the form of a rotating stall in one or more of the compressor
components. As flow is further reduced, the compressor will eventually reach its stability
limit, and go into surge.
Again starting from the best efficiency point, if flow is increased, then you’ll also see
a reduction in efficiency, accompanied by a reduction in head. Eventually the head and
efficiency will drop steeply, until the compressor will not produce any head at all. This
operating scenario is called “choke.” For practical applications, the compressor is usually
considered to be in choke when the head falls below a certain percentage of the head at its
best efficiency point).
You’ll also see that the resulting curve has a negative slop for the higher flow, but at some
point, reaches a maximum, followed by a positive slope. The horizontal slope marks the
stability limit of the compressor, and operating it at lower flows than this point usually leads
to surge.
Head-Flow Work-Flow
Figure 3-16. Compressor map showing head vs. flow and work vs. flow,
including operation in surge.

SURGE
For flows lower than the flow at the stability limit, practical operation of the compressor is
not possible. At flows to the left of the stability limit, the compressor cannot produce the
same head as at the stability limit. It is therefore no longer able to overcome the pressure
differential between the suction and discharge sides. Because the gas volume upstream (at
discharge pressure) is now at a higher pressure than the compressor can achieve, the gas will
follow its natural tendency to flow from the higher to the lower pressure. The flow through
the compressor is reversed. Due to the flow reversal, the system pressure at the discharge
side will be reduced over time, and eventually the compressor will be able to overcome the
pressure on the discharge side again. If no corrective action is taken, the compressor will
again operate to the left of the stability limit, and the above described cycle will repeat. The
compressor is in surge. The observer will detect strong oscillations of pressure and flow in
the compression system. It must be noted that the violence and the onset of surge are a
function of the interaction between the compressor and the piping system.
STALL
If the flow through of a compressor at constant speed is reduced, the losses in all
aerodynamic components will increase, because their operating conditions will move
away from the design point. Eventually, the flow in one of the aerodynamic components,
usually in the diffuser or the impeller inlet, will separate. The last picture (d) in Figure 3-14
shows such a flow separation for an airfoil. It should be noted that stall usually appears in
one stage of a compressor first. The separation can be stationary, or of a propagating, and
therefore rotating nature. Stall and surge are not directly related. If the flow at constant
speed is reduced, stall can appear before the compressor actually reaches its maximum
head or before it actually surges.
Flow separation and stall in a vaneless diffuser means that all or parts of the flow will not
exit the diffuser on its discharge end, but will form areas where the flow stagnates or
reverses its direction back to the inlet of the diffuser (i.e. the impeller exit, Figure 3-15). This
is due to either boundary layer separation or insufficient kinetic energy to overcome the
diffuser pressure gradient.
Stall in the impeller inlet or a vaned diffuser is due to the incoming flow (relative to the
rotating impeller) changing with the flow rate through the compressor. Therefore, a
reduction in flow will lead to an increased mismatch between the direction of the incoming
flow the impeller was designed for and the actual direction of the incoming flow. At one
point, this mismatch will become so significant that the flow through the impeller breaks
down. Similarly, vanes in the diffuser will reduce the operating range of a stage compared
to a vaneless diffuser.
Flow separation can take on the characteristics of a rotating stall. When the flow through the
compressor stage is reduced, parts of the diffuser may experience flow separations. Rotating
stall occurs if the regions of flow separation are not stationary, but move in the direction
of the rotating impeller (typically at 15-30% of the impeller speed). Rotating stall can often
be detected by the increasing vibration signatures in the sub-synchronous region, but with
distinct frequencies. This is different from the ubiquitous increase in flow noise when the

compressor operates close to stall, in stationary stall, or in choke, as this noise generally has
no distinct frequencies. Another type of noise is generated by the interaction of the impellers
with a vaned diffuser. This noise is not the result of aerodynamic off-design conditions, but
rather due to the interaction between the impeller and the diffusor. Onset of stall does not
necessarily constitute a compressor’s operating limit. In fact, in many cases, the flow can be
reduced further before the actual stability limit is reached, and surge may occur.
CHOKE
At high flow, the head and efficiency will drop steeply, until the compressor will not
produce any head at all. This operating scenario is called choke. However, for practical
purposes, the compressor is usually considered to be in choke when the head falls
below a certain percentage of the head at its best efficiency point. Some compressor
manufacturers do not allow operation of their machines in deep choke. In these cases, the
compressor map has a distinct high flow limit for each speed line.
The efficiency starts to drop off at higher flows, because a higher flow causes higher
internal velocities, and thus higher friction losses. The head reduction is a result of both the
increased losses and the basic kinematic relationships in a centrifugal compressor. Even
without any losses, a compressor with backwards bent blades (as used in virtually every
industrial centrifugal compressor) will experience a reduction in head with increased flow
(Figure 3-11). 'Choke' and 'Stonewall' are different terms for the same phenomenon. You
can observe two distinctly different behaviors in choke.
For compressors at low Mach numbers, and in particular single- and two-stage machines,
you’ll observe a gradual decline in head. This is mainly due to the increasing losses in
the machine. Other machines,
especially multi-stage machines,
Polytropic Efficiency
and machines at higher Mach
numbers show an almost vertical
drop in head at a certain flow.
This is due to a true choke event,
where at some component, often
the inlet of an impeller, the flow in
Polytropic Head Coefficient
the narrowest flow path reaches

the speed of sound, and thus
prevents any increase in flow,
regardless how low the discharge
pressure is set. Figure 3-17 shows
both of these behaviors. At low
Mach numbers, increased losses
show a gradual reduction of head
and efficiency, while at a higher
machine Mach number, true Flow Coefficient
choke causes an almost vertical
drop in head and efficiency. Figure 3-17. Stage map for Mn=0.56 (blue) and
Mn=0.76 (green).

MACH NUMBER
Previously, the Mach number was mentioned several times in the text. To make things
more complicated, the density of the gas flowing over airfoils or through channels is not
constant. In other words, the gas is compressible, and the density changes with pressure
and temperature. Both pressure and temperature are in turn dependent on the flow
velocity. From the above explanation, you can understand that when the mass flow is
conserved, then the volumetric flow, and with it all velocities, will change, if the density
changes. An indicator of the severity for the impact of these density changes is the Mach
number (Ma) which compares flow velocities (c) to the speed of sound (a).
Ma = c/a
If the flow velocities through the entire section are below the speed of sound, commonly
referred to as subsonic flow, and for really low Mach numbers, the flow can actually
be considered incompressible. In other words, you don’t need to consider the density
changes. Flow velocities above the speed of sound are called supersonic. If the flow
changes within a component from subsonic to supersonic or vice versa, the flow is called
transonic. An example for a transonic compressor stage is shown in Figure 3-18, where
the flow enters at speeds above the speed of sound and is decelerated through a shock to
subsonic velocities.
For centrifugal compressors, a machine’s Mach number (Mn) is often defined as:
Mn = u/ainlet
This is not a true Mach Flow

number, since it compares
a blade velocity (u) at the
impeller exit with the speed
of sound based on the inlet
conditions into the impeller (or
the machine). It is, however,
Rotation
very practical for comparing
operating conditions for a
given machine. The machine
Mach number for a given
compressor will increase
with increased speed, but Figure 3-18. Mach number distribution for typical transonic
also with a reduction in inlet compressor blades. The flow enters at supersonic speeds. It
temperature. It will also is decelerated to subsonic speeds at the exit (Schodl, 1977).
change when the process The shock is clearly visible, where the supersonic flow is
gas changes. For example, an decelerated to subsonic speeds immediately upstream of
increase in CO2 (with a low the leading edge.
speed of sound) in a natural
gas mixture will increase the
machine Mach number. It must be noted that the machine Mach number does not indicate
the highest Mach number anywhere in the machine. That is usually found at the inlet tip (or
shroud) side of the first impeller.

Suction Side
Supersonic
Subsonic
Mis
Nozzle Nozzle
Inlet Exit
Pressure Side
Figure 3-19. Velocity distribution (isentropic Mach Number Mis along the surface coordinates)
in a turbine nozzle at different pressure ratios. As soon as the maximum local flow velocity
exceeds Mach 1 (at a pressure ratio of 1.5 in this example), the inlet flow can no longer be
increased (Kurz, 1991).
Figure 3-19 shows the situation of a turbine nozzle that is operated at different pressure
ratios. Not only do you see the levels of velocity increase with increased pressure ratios,
but you see the velocity distribution actually changes its shape. This is an example of the
profound changes in aerodynamic behavior that occur with changes in the Mach number.
At a certain pressure ratio (in this case 1.5) the velocity at the suction side of the nozzle
just reaches the speed of sound. For higher pressure ratios, the flow is actually accelerated
beyond the speed of sound. A further increase of the pressure ratio yields higher velocities
downstream of the throat, but the flow, which is proportional to the velocity at the inlet into
the nozzle, can no longer be increased.
When looking at the volumetric flow represented by the flow velocity entering the nozzle
(Figure 3-19) you’ll find that once the pressure ratio reaches the point where the speed of
sound was first exceeded, the flow cannot be increased any more. The nozzle is choked. In
other words, even an increase in pressure ratio does not yield more flow.
Performance of any aerodynamic component will change, if the characteristic Mach

numbers are changed. Figure 3-20 shows the flow through a centrifugal impeller at two
different Mach numbers, in both cases within the choke region. For the lower Mach
number, you’ll see flow separation in the impeller inlet, causing the efficiency and the
isentropic head to drop rapidly. For the higher Mach number, you’ll see a transonic shock
at the impeller inlet, thus setting a limit for the flow that cannot be exceeded even if the
compressor backpressure drops further.
Not surprisingly, the Mach number has a strong influence on losses and enthalpy rise or
decrease for a given blade row. Figure 3-15 shows how efficiently isentropic head and
flow range for a compressor stage change with a rising machine Mach number, while
Figure 3-21 shows the changes for a six-stage compressor. The practical conclusion is that
the performance of any aerodynamic component will change, if the characteristic Mach

number changes. On the other hand, if characteristic Mach numbers of a component are
held constant, then the performance of said component will remain the same (except
for changes in Reynolds number, gas composition, etc.). The aerodynamic behavior of a
turbine or compressor is thus significantly influenced by the Mach number of the flow.
The same turbine or compressor will show significant differences in operating range (flow
range between stall and choke), pressure ratio and efficiency. Component performance
maps show a significant sensitivity to changes in Mach numbers. There is a strong
dependency of losses, enthalpy rise or decrease, and flow range for a given blade row on
the characteristic Mach number.
Mach Number in Rel Frame Contour 1 Mach Number in Rel Frame Contour 1
Figure 3-20. Mach number contours (relative frame) for impeller operating at Mn = 0.56 (left)
and Mn = 0.76 and slightly lower flow coefficient (right). At the lower Mach number, stall due
to negative incidence has developed. At the higher Mach number, shock has formed at the
pressure surface. Refer to Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-21. Head, flow and efficiency for a six-stage compressor for two different machine
Mach numbers.

 = 0.113  = 0.080  = 0.012  = 0.003
Figure 3-22. Impellers for different flows, from low flow (right) to high flow (left)
OPERATING SPEED
Until now, the discussion has been limited to compressors operating at constant speed. If
the driver of the compressors varies the speed, within the mechanical capabilities of the
machine, a rather significant increase in operating range is achieved. (Figure 3-22).For each
possible speed of the compressor, a head flow characteristic as seen in Figures 3-14 is
determined.
Under certain simplifying conditions, operating points of a compressor at different speeds

can be directly compared. This fact is captured in the fan law, which strictly is only true
Mach Number
Mach Number
Mach Number
Isentropic Head
Inlet Volume Flow
Figure 3-23. The highest efficiency is achieved at the center of the map, with reduced
efficiencies at higher and lower flows.

Figure 20
We also see that we achieve the highest efficiency at the center of the map, with reduced efficiency at higher and lower flo
y atUnder for of
certain
the center identical
simplifying
the map, Mach
with numbers
reduced inefficiency
conditions, all stages,
operating atbut
points which
of aand
higher is lower
still a good
compressor flows. approximation
at different speedsforcancases
be directly compared. This fa
capturedwhere
in the fan the law,machinewhich is strictly
Mach number only true forbyidentical
changes less than Mach 10%numbers (for singlein and
all stages, but which is still a good approxi
two-stage
ointscases
of awhere
compressor the machine
compressors). Mach
at different
The number
speeds
more stagescanchanges by less
be directly
the compressor than
has,10%
compared. the This (forfact
less single
is andistwo
deviation stage compressors).
acceptable. The The more stages
forcompressor
identical Mach has, the
numbers less deviation
in all is
stages, acceptable.
but which The
is fan
still a law
good is based
approximation
fan law is based on the fact that if for two operating points A and B, all velocities change by on the fact
forthat if for two opearing points A and B al
change
by less thanby10% the same
(for factor
single (which
and two in particular
stage means
compressors). that
The none
more of the
stages
the same factor (which in particular means that none of the flow angles change), then the flow
the angles change), then the compressor will show
Thefollowing isrelations
based onbetween
fan lawcompressor the fact two
that different
if for two operating
opearing points
points : A and B all
will show the following relationships between two different operating points. velocities
eans that none of the flow angles change), then the compressor will 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 show 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
= the
ng points : 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
= = 2
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
= 2
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
These relationships are also used to define non-dimensional flow and head values, thus allowing to compare Machines of di
sizes and speeds:
These relationships are also used to define non-dimensional flow and head values, thus
mensional flow and head values, thus allowing to compare Machines of different
We define allowing
a flowcomparisons
coefficient: for machines of different sizes and speeds.
Flow coefficient is designed as follows:
Qs Qs (14)
ϕ= =
π π 2
D 1, tip u D 1, tip N
2 3
(14)
4 4
And a head coefficient (isentropic or polytropic) is defined as:
p
p
2 Hcoefficient
And a head (isentropic or polytropic): 2H
p
(15)
= p H2 H
* *
H
p
(15)
= p ψ * =2 HH22p = 2H
ψ = 2 =
p
(15)
ψ u= 2(π= D1,tip N u) 2(π D1,tip N )2 u (π D1,tip N )
2
2 u (π D1,tip2 N ) 2
2
For operation of a compressor, the distance of the actual operating point from the surge or
ance stability limit is important. Any operating point A limit
can beischaracterized by its distance from
Forofthe
theoperation
actual operating point fromthe
of a compressor, thedistance
surge orofstability of importance.
the actual operating point from Any
the surge or stability limit is of importanc
distance of the
its distance the actual
onset
from operating
of surge.
the onset pointdefinitions
Two
of surge. fromdefinitions
Two the surge or
arestability
are widely used to
widely limit is of
define
used: Thetheimportance.
marginAny
margin.
surge
operating point A can be characterized by its distance from the onset of surge. Two definitions are widely used: The surge m
d by its distance from the onset of surge. Two definitions are widely used: The surge margin
Caterpillar: Confidential𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄Green 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(%) = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 − ⋅𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄100 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(%) = ⋅ 100
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(%) =𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
⋅ 100 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
n the operating
which is This point
basedison and
based the
the flow
on the surge
margin flow point at constant
between
margin speed,
the operating
between and theand
point
the operating turndown
pointthe surge point
and the at constant
surge point at speed, and the turndown
ween the operating point and the surge point at constant speed, and the turndown
constant speed and the turndown percentage.
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(%) = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 −⋅𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄100 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(%) = ⋅ 100
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(%) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
⋅ 100 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
ween the operating
which is based on point on and the surge
the flow 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 point
margin at constant
between head. Forpoint
the operating the test
and on theasurge machine,
point at constant head. For the test on a mac
between
ntswhich the
at constant operating
is usually speed, point
as
conducted welland asforforthe surge points
machines
various point atatare
that constant
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constant head.
speed, at For as the
welltest
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speed, for amachines
machine,
the surgethat are operated at constant speed,
points
chines at constant
operated
margin isItaisvery with
based speed,
variable
useful as well
flowasmargin
speeds,
parameter.
on the forit
For ismachines
more
machines
between that
commontheare
operated tooperated
operating define
with point at constant
the distance
variable
andspeeds, thespeed,
from the
it surge
surge surge
ispoint
more atcommon
constantto define the distance fro
machines
by turndown. operated with variable speeds, it is more common
head. For the test on a machine, which is usually conducted for various points at constant to define the distance from surge
speed, as well as for machines that are operated at constant speed, the surge margin is a
ethod
Wetohave
increase the operating
introduced variablerange
speed ofasa acompressor,
method and thusthe
to increase as operating
a means torange
adaptofthea compressor, and thus as a means to adap
ahere
method tovery useful
increase parameter.
the operating For
rangemachines
of a operated
compressor, withthus
and variable
as a speeds,toitadapt
means is more
thecommon to
are other methods available:
compressor to varying process demands. There are other methods available:
ds. -Speed
There are define
other the distance
methods from surge by turndown.
available:
Variation ,
-Adjustable inlet vanes
Variable speed,has been introduced as a method to increase the operating range of a
-Adjustable diffuser vanes,
y of curves, compressor,
as can be seen andinthus as a21.
Figure means to adapt the compressor to varying process demands.
allow the compressor to operate on a family of curves, as can be seen in Figure 21.
amily of curves, as can be seen in Figure 21.
d by:
Additionally, compressors can be controlled by:
rolled by: 62 | Chapter 3: Aerodynamics of Centrifugal Compressors
-Suction or discharge throttling (Fig. 21)
1) -Recycling (Figure 22)
The following methods are available:
• Speed variation
• Adjustable inlet vanes
• Adjustable diffuser vanes enable the compressor to operate on a family of curves, as

seen in Figure 3-24
Additionally, compressors can be controlled by:
• Suction or discharge throttling (Figure 3-24)
• Recycling (Figure 3-25)

Head Hs/Hs, 0
Actual Flow Q/Q0
Figure 3-24. Control methods for centrifugal compressors (from top): suction throttling, variable
speed, adjustable inlet guide vanes, and adjustable diffusor guide vanes (Rasmussen et al.).

Compressor
Scrubber Cooler
Anti-Surge
Controller
Anti-Surge Valve
Figure 3-25. Recycle System
Recycle
Power (%)
Suction Throttle
Inlet Guide Vane
Speed
Vol Flow (%)
Figure 3-26. Power consumption for different control methods.
Figure 3-26 indicates the effectiveness and efficiency of different control methods.
A compressor that can be operated at varying speeds in upstream and midstream
applications is particularly important, since it is the most effective and efficient control
method. Using a throttle, recycling or adjustable inlet vanes are very effective in reducing
the volumetric flow, but they’re not very efficient, because the power consumption is not
reduced at the same rate as a speed-controlled machine.

MULTISTAGE COMPRESSOR
So far, the focus has been on an individual compressor stage. Since the amount of head
and pressure ratio of a single-stage are limited, multiple stages are often used in a single
compressor, and all stages operate at the same speed. The stages operate in series, so
the inlet conditions for each stage are defined by the discharge conditions of the previous
stage.
If the head-flow-efficiency characteristics of a number of stages that were designed

for different flows are known, the overall performance of a multistage compressor can
be easily determined, and vice versa. Thus, a compressor for a given set of process
requirements can be designed.
C51 Non-Dimensional Performance

Assumption: SG+0.65, P1=500psia, T1=70F Mnm=0.66
ISEN Efficiency
ISEN Head Coefficient
ACFM
Figure 3-27. Head-flow-efficiency characteristics for 15 different stages.
For example, if the compressor speed and the inlet flow (together with a gas composition
and the inlet temperature) are known, the flow coefficient for the first stage can be
calculated. Say, this works out to be a flow coefficient of 0.11. Therefore, using Figure 3-27,
the ‘E1’ first stage, which will have an efficiency of 87% and a head coefficient of 0.95,
is determined. Knowing the head created by that stage, the pressure, temperature and
density of the flow for the next stage can be calculated. This leads to determination of
the actual flow, and the flow coefficient for the next stage, which may be 0.10. This then
leads to selection of the next stage, the ‘E1’ stage, with a head coefficient of 1.0 and
an efficiency of 86%. This information enables calculation of the inlet conditions for the
next stage, and so forth until the last stage is reached. Table 3-1 shows an example for a
compressor. Using this method to design a new compressor uses the described procedure
in an iterative process, since initially, only the inlet conditions and the discharge pressure
are known, but not the compressor speed, or the number of stages needed.

STAGES D1 C3 C2 C2 C1 B3 Discharge
stage diam (in) 19.83 19.83 19.83 19.83 19.83 19.83
phi 0.0590 0.0500 0.0430 0.0374 0.0325 0.0286
psi isen 1.0533 1.0341 1.0138 1.0870 1.0351 0.9904
eff isen 0.8667 0.8499 0.8312 0.8382 0.8358 0.7946
Flow (ACFM) 6109.9 5181.0 4451.5 3871.8 3360.6 2959.6 2643.8
Press (psia) 500.00 626.36 771.68 936.49 1139.82 1361.14 1600.00
Temp (°F) 91.1 124.8 157.6 189.5 222.7 253.5 283.4
Table 3-1. Worked out example for a compressor design. The stage designations indicate the
stage selections from the available stages for the compressor model (Figure 3-27), showing flow
coefficient (phi), head coefficient (psi) and the efficiency of successive stages. Flow reduction,
pressure build-up and temperature increase from suction to discharge are also shown.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD)
While axial compressors successfully used two-dimensional (2D) CFD codes, the flow in
a centrifugal compressor is inherently three-dimensional (3D). The rotating flow channel
of the impeller plus a change in flow direction from axial inflow to radial outflow are the
source of massive secondary flow regions that are dominated by large vortices. Another
difficult task is the transition from the flow in the rotating reference frame, (i.e. in the
impeller) to the flow into the stationary diffuser). 2D codes were used during the 1980s
and early 1990s, known as the so-called streamline curvature methods. They were often
used to create impellers that followed some prescribed velocity distributions known to the
user as being advantageous to impeller performance. Most of the earlier codes also were
so called inviscid codes, (i.e. they did not consider the impact of friction and turbulence).
Using these codes as a basis for designing impellers and predicting their performance was
difficult and not very accurate.
Similarly, calculating flows through seals on a rotating shaft was also challenging, because
the shaft in a real machine does not rotate in concentric fashion. This leads to a continuous
change in flow geometry. Particularly difficult are problems where aerodynamic forces
impact the position and movement of the rotor, which in turn changes the geometry for the
aerodynamic calculations. In addition, these changes are time dependent.
Over the last 30 years as computers became more sophisticated, gas turbine designers were
able to perform some limited theoretical performance and efficiency calculations. Hundreds
of different numerical methods have been developed, but in principle, most of them can be
separated into two classes: streamline balance and computational fluid dynamics.
Developed in the early 1960s, streamline balance methods were employed until the mid-
1970s. These methods were based on the concept that the streamline locations in a gas
turbine’s internal flow field can be determined from the interactions of the centrifugal,
Coriolis and inertial forces on the fluid (air). However, experience showed that results from

the streamline balance method were not very accurate. These methods did not provide
correct performance predictions utilizing new gas turbine component designs.
Since the early 1970s, significant efforts have been made by a large number of researchers
to develop numerical methods for solving theoretical equations that describe the actual
behavior and dynamics of a fluid. These equations are called the Navier-Stokes equations
and, generally, are applicable to any fluid and boundary condition (Figure 3-28). The Navier-
Stokes equation set consists of: continuity equation - conservation of mass; x,y,z equations
of motion - F = m · a (Newton’s Second Law for a fluid); and an energy equation – first law
of thermodynamics (energy is conserved).
The Navier-Stokes equations were originally derived by M. Navier in 1827 and S.D. Poisson
in 1831. Historically, however, useful analysis of the equations is mostly associated with
the work of L. Prandtl, T. v. Karman, H. Blasius, and H. Schlichting of the University of
Gottingen in Germany between 1900 and 1930. Solutions to these equations are difficult
since they are non-linear, non-homogenous numerical, rather than an analytical approach.
They also coupled partial differential equations. Only for a limited number of very simple
cases can exact analytic solutions be found. Thus, until modern computers became
available in the 1970s, the Navier-Stokes equations were of very limited practical use
for engineering applications. However, with the advent of high-speed computers, more
complicated mathematical equations became solvable using the following:
Figure 3-28. Navier-Stokes equations in differential form.
Analytical solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations cannot be found for complex

turbomachinery geometries and inlet/outlet boundary conditions. However, analytic
solutions for simple geometries, such as cubes or wedges, if they have simple, uniform
boundary conditions can be calculated. Thus, a complex-turbomachinery geometry is
divided into thousands of simple geometries (cubes, bricks, wedges or tetrahedrals) that
are individually solvable. Figure 3-30 shows this for the complex geometry of a condenser
fan. By matching the boundary conditions of each geometry in a sophisticated iterative-
stepping process, a solution of the complete complex-geometry flow field can be found.

Figure
Figure:3-29.
Figure: Integral
Integral
Integral formof
form ofform of the Navier-Stokes
theNavier-Stokes
Navier-Stokes Equationsin equations
in CylindricalinCoordinates
cylindrical coordinates.
Coordinates
Figure: Integral form of thethe Equations
Navier-Stokes Equations Cylindrical
in Cylindrical Coordinates
Analyticalsolutions
Analytical solutions ofthe
theNavier-Stokes
Navier-Stokesequations
equationscannot
cannotbe
befound
foundfor
forcomplex
complexturbomachinery
turbomachinerygeometries
geometriesand
andinlet/outlet
inlet/outletboundary
boundary
Analytical solutions of of
the Navier-Stokes equations cannot be found for complex turbomachinery geometries and inlet/outlet boundary
conditions. However,
conditions. However, analytic
analytic solutions
solutions for
for simple
simple geometries,
geometries, such
such as
as cubes
cubes or
or wedges,
wedges, ifif they
they have
have simple,
simple, uniform
uniform boundary
boundary
conditions. However, analytic solutions for simple geometries, such as cubes or wedges, if they have simple, uniform boundary
Total hybrid tetrahedral mesh cells ~1.8 M. Grid
Topology
Caterpillar:Confidential
Caterpillar: ConfidentialGreen
Green
Caterpillar: Confidential Green
Figure 3-30. Computational mesh for a condenser fan.
This is a computationally very intensive method that enables the analysis of the internal
flow field of many complicated turbomachinery component geometries. Accurately
modeling the gas compressor as a whole is still many developmental years away,
particularly because the interaction between fluid forces and the rotor, as well as heat
transfer effects, and the behavior of real gases have to be included. Nonetheless, once the
internal flow field of a turbomachinery component is known, the component’s efficiency
and pressure drop can be calculated, and the results can be easily integrated into the
model for multi-stage compressors. Similar numerical methods exist for the analysis of
rotordynamic and vibration applications.

Following is a brief discussion of three commonly employed CFD methods, their
assumptions, limitations and applicability. Any type of CFD analysis approximates the
real world. The real flow is approximated by more-or-less accurate mathematical models,
which usually don’t lend themselves to analytical solutions, but have to be solved by
approximately accurate numerical methods.
Potential Flow Method (1930-1965): Potential flow assumes that the fluid is irrotational,
inviscid and incompressible. Turbulence, boundary layers or flow unsteadiness cannot
be directly modeled. This type of method is limited to large Reynold’s number gas flows,
typically external flows such as subsonic flow around an airplane wing or propeller.
Frequently, to account for the boundary layer losses, the method is coupled with a simple,
empirical boundary displacement function. Since the method assumes incompressible
flow, no density changes can be modeled, which makes it useless for compressor or
turbine applications. For internal gas turbine component flow analysis, this method is not
adequate.
Euler Method (1970-1985): CFD programs using the Euler method solve the Navier-
Stokes equations, but neglect the terms that account for viscosity, i.e. the fluid is inviscid.
Since turbulence and boundary layer are both viscosity functions, the Euler method cannot
account for either. However, since the Euler code does not assume irrotational flow and
allows for density changes, it is significantly more accurate than the Potential Flow Method
for compressible flow. Euler codes are often employed to analyze internal turbomachinery
flows, however, because viscosity is not modeled, it can be inaccurate, especially for
turbulent flows with fluid separation and recirculation. This is particularly an issue for
centrifugal compressors, because many flow structures inside of an impeller (so called
secondary flow) are caused by viscous flow interactions.
Full Navier-Stokes Solvers (1980-Present): The Navier-Stokes solver evaluates the full
set of equations for fluid dynamics. Since the length and time scales of turbulence are
too small to be properly modeled, Navier-Stokes solvers still typically employ simplified
methods to account for the effects of turbulence (so called turbulence models). Navier-
Stokes solvers can be very accurate, but are extremely computationally intensive. In recent
years, Navier-Stokes solvers have become a standard tool in the turbomachinery industry.
Nonetheless, because of the many assumptions for boundary conditions and turbulence
modeling that must be made, even with the full Navier-Stokes solver, computational results
need to be carefully vetted with actual tests.
Today, it is possible to model the aerodynamic behavior of entire compressors, thereby

resolving unsteady flow (Figure 3-30). Modeling entire turbomachines creates the difficulty
that some components rotate, while others are stationary. For the rotating components,
the flow from the stationary components appears unsteady, and for the stationary
components, the flow from the rotating components appears unsteady. In other words, the
code must compute unsteady flow.
The capability to model the interaction between aerodynamic forces and the rotordynamic
allow for more precise determination of destabilizing forces on a rotor. Other classes of
problems are also solvable with great accuracy, including flows where real gas behavior
becomes important, or gas flows with solid or liquid particles.

Many techniques are available to model the flow inside a gas compressor. In the future, the
Solar team expects to completely design gas compressors and optimize them solely using
a computer, without ever having to build a prototype. Currently, however, the state of the
art for CFD technology lags behind. Computational results are often inaccurate and need
test validation.
CFD modeling and analysis can be expensive and time intensive, depending on the
number of components that have to be analyzed, and the accuracy of the results required.
Transient, non-steady-state calculations exponentially increase the effort. Typically, CFD
models provide good insights into flow structures, but may encounter problems supplying
accurate predictions for bulk characteristics such as stage mass flow or stage efficiency.
It also must be stressed that in order to achieve correct results, the user has to be quite
experienced in using the code and interpreting the results. Ubiquitous inaccuracies are
caused by modeling errors (i.e., the numerical model is not identical with the physical
reality), numerical errors (the solution of the programmed equations is not accurate),
convergence errors (calculations are stopped after too few iterations to save time),
application uncertainties (inlet or exit conditions, or geometry are not precisely known),
Isentropic Efficiency 
Pressure
Work Factor q, Head Coefficient 
Ratio
Meridional Contour
of static pressure
Inlet Flow Coefficient 
Ps Ratio
Isentropic Efficiency 
Work Factor q, Head Coefficient 
Meridional Contour
of static pressure
Inlet Flow Coefficient 
Figure 3-31. Performance validation for medium-flow and low-flow stages, including the
simulation of different hub and shroud seal clearances.

user errors (use of the wrong model, neglect of structures that influence the flow, etc.),
and code errors (“bugs”). Detail problems, such as the transition from laminar to turbulent
flow, are still not entirely resolved. All calculations, therefore, need to be calibrated against
reliable test data. However, the detailed insight in flow structures has yielded numerous
detail improvements, leading to higher compressor efficiencies, and improved reliability.
Thus, a combination of experimental results with CFD is currently the most sensible design
approach for gas turbines. The compressor engineer should never base a design decision
solely on CFD results.
Today, CFD can be used for inverse calculations (i.e., a favorable flow field is defined, and
the blade shapes to match the flow field are calculated), or to calculate the interaction of
liquid droplets in Dry Gas Seal gaps. The interaction between aerodynamic forces and the
lateral rotor or seal movement can be modelled, thus allowing a more precise determination
of de stabilizing forces.
CFD calculation can also be used to optimize the manufacturing process for the impeller,
for example, by combining the CFD calculations with the model of machining tools, thus
enabling single-piece impellers to be machined. In general, CAD models of geometries can
be used to define these geometries in the CFD tool (Figures 3-31 to 3-34).
1x Shroud Seal 4x Shroud Seal

1x Hub Seal 4x Hub Seal
Figure 3-32. Detailed CFD analysis of the passage flow in an impeller, and the impact of
increased seal clearance.
Velocity Velocity
Streamline 1 Streamline 1
Figure 3-33. Flow simulations for complex inlet and discharge geometries.

Downstream blades stall at operation
backpressure 10% higher than design point.
10% span of Rotor 13, Stator 13 and EGV
Static Pressure (psi)
Rotor 13 Stator 13 and EGV
Index of inlet/exit plane
Figure 3-34. Simulation of a 13-stage axial compressor, showing stall on the last stages when
the backpressure is increased to 10% above design pressure.
FROM CONCEPT TO FINAL STAGE
During the preliminary design, trade-offs between performance, mechanical rigidity

and rotor dynamic behavior are made. Some of the design trade-offs made during the
preliminary design phase are listed in Table 3-2.
Design Feature Disciplines Impacted
Impeller tip speed Aero, structural
Impeller blade thickness Aero, structural, and castability
Impeller blade angles and shape Aero, structural
Impeller blade height Aero, structural
Impeller blade fillet size Aero, structural, and castability
Impeller shroud thickness Structural, vibration, and castability
Stage length, bearing span Aero, structural, and rotor dynamic
Impeller hub diameter Aero, rotor dynamic, and structural
Diffuser diameter Aero, cost, and weight
Table 3-2. Design trade-offs during preliminary design phase.
During the preliminary design phase, impellers are sized to develop the head identified
during the conceptual phase. Impeller head-making capability is controlled by two basic
geometric parameters: blade turning and tip diameter. Tall impellers can generate large
amounts of head but at the expense of high tip speeds, which increases blade stresses. In
addition, this high head can decrease specific speeds, lowering the efficiency potential of
the stage. Short impellers are limited by the amount of turning they can efficiently impart

on the flow. Optimization studies are conducted to determine proper amounts of turning
and tip diameter to meet the required head, while maintaining acceptable impeller tip
speeds.
For a gas pipeline compressor, overall head requirements are lower, typically below 90 kJ/
kg, and can be met with one or two stages of compression. This stage count requirement
helps to determine overall shaft length which influences rotor dynamic behavior. Since
rotational speeds of the compressor are established by the turbine engine, rotor dynamic
tools can be used to set axial lengths. To maximize efficiency, impellers with long axial
lengths are used to minimize curvature effects on the flow stream. Rapid increases in
curvature increase local gas velocities inside the blade passages, which must later be
diffused. Diffusion always incurs loss and decreases efficiency. Minimizing curvature
throughout the machine maximizes the efficiency potential of the compressor.
For the production compressor, head requirements are much higher, thus stage counts can
range from two to 10 stages, and intercooling may be required. This leads to longer shafts.
To maintain rotor dynamic stability, larger shaft diameters are required. This increases the
hub diameter. The high stage counts require axially shorter stages than those used in a
gas pipeline compressor. The combination of shorter stages and a larger hub diameter
increases flow path curvature, thus decreasing the efficiency potential for the production
compressor relative to the gas pipeline compressor.
To help during the preliminary aerodynamic design, a one-dimensional code is used to

design the basic dimensions of the stage and predict its performance. Using a built-in
database of compressor test data augmented by Solar’s own experience, a 1D-Code can
quickly size a compressor and predict its performance. This allows for many iterations and
“what-if” scenarios to be performed in arriving at an optimum design. Trade-offs between
tip speed and turning can be quickly determined.
DETAILED DESIGN
Detailed design is where the engineering sketches become detailed drawings. Further
optimization occurs at the component level to ensure mechanical integrity, rotor dynamic
rigidity, manufacturability, and aerodynamic performance goals are met.
Aerodynamic Design Tools - For detailed blade design, a CAD based tool allows for rapid
geometric modifications of impellers, flow paths and return channels. Intuitive screens
provide the designer with tools to easily change blade angle distributions through the blade
passage, as well as blade thickness and flow path shape. Plots of curvature and slope help
to guide the engineer to quickly optimize component shapes.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has now reached a maturity level in both accuracy
and speed, making it an effective design tool. Using proprietary tools, blade geometry and
fluid information, or boundary conditions are quickly defined and analyzed. Solutions that
required eight to 10 hours to obtain a decade ago now take 20 minutes. Improved GUI
based software enables engineers to quickly process the solutions and visually display
areas of high loss, which can be addressed on the next iteration. CFD is also used for
complex geometries such as radial inlets and volutes. Using solid models, unstructured

meshes can be quickly generated and analyzed for extremely complex geometries. The
CFD results help to identify regions of high loss generated by the geometry, and the
software then facilitates easy geometrical modifications to reduce or eliminate these
regions.
Structural Analysis Tools - Finite element analysis (FEA) has also become an integral part
of the structural design process, resulting from vast improvements in computer hardware
and software. More rapid finite element analysis is made possible by the ability to quickly
input detailed information, develop a solution and interpret the results. These new tools
do not necessarily replace classic manual calculations that have and will continue to be
used, but are a supplement to them. The new tools have the capability to analyze and
design components that previously were sized by either iterative testing or conservative
scaling from earlier designs. The benefit is that complicated parts are no longer needlessly
oversized. Oversized structural components, such as casings, drive up the weight and
cost of the compressor, and in the case of aero components, can significantly degrade
compressor performance.
The compressor component most significantly affected by improvements in structural

analysis is the impeller. The aero requirements of high head, high efficiency and wide
operating range, when combined with the need to have a shroud on the impeller produce
blade shapes subject to high stress. Prior to FEA, accurate analytical predictions of stress
in the impeller’s shroud and blades were very difficult. Normal practice was to design the
impeller for aero performance, and then conduct destructive structural testing that was
expensive, time consuming, and provided minimal opportunity for optimization.
Return channels are designed with the same tools and methodology as the impellers. The
only structural concerns for the return channels are assembly bolts that hold the return
vane to the diaphragm and must penetrate through the vane itself. Deflections caused
by pressure loads are also a concern. Evaluating the return vane at the case maximum
operating pressure checks these deflection loads.
By using the modular rotor design approach, mechanical and rotor dynamic advantages can
be realized by incorporating solid stator diaphragms. With the elimination of a split-line in
the stator diaphragm, less axial length is needed to maintain the same deflection levels.
This decreased axial length results in shorter shaft lengths for an equivalent split-stator
compressor with the same number of stages. Combined with the larger hub diameter
for the modular rotor design (see Compressor Design Objectives), Solar multi-stage
compressors have a stiffer, shorter shaft than those using solid shafts with interference-fit
impellers and split-stator diaphragms.
FEA validates one of the advantages of the modular rotor design. Centrifugal stiffening can
be seen in Figure 3-35 that compares a modular rotor to an interference fit impeller. For
the modular rotor, centrifugal forces work advantageously on the pilots and interlocking
surfaces, tightening with speed. For the interference fit impeller, centrifugal forces work to
pull the impeller away from the shaft. To offset this force, higher levels of interference are
needed, affecting the balance of the assembly.

Solid Shaft with
Interference-Fit Impellers
Modular Rotor Shaft
Figure 3-35. FEA showing modular shaft design has increased stiffness from centrifugal forces
relative to the solid shaft.
AXIAL THRUST
Thrust loads of centrifugal impellers are the result of a pressure imbalance between the
front face and the rear face of the impeller. The sum of these forces over all impellers and
the forces created by the balance piston constitute the resulting load on the compressor
thrust bearing (Figure 3-36).

P Exit
C Exit
P Cavity Front
P Cavity Rear
P Inlet
C Inlet
static gas pressure in axial direction:
Figure 3-36. Forces on the impeller.

static gas pressure in axial direction:
From the axial momentum equation that considers the change of the axial momentum of
the gas, and the forces due to the static gas pressure in the axial direction:
we
Theget the resulting
forces forces on
on the impeller as the impeller
shown as (Figure
in (Figure 3-36) 8):
result.
we get the resulting forces on the impeller as (Figure 8):
Thefront
The front and
and rear
rear cavities
cavities are
areformed
formedbetween
betweenthe
theimpeller
impellertip
tipand
andthe
thelabyrinth
labyrinthseals
sealsatatthe impeller inlet, and the i
the impeller inlet and the impeller hub seals.
The front and rear cavities are formed between the impeller tip and the labyrinth seals at the impeller inlet, and the im
F Impeller
P Discharge P Suction
Figure 3-37. Balance piston.

Figure 9: Balance Piston
The force on the thrust bearing is thus (Figure 9):
Figure 9: Balance Piston
The force on the thrust bearing is thus (Figure 9):

The force on the thrust bearing is shown in (Figure 3-37).
In the simplest approach to calculating the forces on the impeller, one would assume the
pressure in the front and rear cavities to be equal to the pressure at the impeller tip. In a
the labyrinths.
shrouded impeller, however, the gas in the cavity is subject to swirl, and as a result, the
Instatic
the simplest
pressureapproach
at lower to calculate
radii is lowerthe forces
than on tip.
at the the The
impeller,
amountoneofwould assume
swirl is the pressure
a function of the in the fron
tocavity
the pressure at the impeller tip. In a shrouded impeller
geometry, and the leakage flows through the labyrinths.
however, the gas in the cavity is subject to sw
pressure at lower radii is lower than at the tip. The amount of swirl is a function of the cavity geometry,
The cavity static
The cavity static pressure
pressure distribution
distribution can
can be
be calculated
calculated by:
by:
1
p (r ) = ptip − ρ ( qω ) 2 ( rtip
2
− r2)
2 (5)
accounting for the cavity characteristics by introducing a cavity swirl coefficient (q).
A simple approach would assume constant swirl coefficients for front and rear cavities. This
approach is frequently used in the industry, but high pressure compressors require more
accurate estimates. Correlations and CFD analysis (Figure 3-38a) are utilized for these,
accounting for the cavity characteristics by introducing a cavity swirl coefficient q.
along with subscale test measurements for validation.
The fact that the swirl coefficient changes when the impeller is operated away from
its design point (Figure 38b) is of particular importance for off-design operation. Also,
A
thesimple approach
magnitude would
of the swirlassume constant
coefficient swirl
on the coefficients
impeller for changes
backside front andinrear
thecavities.
oppositeThis approach is
but high pressure compressors
direction from the swirl require more accurate estimates. Correlations and CFD analysis (Figur
coefficient on the impeller
frontside. This means that Swirl Ratio
the thrust imbalance (for a
given pressure level and a
Of particular importance for the topic of off design operation is the fact that the swirl coefficient change
given speed) changes not
away from its design point (Figure 10 b). Also, the magnitude of the swirl coefficient on the impeller ba
just due to
direction the the
from pressure
swirl coefficient on the front side of the impeller. This means that the thrust imbalance
difference between
a given speed) changes thenot just due to the pressure difference between the impeller eye and the correspo
different swirl
impeller eye factors
and the in the cavities in the front and back of the impeller. This imbalance, in particular
moves from thebackside,
corresponding design point to choke. In general, the shroud side swirl is higher than the backside swirl, a
but also due to different
cavity swirl factors at
the front and back of the
impeller. This imbalance, in
particular, changes when
the compressor moves from
the design point to choke.
In general, the shroud side
swirl is higher than the
backside swirl, a result also
reported by Koenig et al,
2009. Figure 3-38a. Swirl ratio in the shroud and the backside cavity.

Cavity Swirl Coefficient, q
the labyrinths.
The cavity static pressure distribution can be calculated by:
1
p (r ) = ptip − ρ ( qω ) 2 ( rtip
2
− r2)
2 (5)
Inlet Flow Coefficient, Phi

accounting for the cavity characteristics by introducing a cavity swirl coefficient q.
Figure 3-38b. Cavity swirl coefficient for a medium-flow stage at different operating points.
A simple approach would assume constant swirl coefficients for front and rear cavities. This approach is frequently used in the industry,
but high pressure compressors require more accurate estimates. Correlations and CFD analysis (Figure 10 a)are being used for these,
Isentropic Efficiency
Of particular importance for the topic of off design operation is the fact that the swirl coefficient changes when the impeller is operated
away from its design point (Figure 10 b). Also, the magnitude of the swirl coefficient on the impeller backside changes in the opposite
direction from the swirl coefficient on the front side of the impeller. This means that the thrust imbalance (for a given pressure level and
a given speed) changes not just due to the pressure difference between the impeller eye and the corresponding backside, but also due to
different swirl factors in the cavities in the front and back of the impeller. This imbalance, in particular, changes when the compressor
moves from the design point to choke. In general, the shroud side swirl is higher than the backside swirl, a result also reported by Koenig
Isentropic Head Coefficient
Inlet Flow Coefficient
Figure 3-39a. Non-dimensional map for a multistage compressor.

Axial Thrust, lbf (+: Outboard Direction
Figure 3-39b. Change of axial thrust with operating point.
Thrust Bearing Temperature vs. Inlet Flow Coefficient

Temperature F
Figure 3-39c. Thrust bearing temperature as a function of operating point.

Axial Gap vs. Inlet Flow Coefficient
Averaged Axial Gap (mil)
Figure 3-39d. Axial position of the rotor as a function of the operating point.
Because the thrust load has a direct impact on the thrust bearing temperature, which
can be conveniently measured, Figures 3-39a-d. establish the correlation between non-
dimensional operating point (Figure 3-39a), thrust load at different speeds (Figure 3-40b),
the resulting bearing temperature of the loaded and unloaded pads of the thrust bearing
(Figure 3-39c), as well as the axial position of the rotor as a result (Figure 3-39d). The
inboard bearing shows a significant increase in temperature (albeit not to a level that would
cause concern) when the compressor enters the choke region. The outboard bearing
shows a much lower increase in temperature when the operating point moves towards
surge. For this particular application, with the particular selection of the balance position
size, the thrust load reverses direction, which explains the behavior of the inboard and
outboard bearing temperatures. Of course, the bearing temperature also increases with
speed. As a result of the thrust load changes and the changing load capacity of the thrust
bearing with speed, the axial gaps for all speeds are fairly close together, but change
significantly when the compressor is operated from design point to surge or into choke.
When comparing the magnitude of the forces acting on the impeller (Figure 3-40), the
pressure from the inlet eye and the pressures in the cavities are usually dominant, but act in
opposite directions. In general, they generate a resulting force, but much smaller than the
pressure forces, in the direction of the compressor inlet, this is not always the case. The
momentum force, generated by deflecting the gas from more or less axial to more or less
radial direction, is usually much smaller than the pressure forces. At very high discharge
pressures near choke, when the pressure differential over the impeller is rather small, the
momentum force can become dominant, and create a net force towards the discharge end
of the compressor.

F/F Thrust
Stage
Figure 3-40. Contributing forces to the impeller thrust in a 6-stage compressor.
In Out
Inline
In Out
B2B
Figure 3-41. Inline and back-to-back arrangements.

The descriptions in this section are based on shrouded impellers. As opposed to open
faced impellers that have free standing blades, the blades in shrouded impellers are
covered. Therefore, the pressure distribution on the front face of the impeller is governed
by the impeller discharge pressure and the impact of swirl flow. In an open-faced impeller,
the pressure distribution would be governed by the pressure build up in the impeller flow
passages.
Considerations as described above can be used to determine the relative benefits of

back-to-back versus inline arrangements for compressors with two sections (Figures 3-41
and 3-42). They show that back-to-back arrangements have a larger change in thrust load
from surge to choke than in-line arrangements. This is especially evident if the operating
conditions for the individual sections can change independently. They are also more
sensitive to asymmetrically worn seals.
Another finding is the impact of thrust variations due to tolerances in seal clearances, but
also due to compressor deterioration from fouling or erosion, especially for compressors
operating at very-high-pressures.
B2B
Thrust
Surge PR=9.4 Design PR=8.0 PR=6.0
In-Line PR=4.0 Choke PR=2.3
Equivelant at Surge/ In-Line Superior

Design point in Choke
Figure 3-42. Variation of axial thrust from surge to choke, for inline arrangements versus back-
to-back arrangements.

CHAPTER 4
ROTORDYNAMICS
Balaji Venkataraman, Marco Vagani, Rainer Kurz
The principal moving mechanical components (Figure 4-1) of any gas compressor are
the shaft, and with it the impellers, bearings and various seals. The shaft in a centrifugal
compressor may rotate at speeds between 3,000 and 25,000 revolutions per minute,
with the impeller tips reaching over 1100 ft/s (350 m/s). The shaft is supported by two
journal bearings. These are typically hydrodynamic, tilting pad-bearings, but they can also
be magnetic bearings. The impellers of the compressor are either arranged between the
bearings, or, for so-called overhung designs, outside the bearing span.
In addition, an axial thrust bearing compensates for the residual axial thrust load.
Fluid film bearings utilize petroleum-based or synthetic oil to act as a lubricant and coolant
between the moving shaft and the stationary bearing surfaces. Bearings function to
transmit the static loads and dynamic vibration forces.
When the compressor shaft rotates at high angular speeds, small imbalances or
eccentricities in the shafts due to manufacturing imperfections or mechanical/thermal
stresses are amplified and can create significant forces on the compressor bearings and
cause shaft deflection. In addition, especially for high gas pressures and high gas densities,
aerodynamic forces acting on the impellers and seals can create destabilization effects.
These concerns are covered in the discussion of lateral rotordynamics.
In addition, the drive train (driver, couplings, gearboxes, compressors) are also subject to
torsional excitation, and the resulting torsional vibrations.
Stub Shaft
Center Tie
Bolt
Impellers
Stub Shaft
Tie Bolt Nut
Figure 4-1. Rotor design
Chapter 4: Rotordynamics | 85
If any of these forces are not adequately controlled, catastrophic failure may be the
consequence. Hence, you can see the importance for the compressor designer to
understand and predict the shaft and bearing rotordynamic forces.
The primary design goal of rotordynamics is to assure that the compressor is stable under
the required operating conditions. One of the most critical aspects of compressor design
is the ability to predict the behavior of the rotor. The quality of the prediction depends on
the modeling accuracy of the rotor and its support system, including bearings, pedestals
and casing into a computer model. Ultimately, actual test data determine the accuracy of
predictions, and the capability of the compressor to operate reliably and in a stable fashion.
A benchmark is defined by meeting or exceeding American Petroleum Institute 617 [1]

requirements for centrifugal gas compressors. The following design requirements were
established in order to achieve this goal:
• Insensitive to unbalance
• Operating below bending mode
• Critically dampened lower modes
• High stability margin
The primary rotordynamic considerations are the vibration level at operating speeds and the
location of the resonant frequencies. The compressor rotor should be insensitive to unbalance
throughout the operating speed range. Inevitably, rotors will have residual unbalance that
appears as speed-synchronous vibration during operation. The rotor system should be able to
accommodate the API residual unbalance limit without exceeding the vibration limit.
Finite element-based rotordynamic analyses, coupled with advanced fluid-film bearing

analysis, form the base of the tools for rotordynamic analysis. Other component analyses,
such as for labyrinth and oil seals, must be considered. Major advances in recent years
came from improvements in the areas of bearing-rotor interaction, seal-rotor interaction,
impeller-rotor interaction and modeling of bearings. The improvements in bearing models,
for example, result from a better understanding of the behavior of the lubrication oil once it
enters the bearing. Obviously, the local temperature of the lubrication oil has a significant
influence on the local viscosity of the oil and, thus, of the damping characteristics of the
bearing. Proven tools and a large number of tested configurations combined with pre-
engineered rotor systems provide a high degree of confidence in predictions.
Over the next pages, you'll be presented with a basic explanation of mechanic and dynamic
theory for compressor rotordynamics. The discussion starts with lateral rotordynamics, and
the torsional behavior will be covered in the second part.
Vibrations of a Simple Mass‑Spring Damper System (Single Degree of Freedom)
Analyzing a significantly simplified mechanical model is a good place to start. The

assumption is that shaft vibrations can be simulated by modeling the shaft as a single
stationary mass (m) with one fixed support (bearing). Naturally, this single support bearing
would possess a certain physical stiffness (k) and damping (c) characteristic. Figure 4-2
shows a schematic of this simple mass‑spring damper system.
86 | Chapter 4: Rotordynamics
Figure
After applying Newton’s 4-1.law
second Simple Mass-Spring-Damper System
(f=ma), the followingFigure
equation
Figure of motion
4-1.
4-1. Simple
Simple Mass-Spring-Damper
Mass-Spring-Damper System
System
After
for thisapplying Newton’s second
single-degree-of-freedom
Figure 4-1. SimplelawMass-Spring-Damper
(f=ma), we get the following
System equation of motion
this single
Afterdegree of freedom system: law (f=ma), we get the following
After applying
system is derived:
applying Newton’s
Newton’s second
second law (f=ma), we get the following equation
equation of
of motion
motion
this single
After degree
applyingof freedom
Newton’s system: c
second law (f=ma), we get the following equation of motion
this single degree of freedom system:
madegree
this single + cv + kx =f
of freedom system: k
ma
ma + + cvcv is+ kx
+the =
= ff
kx acceleration,
where (a) (v) is
ma + cv + kx = f
velocity, (x) is the displacement, and (f)
where a is the acceleration, v is velocity, x is the displacement, and f is an external force. T
is an external force. The above equation kx cx
above equation
where can easily bevrewritten as an ordinary differential equation:
where aacanis the
the acceleration,
is easily acceleration, v is
be rewritten as an
velocity,
velocity, xx is
isordinary is the
the displacement,
displacement, andand ff is
is an
an external
external force.
force. T
T
above
where equation
a is
above equation the can
can easily
acceleration,
easily be
be vrewritten
is
rewritten as
velocity,
as an
xanisordinary
the differential
displacement,
ordinary differential equation:
and f is
equation: an external force. T
differential
2 equation:
above equationd x candxeasily be rewritten as an ordinary differential x equation:
m 222 + c + kx = f
dd xx
dt dx
dt + kx = f
m
m dt 22 ++ cc dx + kx = f
d 2x dx
dt
m dt + c dt + kx = f
For now wedt will neglect the damping (c = 0) and the external force (f = 0). Thus,
2
Fordt
now, the damping (c = 0) and the F and the external force (f = 0). Thus,
ordinaryFor
differential equation simplifies to:
For now
now
external
we
we(f will
force will neglect
neglect
= 0) will
the
the damping
be ignored. damping (c
(c == 0)
0) and the external force (f = 0). Thus,
ordinary differential
For
ordinaryThus, now we
differential equation
will
equation simplifies
neglect the
simplifies to:
damping (c = 0) and the external force (f = 0). Thus,
the ordinary differential equationto:
d 2x
ordinarysimplifies
differential equation simplifies to: Figure 4-2. Simple mass-spring-damper system
m 22 2 + kx = 0
to:
dddt xx
mm ddt2 22x ++ kx
kx == 00
m dt 2 + kx =the
It isdtbeyond
0 scope of this text to demonstrate the solution for this equation, which
be found in beyond
ItIt is most differential
the scope equations
of this textbook.
text to But the general solution of this equation is:
It isisbeyond
beyondthethe scope
scope of thisoftext
this
to text to demonstrate
demonstrate
demonstrate
the solution
the solutionthe
for solution
for this
this equation,
for which
this equation, equation,
can be
which
which c
be found
It
be found in
is most
in beyond
most differential equations
the scopeequations
differential textbook.
of thistextbooks.
text But the
to demonstrate
textbook. general
Butgeneralthe
the general solution
solution of
for this
solution this equation
equation,
of this is:
which c
found in most differential-equation But the solution of this equation is: equation is:
k
be found in most differential k
equations textbook. But the general solution of this equation is:
x = A sin t + B cos t
kk
m kk
m
xx == A
A sin
sintt ++ B cos
B cos k tt
k
m
mt + B cos m
x = A sin mt
where A and B are mconstants thatm are evaluated from the initial conditions. This solution is als
sometimes andcalled
where Awhere B are
(A) and the
(B)Eigenvalue
constants that analysis.
are constants are are
that The above
evaluated
evaluatedfrom solution
from the
the shows that
initialconditions.
initial conditions.ThisifThis
the solution
system is
solution is als
allowed
sometimesto vibrate
called freely,
the the frequency
Eigenvalue analysis.at which
The it would
above vibrate
solution is:
shows
is also sometimes called the Eigenvalue analysis. The above solution shows that the that if the system is
allowedsystem
to vibrate freely,
is allowed the frequency
to vibrate freely, the at which itatwould
frequency which itvibrate is: is:
would vibrate
k
ωN = k
ωN = m
m
ΤN is called the natural frequency or Eigenvalue of the system. The natural frequenc
(
ΤNN)isis called
very important called the
the natural
in rotordynamics frequency
natural sinceoritEigenvalue
frequency also of the system.
orcorresponds
Eigenvalue This
to the
of natural frequency
resonance
system. is
frequency
The natural of a syste
frequenc
namely:very important in rotordynamics, since it also corresponds to the resonance frequency
very important in rotordynamics since it also corresponds to the resonance frequency of a syste of a
namely:system; namely:
If an excitation force is applied to a system at its
If an excitation force is applied to a system at its natural frequency,
natural
If an frequency,
excitation force is theapplied
systemtowill resonate.
a system at its
the system will resonate.
natural frequency, the system will resonate.
Now assume that a regular periodic (excitation) force is applied to the mass in the form
Now assume that a regular periodic force (excitation) is applied to the mass in the form of a
a sinusoidal function,
Now assume
sinusoidal that a regular periodic (excitation) force is applied to the mass in the form
function,
a sinusoidal function,
f = F sin( ωt )
f = F sin( ωt )
where Τ is the excitation frequency, and F is the amplitude of the excitation force. To genera
further,Τthe
where damping
is the (c) will
excitation not be neglected.
frequency, Theamplitude
and F is the equation of the
motion thus becomes:
excitation force. To genera
further, the damping (c) will not be neglected. The equation
Chapterof
4: motion thus becomes:
Rotordynamics | 87
dx 2 dx
m 2 + c + kx = F sin( ωt )
Now assume
a sinusoidal function,that a regular periodic (excitation) force is applied to the mass in the form of
a sinusoidal
f = Ffunction,
sin( ωt )
f = F sin( ωt )
f = F sin( ωt )
where Τ is the excitation frequency, and F is the amplitude of the excitation force. To generalize
further,Τwhere
where is the
the ()excitation
dampingis the (c) frequency,
excitation
will and
frequency,
not andF(F)
be neglected. is isthe
theamplitude
The equationofof
amplitude the
ofthe excitation
excitation
motion thus force.
force. To
becomes: To generalize
further,Τgeneralize
where is the
the excitation
damping (c) frequency,
will not be and F
neglected.is the
The amplitude
equation of the excitation
motion thus
further, the damping (c) will not be neglected. The equation of motion thus
force.
becomes: To generalize
further, becomes:
the damping
2 (c) will not be neglected. The equation of motion thus becomes:
dx dx
m dx22 + c dx + kx = F sin( ωt )
m dxd 22t + c dxdt + kx = F sin( ωt )
m d 2 t + c dt + kx = F sin( ωt )
t dt
Thed steady-state “particular” solution to the above ordinary differential equation is:
The steady-state “particular” solution to the above ordinary differential equation is:
x =steady-state
The
The X sin( ωt −“particular”
steady-state ϕ)“particular” solution
solution to theordinary
to the above abovedifferential
ordinary equation
differential
is: equation is:
x = X sin( ωt − ϕ)
x = X sin( ωt − ϕ)
where
where where
where F
X = F
(
X = k − mω F2 2 + cω 2 ) ( )
(
X = k − mω 2 2 + cω 2 ) ( )
( k − mω 2 + cω) ( )
2 2
-Dt
NOTE: NOTE:
ThereThere
is also a “complementary”
is also transient
a “complementary” transient term
term of the
of the functional
functional form form x=Ce-Dt sin(Et+α),
NOTE: There
which isx=Ce
part is also a “complementary” transient term of the functional
‑Dt of the complete solution to the above ordinary differential equation. However,
form x=Ce sin(Et+α),
sin(Et+), which is part of the complete solution to the above ordinary differential -Dt
NOTE:
which is
because There
part is
of also
the
of the However, a “complementary”
complete
exponential solution
multiplication transient
to the
factor, aboveterm of the
ordinary
this transient functional
term form
differential
decreases x=Ce
equation.
with timesin(Et+α),
However,
and will
which isequation.
part of the because
complete of the exponential
solution to the multiplication
above factor,
ordinary this transient
differential term
equation. However,
because ofzero
approach the exponential
for most multiplication
real systems. factor, for
Thus, this atransient
steady term
state decreases
rotordynamicwith time and the
analysis will
decreases with time and multiplication
will approach zero for most
thisreal systems. term
because
approach ofzero
complementary the exponential
for
term most
can real
often systems.
be factor,
Thus,
neglected. for steady Thus,
atransient for a steady-state
statedecreases
rotordynamicwith time and the
analysis will
rotordynamic
approach zero term analysis
for most the complementary
real besystems. term can often be neglected.
Thus, for a steady state rotordynamic analysis the
complementary can often neglected.
complementary term ccan ω often be neglected.
 
ϕ = tan −−11  cω 2 
ϕ = tan −1  k −cmωω 2 
ϕ = tan  k − mω 2 
 k − mω 
The above steady-state solution shows that the system vibrates at the excitation frequency
Thebut
() Xk
above steady-state
experiences lag ().1This
a certainsolution shows
lag is that
calledthe
thesystem vibrates
phase lag or phaseat the of
angle excitation
the frequency
The =above
(ω) butsystem. =
Zexperiences steady-state
a certain solution
lag (Φ). shows
This that
lag isthe system
called the vibrates
phase at
lag the
or excitation
phase frequency
angle of the
The FWe can
above
non‑dimensionalize2 the above equation and rewrite it as follows:

steady-state 
solution
2

shows that the 
2 system vibrates at the excitation frequency
(ω) but experiences
system. We can a  ωlag
certain
Xk non-dimensionalizelag (Φ).
(Φ). This
1the above lagequation
lag
ωiscalled
is called the phase lag or
and rewrite it as follows:phase angle of the
system. We = can = a1certain
(ω) but Zexperiences − 
Xk non-dimensionalize   1the 
+ 2ζ 
This
above  
equation  the
and phase
rewrite it lag
as or phase
follows: angle of the
system.ZWe = can =   ω N  2  2the above
F non-dimensionalize  ω  2  and rewrite it as follows:
F     ω  2   N  
 2 
equation
  ω 2 
1 −  ω   +  2ζ  ω  
1 −  ω N   +  2ζ  ω N  
 ω  ω N

2ζ       ω N  
 
tan ϕ =  ωN 
 ω 2
ω 
2ζ ω
ζω N 
12−
tan ϕ = ω ωNN 2
tan ϕ =  ω 2
1 −  ω 
1 − ω N
where . is defined as ω Nthe
 damping factor and Z is called the force response.
where () is defined as the damping factor and (Z) is called the force response.
where .Damping
is defined
Damping Factor:
as the damping factor and Z is called the force response.
Factor:
where . is defined as the damping factor and Z is called the force response.
Damping c Factor:
ζ=
Damping
2mω Factor:N
c
ζ= c
ωN
ζ = 2mResponse:
Force
22mω
88 | Chapter
N 4: Rotordynamics
Xk
Force Response:
cc
ζζ =
=
2
2mmωωN N
Force
Force Response:
Response:
Force 2Response:
2
Xk
Z=
Z = Xk
F
F
The
The force
force
The force response
response
response represents
represents
represents the
the non-dimensional
non-dimensional
the non‑dimensional vibration
vibration
vibration amplitude amplitude
system. of
amplitude
of the of the
the syste
syste
Hence, the peak
Hence, Hence,
the peak vibration
vibration amplitude
amplitude of
of the
the system
system is:
is:
the peak vibration amplitude of the system is:
F F
= F =
X =
X = F
2ζζkk ccω
2 ωN
N
IfIf Zwe
If is plotted
we plot
plot Z Zversus
versus
versus / ω/ω
ω/ω
N
(non‑dimensional
(non-dimensional excitation frequency),frequency),
excitation the result is shown
N (non-dimensional excitation frequency), we get Figure 39. T
N we get in Figure 39. T
type of Figure
plot, 4-3.
also This type
called a of plot,
force also called
response a force
plot, response
is commonly
type of plot, also called a force response plot, is commonly employed for vibration plot, is commonly
employed employed
for for analysis
vibration analysis sin
sin
allowsvibration
itit allows for theanalysis,
for the since it allows
determination
determination of for the
of the
the determination
vibration
vibration peakofamplitude
peak the vibrationfor
amplitude peak
for any
anyamplitude
frequency
frequency at at which
which
system for
system may
may anybe
frequency
be excited.
excited. at which
The the system
The force
force response
response may beplot excited.
plot shows
showsThe asymptotic
force response
asymptotic plot shows
behavior
behavior at ω/ω
at ω/ωNN =
= 1.0;
1.0; ii
when asymptotic
the forcing behavior
frequency
when the forcing frequency reaches at /
reaches
N
= 1.0; i.e.,
the when
system’s the forcing
naturalfrequency reaches
frequency. the
Namely,
the system’s natural frequency. Namely, as the frequency system’s
as the frequency
the natural frequency.
the sinusoidal
sinusoidal force Namely, as the
force approaches
approaches thefrequency
the system’s
system’s of the sinusoidal
natural
natural force approaches
frequency,
frequency, there
there isisthea
a possibility
possibility that
that
system’s
system’s system’s naturalmay
resonance
resonance frequency,
may become
become there is a possibility
unstable
unstable if thethat
if the the system’s
system
system is not resonance
is not adequately
adequately maydamped.
become
damped.
unstable if the system is not adequately dampened.
c 180° 0.05
0 ζ= cc 0.15
3.0 0.375
Phase angle φ
0.05 ζ= 1.0
90°
0.10
0.15
0.25
2.0 0 1 2 3 ω 4 5
0.375 ωη
0.50
1.0
1.0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

ω
ωn
Figure 4-3. Force response plot utilized in vibration analysis.
As can be seen in Figure 4-3, the system’s force response significantly depends on the
level of system damping. For example, if the system is damped beyond unity (>1.0), the
plot shows no peak response and the stable system is called overdamped. On the other
hand, if the damping is below unity (<1.0), the system force response (Z) will exceed
unity at the natural frequency, and the system is called underdamped. The damping value
at which the system is just in between over and underdamped (=1.0), is called the critical
damping. It is important to realize that even systems that are underdamped (<1.0) may
be considered to be stable and acceptable for a particular application as long as the force
response stays within the systems allowable engineering design parameters.
Lateral Rotordynamics Supported Rotor System (Two Degrees-of-Freedom)
So far the study focus has been on a single degree of freedom mass‑spring‑damper
system. Now the focus shifts to a more realistic, but still somewhat simplified,
mechanical model of an actual rotor. Consider a single rotor with a concentrated mass
(m), supported on two bearings, as shown in Figure 4-4. The bearings are considered
infinitely stiff; i.e., they do not allow for any displacement. However, the shaft itself still
has certain stiffness and damping characteristics; if the shaft experiences sufficiently
unbalanced force at its mass center, it will bend or vibrate.
Figure 4-3. Simple Rotor Model

Figure 4-3. Simple Rotor Model
NOTE: Figure
Clearly,4-4. aSimple
real rotorrotormodel.
never has a mass concentrated at one single point. Thus, for a more
NOTE: Clearly, a real
advanced rotordynamic analysis rotor neverFigure
hasmodal
the a4-3.
mass concentrated
Simple
mass, at one for
Rotoraccounts
which Model single
the point.
rotor’sThus,
weightfor a more
advanced rotordynamic analysis the modal mass, which accounts for
distribution, rather than the actual mass of the rotor is used. Typically, the modal mass of a rotor the rotor’s weight
distribution,
NOTE:
is between
NOTE: rather
Clearly,
50% aand
Clearly, than
real a80%
realthe
rotor ofactual
never
rotor never
its mass
has
has aa
actual of the
mass
mass
mass. rotor is used.
concentrated
concentrated Typically,
at
at one one single
single the
point. modal
point.
Thus, a massfor
forThus, of aa more
rotor
is between
advanced 50% and
rotordynamic 80% of its
analysis actual
the mass.
modal mass, which accounts
more advanced rotordynamic analysis, the modal mass—which accounts for the rotor’s for the rotor’s weight
distribution,
weight rather
An unbalance than
distribution, the
force
ratheractual
occurs mass
when
than the actualof
the the
mass rotor
rotor’s is used.
of thecenter
rotor—is Typically,
ofused.
gravity is the
notthe
Typically, modal
modalmass
perfectly of a rotor
aligned with
the An
is betweenof unbalance
axismass 50%
rotation and of force
80%
the ofoccurs
its
rotor. when
actual
This the
mass.
effect is rotor’s
called
of a rotor is between 50% and 80% of its actual mass.
center
rotor of
mass gravity is
unbalance not perfectly
(RMU) or aligned
shaft with
bow.
the axis of rotation of the rotor. This
The rotordynamic definition of rotor mass unbalance is:effect is called rotor mass unbalance (RMU) or shaft bow.
The rotordynamic
Anunbalance
An unbalance definition
force force
occursofwhen
rotorwhen
occurs mass
the unbalance
the
rotor’s rotor’s
center is: isofnot
of center
gravity gravity is not
perfectly perfectly
aligned with aligned with
RMU = Wu ⋅ Ru
the axisthe
of rotation
rotor's axis of ofthe rotor.
rotation. This
This effect
effect is is
calledcalled
rotor rotor
mass mass
unbalanceunbalance
(RMU) or (RMU)
shaft bow.or shaft bow.
The rotordynamic
RMU = W
The rotordynamic u ⋅
definition
R of rotor mass unbalance
udefinition of rotor mass unbalance is: is:
RMU = W ⋅ R u u
where W u (unbalance weight) is a small weight located a distance Ru (unbalance radius) away
where W (unbalance
from thewhere
axis W
u weight)
ofu (unbalance
rotation. The is is
a asmall
small weight
eccentricity
weight) located
(e) oflocated
weight a a thus:
rotora is distance
distance Ru (unbalance
Ru (unbalance radius) radius) away
from theaway
axisfrom
of rotation. The eccentricity (e) of a rotor is thus:
the axis of rotation. The eccentricity (e) of a rotor is thus:
where W u (unbalance
RMU weight) is a small weight located a distance Ru (unbalance radius) away
= RMU
from thee axis of rotation. The eccentricity (e) of a rotor is thus:
e= W
W
RMU
where W e =is the
where weight
W is of the
the weight rotor.
of the ToTodetermine
rotor. theactual
determine the actual unbalance
unbalanced forceforce magnitude
magnitude on on a
where W multiply
rotor, we is the
W weight of theunbalance
the rotor’s rotor. To determine
mass by itsthecentrifugal
actual unbalance force(f=ma):
acceleration magnitude on a
a rotor, multiply the rotor’s unbalance mass by its centrifugal acceleration (f=ma):
rotor, we multiply the rotor’s unbalance mass by its centrifugal acceleration (f=ma):
where WF is= the
mu weight
ω 22 = m of
eωthe
2 rotor. To determine the actual unbalance force magnitude on a
= mu ω = m e ω2 unbalance mass by its centrifugal acceleration (f=ma):

rotor, weF multiply the rotor’s
90 | Chapter
Since the 2rotor 4:
is Rotordynamics
spinning at afixed angular speed, the unbalance force acts on the
F = mthe
u ω rotor
= m ise spinning
ω 2
shaft in Since
the form of a periodic at a fixed
sinusoidal angular speed, the unbalance force acts on the
function:
rotor, we multiply the rotor’s unbalance mass by its centrifugal acceleration (f=ma):
F = mu ω 2 = m e ω2
Sincethe
Since the rotor
rotor is spinning
is spinning at aangular
at a fixed fixed speed,
angular
thespeed, the force
unbalanced unbalance
acts on force acts on the
the shaft
shaft ininthe form of a periodic sinusoidal function:
the form of a periodic sinusoidal function:
f u = F sin (ωt ) = m e ω2 sin(ω t )

For example, if a small 1000-hp gas turbine shaft rotates at 20,000 rpm (=2094 rad/sec)
For example, if a small 1000-hp gas turbine shaft rotates at 20,000 rpm (=2094 rad/se
and has an unbalanced weight of 100 grams located 5 mm away from the shaft center, the
and hasThe
an unbalance
equations weight
of motion of for
100thegrams located 5ofmm
two degrees away supported
freedom from the shaft
rotorcenter, the in
(as shown
resulting unbalanced
The equations force is 2190
of motion N (approximately
for the two degrees100oflbf).
freedom supported rotor (as shown in
Figure The
resulting
4-3)
The equations
unbalance
are againforce
equations of
of motion
is 2190
derived
motion for
using the
forNewtonstwo
Newton’s
the degrees
secondof
two (approximately
degrees freedom
oflaw. 100 lbsupported
When
freedom ).
fanalyzing
supported rotor (as
(as shown
the model,
rotor we in
shown in
Figure
Figure 4-3)
The
4-3) are
are again
equations
again derived
of motion
derived using
for
using Newton’s
the two
Newton’s second
degrees
second oflaw. When
freedom
law. When analyzing
supported
analyzing the
rotor
the model,
(as
model, we
shown
we in
realize
Figure The equations
that
4-3) there
are are
again of two
motion
derived forusing
degrees the two degrees-of-freedom
ofNewton’s
freedom rather
second thansupported
law.one
When asrotor
in (as previous
the shown
analyzing in model,
the example;we
realize 4-3)
Figure
realize that there
that there
are are two
again
are two degrees
derived
degreesusing ofNewton’s
of freedom rather
freedom rather
second than
law.
than one
When
one as in
as in the previous
previous
analyzing
the the example;
model,
example;we
namely,
realize Figure
that 4-4) are
thethere
system areagain
can derived
twovibrate
degrees using
of Newton’s
in the x and ysecond
freedom law.
directions.
rather thanWhen
oneanalyzing
The equations
as in the theprevious
model,
of you'll
motion for this
example;
namely,
realize
namely, the
that
the system
there
system arecantwovibrate
can degrees
vibrate in
in the x and
of freedom
the x and y
y directions.
rather thanThe
directions. one equations
The of motion
as in the previous
equations of for this
example;
system
namely,
system
see
thethat
are:
are:
there are
system can two degrees-of-freedom
vibrate in the x andrather than one as
y directions. in the
The equations of motion for
motion
previous example; for this
this
namely, are: the system can vibrate in the x and y directions. The equations of motion for this for this
the
system namely, system can vibrate in the x and y directions. The equations of motion
system are:
system are: 2
d 2x
system are: dx
2x
22x + c dx + = ee ω 2 cos(ωt )
2
m d kx m
d x + dx + = ω2 cos(ωt )
2
m d + c dx + kx = m ω ω
2x + c dt + kx = m e ω2
2
m
mddt
dt
22 c dt
dx kx m e 2 cos(
2
2 cos( ωtt ))
m dt
dt 222
2 + c dt
dt + kx = m e ω cos(ωt )
dt2 dt
d 2y dy
d2222yy22 + + = ee ω2 s in(ωt )
2
m d
d 2 y dy
cc dy ky m
m +
+ dy +
+ ky =
= m ω
ω2 s in(ωt )
2 s in(ω
m d y2 + c dy
dt
m dt c dt + ky = m e ω2
ωtt ))
dt 2 + c dt
m dt 2 dt + ky = m e ω22 ss in(
dt ky m e
in( ωt )
dt 22 dt
For now we will assume that the damping is very small and can be neglected. The
For now we will assume that the damping is very small and can be neglected. The
stiffnessFor
of now
For we
we will
the shaft
now from
will assume that
that the
the damping
basic material
assume propertiesis
damping very
very small
isis: small and
and can
can be
be neglected.
neglected. The
The
stiffness
stiffness of
For
For
of the
now,
now
the shaft
assume
we
shaft from
will
from basic
that the
assume
basic material
damping
that the
material properties
is very
damping
properties is is:
small and can be neglected. The stiffness
very
is: small and can be of the
neglected. The
stiffness of the shaft from basic material properties is:
stiffnessshaft fromshaft
of the basic material properties is:
EI from basic material properties is:
=
= −
kk
−48 EI
EI
= −48 EI
= −48 EI
48
kk L33
= −48 L
k L
L3333
L3
where E is Young’s Modulus, I is the area moment of inertia, and L is the rotor length. We can
where
where E
E is
is Young’s
Young’s Modulus,
Modulus, II is
is the
the area
area moment
moment of
of inertia,
inertia, and
and L
L is
is the
the rotor
rotor length.
length. We can
determine
where E is
wherethe natural
Young’s
(E) is frequencies
Modulus,
Young’s I
Modulus,is ofis the
the
(I) area
the system
moment
area if we
moment of
of neglect
inertia,
inertia, the
and
and unbalance
L
(L) isis the
the force
rotor
rotor andWe
length. We can
solve
canf
determine
where E is the
determine the natural
Young’s
natural frequencies
Modulus,
frequencies of
I is the
of the
areasystem
the moment
system ifif we neglect
of inertia,
we neglect the
and
the unbalance
L force
is the rotor
unbalance and
length.
force and solve
We can
solve ff
the Eigenvalues:
determine the
length. natural
The frequencies
naturalfrequencies of
frequencies ofofthe the system
system if we
canifbewe neglect
determined the
ifthe unbalance
theunbalance force
unbalance force is and solve ff
and solve
the Eigenvalues:
determine the
the Eigenvalues: natural the system neglect force
the
the Eigenvalues:
neglected, solving for the Eigenvalues:
Eigenvalues:
2
d 2x EI
m d
d 2x
x
ddt22 2x − − 48 EI
EI xx = 0
xx =
2
m 2 2
− 48 EI 3
= 0
m dt 22 − 48 EI
m d x 48 L
L 3 =00
dt 222 − 48 L x=0
3
m dt L3333
dt2 L
d 2y EI
d 2222 22yy − yy =
m d
d 2y
48 EI
EI 0
m −
− 48 EI 3
yy =
= 0
m
m ddt
dt y − 48
48 L
EI
L 3 =00
dt 22 − 48 L
m dt
2
2 L3333 y=0
Thus,
dt 2 L3
Thus,
Thus, Thus,
Thus,
Thus,
kk EI
ω
ω =
= kk = = 48 EI
EI
EI33
ω = = 48
Nx
ω Nx = m
m k = 48
48 mL
EI3
mL
ω Nx = m = 48 mL3333
Nx
Nx
Nx
Nx
m mL
m mL
kk EI
ω
ω Ny =
= kk =
= 48 EI
EI
EI33
ω Ny =
ω Ny = m
m k =
=
48
48
48 mL
EI
mL
ω Ny
Ny
Ny
Ny
= m = 48 mL3333
m mL
m mL3
In rotordynamics, these natural frequencies are also called the undamped critical
In rotordynamics, these natural frequencies are also called the undamped critical
speeds.InInIf rotordynamics,
the rotor operates
rotordynamics, these natural
at any
these frequencies
undamped
natural are
critical
frequencies also
also called
arespeed the
the undamped
or a multiple
called thereof, critical
undamped the system
critical
speeds.
speeds. InIf
If the
the rotor
rotordynamics,
rotor operates
operates at
these
at any
any undamped
natural
undamped critical
frequencies are
critical speed
also
speed or a
called
or a multiple
the thereof,
undamped
multiple thereof, the system
critical
the
excited
speeds.
excited
atIf one
at the
one
of itsoperates
rotor
of its
natural frequencies
natural at any
frequencies
and may
undamped
and may
resonate.
critical speed
resonate. or a multiple thereof, the system
system
speeds.
excited If one
at the rotor
excited Clearly,
at one of
of is operates
it its
its natural
desirable
natural at
toany undamped
frequencies
operate
frequencies and
and may
the gas
maycritical speed
resonate.
turbine shafts
resonate. oraway
a multiple thereof,
from these the system
critical speed
Clearly,
at one ofitit its
excited Clearly, is desirable
desirable to operate
operate and
natural frequencies the gas
gas turbine
mayturbine shafts
Chapter
resonate. away from |
from these
these
4: Rotordynamics 91
critical speed
One criteria
Clearly,thatitisis
isoften
desirable to
employed
to operate the
to evaluate
the a turbine
gas shafts
gas turbine’s
shafts away
rotordynamic
away from critical
adequacy
these critical isspeed
the
speed
One criteria
Clearly,
One criteria thatitisisoften employed
desirable to to evaluate
operate the a
gas gas turbine’s
turbine shafts rotordynamic
away from adequacy
these critical is the
isspeed
critical speedthat is often
margin, employed
which to evaluate
is the difference a gas turbine’s
between the shaftrotordynamic adequacy
operating speed and the the
near
k EI
ω Ny = = 48 3
m mL
In rotordynamics,
In rotordynamics, these
these natural
natural frequencies
frequencies are also
are also called called the
the undamped undamped
critical speeds. critical
speeds.If Ifthe
the rotor
rotor operates
operates at anyat any undamped
undamped critical
critical speed or a speed
multipleor a multiple
thereof, thereof,
the system is the system is
excited excited
at oneatofone itsofnatural frequencies
its natural frequencies and mayresonate.
and may resonate.
Clearly, it is desirable to operate the gas turbine shafts away from these critical speeds.
Clearly,
One criteria it isis
that desirable to operate the
often employed to gas turbine ashafts
evaluate gas away from these
turbine’s critical speeds.
rotordynamic adequacy is the
One criteria
critical speed that iswhich
margin, often employed to evaluatebetween
is the difference a gas turbine’s rotordynamic
the shaft adequacy
operating is the
speed and the nearest
critical speed margin, which is the difference between the shaft operating speed and the
critical speed:
nearest critical speed:
Critical Speed Margin:
Critical Speed Margin:
ω m arg in = ω operating − ω critical
The
Thecritical
criticalspeed margin
speed is alsoisoften
margin alsoexpressed as the separation
often expressed as themargin:
separation margin:
Separation
Separation
Separation Margin:
Margin:
Margin:
Separation
Separation Margin:
Margin:
Separation Margin:
ω
ω
ω −−ω
critical −
ω
ωoperating
SM
SM
SM ωcritical
=== ω critical − ωoperating
critical
operating
critical − ω operating
operating
= ω
operating
critical
SM =
SM ωωcritical
critical
critical
critical ωcritical
ω critical
For rotordynamic
For
For rotordynamic
rotordynamic design purposes,
design
design a 15% separation
purposes
purposes a,
a, 15%
15% margin, SM margin,
separation
separation =15%,
margin, is desirable
SM
SM =15%,
=15%,and is is desirable
desirable
For
For rotordynamic
rotordynamic design
design purposes
purposes a,
a, 15%
15% separation
separation margin,
margin, SM
SM =15%,
=15%, is
is desirable
desirable
and
and usually
For
usually
usually adequate.
rotordynamic
adequate.
adequate. However,
design
However,
However, in some
purposes
in
in cases,
some
some a,a
cases
cases gas
15% aturbine
a separation
gas
gas shaft
turbine
turbine is required
margin,
shaft
shaft to
is
is SMpass
required
required a critical
=15%, to
to ispass
pass desirable
aaa critical
critical
and
and usually
usually adequate.
adequate. However,
However, in
in some
some cases
cases a
a gas
gas turbine
turbine shaft
shaft is
is required
required to
to pass
pass critical
a critical
critical
and
speed
speed speedadequate.
usually
during
during during
startup
startup startup
and
and and
However, shutdown.
shutdown.
shutdown. in Inthese
some
In
In these
cases
these cases,a
cases,
cases, the
gas the
therotor
turbinesystem
rotor
rotor must
shaft
system
system is be
must
must sufficiently
required be
be to pass
sufficiently
sufficiently a
speed
speed during
during startup
startup and
and shutdown.
shutdown. In
In these
these cases,
cases, the
the rotor
rotor system
system must
must be
be sufficiently
sufficiently
speed
damped
damped damped
during
to
to to prevent
startup
prevent
prevent and
large
large large vibrationswhile
shutdown.
vibrations
vibrations while
In these
while traversing
cases,
traversing
traversing thethecritical
the
the rotorspeeds.
critical
critical systemIf themust
speeds.
speeds. vibration
IfIfIf the
thebevibrations
sufficiently
vibrations
damped to
dampedamplitudes prevent
to prevent
prevent large
large vibrations
vibrations while traversing
while traversing
traversing the critical
the critical
critical speeds.
speeds. If the the
the vibrations
vibrations
damped
amplitudes
amplitudes to exceed
exceed exceed
large
the
the the
design
designdesign
vibrations clearances,
while
clearances,
clearances, rubbing
rubbing
rubbing between
the
between
between the gas
the
the turbine’s
speeds.
gas
gas rotor
If
turbine’s
turbine’s and
vibrations
rotor
rotor and
and housing
housing
amplitudes
amplitudes exceed
exceed the
the design
design clearances,
clearances, rubbing
rubbing between
between the
the gas
gas turbine’s
turbine’s rotor
rotor and
and housing
housing
amplitudes
or
or even
even housing or
exceed
catastrophic
catastrophic eventhe catastrophic
gas
gas design
turbine
turbine gas turbine
clearances,
failure
failure failure
may
may be
be may
rubbing the
the be the
between
result.
result. result.the gas turbine’s rotor and housing
or even
or even
evenThe catastrophic
catastrophic gas
gas turbine
turbine failure
failure may
may be
be the
the result.
result.
or catastrophic
The
The steady-state
steady-state
steady-state gas turbine
“particular”
“particular”
“particular” failure may
solution
solution
solution be
for
for
for the
the
the
the result.
above
above
above shaft
shaft
shaft equations
equations
equations of
of
of motion
motion
motion is
is
is identical
identical
identical
The
The
The steady-state
steady-state
steady-state “particular”
“particular”solution
“particular” for the above
solution
solution for the
for shaft
the above
above equations
shaftofequations
shaft motion is identical
equations of motion
of in is
motion is identical
identical
in
in
in form
form
form to
to
to the
the
the solution
solution
solution for
for
for the
the
the previously
previously
previously analyzed
analyzed
analyzed simple
simple
simple mass-spring-damper
mass-spring-damper
mass-spring-damper system,
system,
system, except
except
except
in
in form
form form
to to
the
todegrees the solution
solution
the solution for
for the
the
for themust previously
previously
previously analyzed
analyzed
analyzed simple mass‑spring‑damper
simple
simple mass-spring-damper
mass-spring-damper system, except
system,
system, except
except 2222.
that
that
that two
two
two degrees
degrees of
of
of freedom
freedom
freedom must
must now
now
now be
be
be considered
considered
considered and
and
and that
that
that the
the
the excitation
excitation
excitation force
force
force is
is
is F=
F=F= meω
meω
meω .
that two
that
Thus, two that
the two
degrees
degrees degrees
solution of of
ofisfreedom freedom
freedom
expressed must
must must
in now
nowform
now
the be considered
be considered
be considered
of: and the
and that
and excitation
that the force
the excitation is
excitation force F= me 2
force is. is F=F= meωmeω22...
Thus,
Thus, the
the solution
Thus,solution is
is
the solution
expressed
expressed
is expressed
in
in the
the form
form of:
of:
Thus, the
Thus, the solution
solution is expressed
is expressed ininthe
in theform
the form of:
form of:
of:
xxx === XX sin
X sin
sin (ωωω
sin((ω
t −ϕϕ
ωtttt −−− ϕ)))
−ϕϕ
xx == XX sin
−−−−1111 ccccω ω
ω 
ϕϕϕ === tan
tan
tan − 
  cωω 222 
ϕϕ == tan tan−1kkk −−−m ω
1
ω 
2
ω 
ω 2
mm
 kk −− m mω 2
(ωωωttt −−−ϕϕϕ))
cos((ω
yyy ===YYY cos
cos
cos
yy == YY cos ωtt −− ϕϕ)
where
where
where
where where:
where m
mm ω
eee ω
ω
2222
X === ω 2
XX m 2e 22ω2
m e
XX == ((( )))
2 + ((ccω )2
ω))2
kkk −−− mωω
ω
222 22 + cω 2222
ω22 2 ++ ω
m
kk −− m
m
mω + (ccω
m
mm ω
eee ω
ω
2222
YYY === ω 2
m 2e 22ω2
m e
YY == ((( )))
2 + ((ccω )2
ω))2
kkk −−−mωω
ω
222 22 + cω 2222
ω22 2 ++ ω
m
m
kk −− m
mω + (ccω
These
These
These equations
equations
equations are
are
are made
made
made non-dimensional:
non-dimensional:
non-dimensional:
These equations
These equations are
are made
made non-dimensional:
non-dimensional:
Xk m ω
m eee ω
ω
2222
Z = Xk
Xk = m
ω22
Y= (k − mmω e) ω+ (cω)
2 2
2 2
(k − mω ) + (cω)
2 2 2
These equations are made non-dimensional:

These equations are made non-dimensional:
These equations
Xk are arrangedm
2 to:eω
Zx = =
2m e ω
2
F
Xk 2
=   ω     ω  
2
Zx =
F 1−   2 + 2ζ 
  ωωN  2    ωωN  2 
1 −    +  2ζ  
  ω N     ω N  
   
Yk m e ω2
Zy = =
2m 2e ω
2
F
Yk
=   ω     ω  
2
Zy =
F 1−   2 + 2ζ 
  ωωN  2    ωωN  2 
1 −    +  2ζ  
  ω N     ω N  
In rotordynamics the force response  (Z)
 is also called  unbalance response. The peak vibratio
In rotordynamics,
amplitudes are: the force response (Z) is also called unbalance response. The peak
vibration amplitudes are:
m e ω2 m e ω2
X = =
2ζk c ωN
Using the
Using theabove
aboveresults, an unbalance
results, we can response plot (Z versusresponse
plot an unbalance /N) as shown in versus Τ/ΤN) as
plot (Z
shown inFigure 4-5 can
Figure 4-4.beAndeveloped.
unbalance An unbalance
responseresponse plot is crucial
plot is crucial for gas
for gas turbine
turbine design,since it
design
defines since it defines
and limits theand limitsranges
speed the speed atranges
whichatthe which
gastheturbine
gas turbine
shaftshaft
may may operate.Clearly, the
operate.
Clearly,
unbalance the unbalance
response response
magnitude at magnitude
the criticalat speed
the critical
(Τ/Τspeed
N=1.0) (/
isN =1.0)
againis seen
again seen
to betostrongly
be strongly dependent on the damping factor.
dependent on the damping factor.
The unbalance response plot (Figure 4-4) also shows that for increased damping ratio
the peakThe unbalance of
amplitude response
vibrationplotoccurs
(Figure 4-5) also shows that
at frequencies for increased
slightly abovedamping ratios,
the undamped critical
the peak amplitude of vibration occurs at frequencies slightly above
speed. This small critical speed deviation from the natural frequency can easily the undamped critical
be derived fro
the above unbalance response equation. Consequently, the frequency correction for the
undamped critical speed is:
ωN 180° 0.05
ωucr = 0.05 0.50
− 2ζ 2
13.0
Phase angle q
0.05 90° c1.0
0.25 0.05
2.0 0 1 2 3 t 4 5
td
0.375
0.50
1.0
c cc = 1.0
c
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
t
ωn
Figure 4-5. Unbalance Response Plot
unbalance response magnitude at the critical speed (Τ/ΤN=1.0) is again seen to be strongly
dependent on the damping factor.
The unbalance response plot (Figure 4-4) also shows that for increased damping ratios,
the peak amplitude of vibration occurs at frequencies slightly above the undamped critical
speed. This small critical speed deviation from the natural frequency can easily be derived from
speed.
the above This smallresponse
unbalance critical speed deviationConsequently,
equation. from the natural frequency can easily
the frequency be derivedfor the
correction
from the above unbalance
undamped critical speed is: response equation. Consequently, the frequency correction for
the undamped critical speed is:
ωN
ωucr =
1 − 2ζ 2
The corrected undamped critical speed is usually called the unbalance critical speed.
Although this appears to be only a quantitatively small deviation from the undamped critical
speed, the unbalance critical speed correction is important for the accurate determination
of a rotor’s critical speeds, especially for well damped systems.
In some cases, if a rotor system is not adequately damped, the transient “complementary”
solution to the equations of motion may also affect the rotordynamic performance and lead
to rotor instability. Without going into too much detail, it should be stated that from the
“complementary” solution, another set of Eigenvalues can be derived, which are called the
damped critical speeds.
A transient
A transient analysis
analysis of the
of the equations of
equations of motion
motion shows
showsthat the the
that damped criticalcritical
damped speeds speeds
are are
relatedrelated
to thetoundamped
the undamped criticalspeeds
critical speeds by:
by:
ω dcr = ω N 1 − 2ζ 2
Theoretically, a rotor system remains stable at the damped critical frequency as long as
Theoretically, a rotor system remains stable at the damped critical frequency as long as the
the damping factor (.) is positive. However, in any real rotordynamic application, experience has
damping factor () is positive. However, in any real rotordynamic application, experience
shown has
thatshown
the damping factor at the damped critical speeds should exceed 0.1 (.>0.1). Care
that the damping factor at the damped critical speeds should exceed 0.1 (>0.1).
must be taken when performing the damped critical speed analysis since bearing damping will
Care must be taken when performing the damped critical speed analysis since bearing
significantly affect the overall system
damping will significantly affect
damping.
the4-4.
overall system damping.
Figure Unbalance Response Plot
Multi-Degrees
The of Freedom
Multi‑Degrees
corrected System
ofundamped
Freedom System
critical speed is usually called the unbalance critical speed.
So far wethis
Although have analyzed
appears to be aonly
simple rotor by assuming
aanalyzed
quantitatively smallthat that the rotor
deviation from has a concentrated
the undamped mass
critical and
speed,
bending Somovement
far, a simple inrotor hastwo
only beendirections by(x,y);
assuming
i.e., a the rotor
two has a concentrated
degrees of freedom system. In reality
the unbalance critical speed correction is important for the accurate determination of a rotor’s
we know mass
thatand bending
this is anmovement in only two directions
over-simplification. Namely,(x,y); i.e., rotor
a real a two degrees
can bend of freedom
in different shapes and
critical speeds, especially for well damped systems.
system.allow
the bearings In reality,
for this
someis anlimited
over-simplification.
vibration Namely,
of the a real A
shaft. rotor canrotor
real bendthus
in different
has“complementary”
multiple degrees
In some cases, if a rotor system is not adequately damped, the transient
shapesTheand degrees
the bearings allow for some limited vibration of three
the shaft. A real rotor thus has
solution to the equations of motion may also affect the rotordynamic performancedescriptive
of freedom. of freedom can be divided into categories which are and lead to of
the multiple
types degrees
(modes) of of freedom. Divided
vibrations the intoexperiences:
rotor three categoriesrigid
which are descriptive
body modes, of the bending modes,
lateral
rotor instability. Without going into too much detail, we should state that from the “complementary”
vibrationmodes.
and torsional types (modes) the rotor experiences: rigid body modes, lateral bending modes,
solution, another set of Eigenvalues can be derived, which are called the damped critical speeds.
and torsional modes.
Rigid Body Modes: Rigid body modes are the vibrations the rotor undergoes if it were perfectly
Rigid
stiff and notBody Modes:
allowed to Rigid
bend. body
A modes are the
rigid rotor vibrations
can movethein rotor
one undergoes if it were(z) and two radial
axial direction
perfectly stiff and not allowed to bend. A rigid rotor can move in one axial
directions (x,y). Furthermore, a stiff rotor can also tilt along a center point in two direction (z) and
directions (2x,2y).
two radial directions (x,y).
Thus, there are a total of five possible rigid body modes of vibration for a single shaft. Really?
Lateral Bending Modes: As previously shown, a typical rotor is not infinitely stiff and
Lateral Bending Modes: As previously shown, a typical rotor is not infinitely stiff and thus can bend
thus can bend laterally. Theoretically, an infinite number of possible bending shapes exist;
laterally. There are theoretically an infinite number of possible bending shapes; however, for most
however, for most gas turbine rotordynamic analysis, it is adequate to only study the first
gas turbine rotordynamic analysis, it is adequate to study the first four bending modes only. The
four bending modes. The actual shape of the bending modes is strongly dependent on the
actual shape of the bending modes is strongly dependent on the bearing locations, shaft bow,
bearing locations, shaft bow, bearing and shaft stiffness.
and shaft stiffness. Each bending mode has two radial degrees of freedom; thus, there are eight
lateral bending modes that should be considered for a rotordynamic analysis. ???
It must be noted that the stiffness of the bearings involved impacts the mode shapes (Figure
It must be noted that the stiffness of the bearings utilized impacts the mode shapes
(Figures 4-6 and 4-7). For example the first mode is a true rigid body mode if the bearings
are not very stiff. Stiff bearings limit the movement of the shaft at the bearings, thus
causing the shaft to bend.
Figure 4-6. Rigid Body (left) and Bending Modes (right)
Undamped Critical Speed Map

Natural Frequency (CPM)
Stiffness (lb/in)
Figure 4-7. Undamped Critical Speed Map, showing critical speeds for the first modes of a rotor
depending on the bearing stiffness. For a known bearing stiffness, the chart helps determine the
undamped critical speed of the rotor system. Depending on the stiffness, the modes can be rigid
body modes (low stiffness), or bending modes (high stiffness).
Torsional Modes: Due to the torque applied to the shaft, there also can be torsional
twisting can also occur. On a single shaft, there is typically only one relevant torsional
mode: simple rotor twist.
depending on the bearing stiffness. For a known bearing stiffness, the chart allows to determine
the undamped critical speed of the rotor system. Depending on the stiffness, the modes can be
rigid body modes (low stiffness), or bending modes (high stiffness)
Torsional Modes: Due to the torque on the shaft, there also can be torsional twisting. On a single
shaft, there is typically only one relevant torsional mode: simple rotor twist.
The equations of motion for a multi‑degrees-of-freedom system are still derived from
Newton’sThesecond law (f=ma).
equations However,
of motion for a one equation ofofmotion
multi-degrees is required
freedom systemforareeach
still degree
derived from
Newton’s
of freedom.second law (f=ma).
This results However,
in a rather one equation
large system of motion
of equations, evenisforrequired
a simplefor each degree of
shaft
freedom. This results in a rather large system of equations, even for a simple shaft model. To
model. To simplify the mathematical syntax, this system of ordinary differential equations is
simplify the mathematical syntax, this system of ordinary differential equations is usually
usually expressed
expressed in matrixin matrix
form: form:
m11 m12 m13 ... m1n x1” c11 c12 c13 ... c1n x1’ k11 k12 k13 ... k1n x1 f1
. . . . . + . . . . . + . . . . . = .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
mn1 mn2 mn3 ... mnn xn” c11 c12 c13 ... cnn xn’ k11 k12 k13 ... knn xn fn
Herex xisi is
Here thethe displacement
displacement variable
variable and n is and n is the
the number numberofoffreedom.
of degrees degrees ofcan
This freedom. This can
i
also bealso
written as:
be written as:
[M ]x' '+[C ]x'+[K ]x = [F ]

where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, K is the stiffness matrix, and F is
where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, K is the stiffness matrix, and F is the force
the force vector. For more complicated systems, which may include multiple bearings,
vector. For more complicated systems, which may include multiple bearings, coupled shafts,
coupled shafts, and/or flexible support structures, the mathematical model may become
and/or flexible support structures, the mathematical model may become very complex, with
very complex, with matrices easily reaching fifty or more degrees of freedom. The matrix
matrices easily reaching fifty or more degrees of freedom. The matrix equation can be solved for
equation can be solved for the Eigenvalues using a matrix solver, such as a Gauss‑Seidel
the Eigenvalues using a matrix solver, such as a Gauss-Seidel matrix inversion method. It is
matrix inversion method. It is beyond this text to describe a detailed analysis, which can be
beyond this text to describe a detailed analysis, which can be found in most rotordynamics
found in most rotordynamics textbooks. However, it is important to note the following:
textbooks. However, it is important to note the following:
Each degree of freedom can have a distinct undamped (unbalance) and

damped critical rotor of
Each degree speed.
freedomAdditional
can have acritical
distinct speeds
undamped can
andalso occur at any
multiple
dampedof critical
the frequency of Additional
rotor speed. the original damped/undamped
resonances critical
can also occur at any speed.
multiple of the frequency of the original damped/undamped critical speed.
NOTE: Since the equations of motion for the torsional vibrations are not coupled physically and
mathematically with the lateral bending and rigid body equations of motion, the torsional critical
speeds are typically calculated in a separate and independent Eigenvalue analysis.
NOTE: Since the equations of motion for the torsional vibrations are not coupled physically
and mathematically with the lateral bending and rigid body equations of motion, the
Rotordynamic Plots
torsional critical speeds are typically calculated in a separate and independent Eigenvalue
It is often convenient to present a gas turbine’s rotordynamic behavior in graphical form. The most
analysis.
common rotordynamic graph is called the frequency response plot, which is very similar to the
unbalance responsePlots
Rotordynamic plot previously presented. The frequency response plot is generated by
either experimentally or numerically determining the shaft unbalance response for a range of rotor
runningItspeeds and plotting
is often convenient the results
to present in the form
a gas turbine’s of vibration
rotordynamic amplitude
behavior (mils)
in graphical versus shaft speed
form.
(rpm orThe
Hz). Forcommon
most example, Figure 4-7
rotordynamic shows
graph a typical
is called compressor
the frequency responseshaft
plot,speed
which isresponse plot from
0 to 12,000 rpm.
very similar Theunbalance
to the first, second,
response and third critical
plot previously speeds
presented. are easily
The frequency identifiable by the
response
assymptotic responsebybehavior
plot is generated on the frequency
either experimentally response
or numerically plot. the shaft unbalance
determining
response for a range of rotor running speeds and plotting the results in the form of vibration
amplitude (mils) versus shaft speed (rpm or Hz). For example, Figure 4-8 shows a typical
compressor shaft speed response plot from 0 to 12,000 rpm. The first, second, and third
critical speeds are easily identifiable by the asymptotic response behavior on the frequency
response plot.
Unbalance Response Plot
1.2
1.0
Amplitude, mils
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Speed, rpm
Figure 4-8. Response Plot
Undamped Mode Shapes
1.0
Model Amplitude
0.5
mode 1
mode 2
0
0 20 40 60 80 mode 3
Bearing
-0.5
-1
Rotor Length
Figure 4-9. Mode Shapes
Figure 4-9 shows typical mode shapes that correspond to critical speeds. It is important to
remember that the critical speed and mode shapes are system specific; i.e., they cannot
easily be generalized to any system. Hence, to accurately determine the critical speeds
and mode shapes of a given system, an Eigenvalue analysis must always be performed. In
general, however, the following can be stated:
Typically, the first two critical speeds (lowest frequencies) corresponds to rigid
body mode, the next higher frequency critical speed is lateral bending mode.
Critical speed analysis results are often plotted in the form of a Campbell diagram as shown
in Figure 4-10. The Campbell diagram presents the individual critical speeds of a rotor as
a function of the rotational speed. Rotor physical characteristics such as damping and
stiffness are not system constants, but can vary with the angular speed and/or operating
conditions of the system. Hence, a plot showing the locations of the critical speeds as a
function of rotor speed is essential for the gas turbine designer to determine allowable
shaft operating ranges.
Campbell Diagram
600
Mode 4
500
Eigen Frequency (Hz)
400 X2
Mode 3
300
X1
200 Mode 2
100
Mode 1
0
0 3000. 6000. 9000. 12000. 15000.
Speed (rpm)
Figure 4-10. Results of critical speed analysis.
Rotordynamics Testing and Instrumentation
To experimentally determine rotordynamic performance such as critical speeds and

unbalanced response of a gas turbine, some standard tests can be performed. The two
most common of these tests are the ping (or wrap) and the rundown test. For the ping test,
the rotor is vibration isolated and then excited with an extremely short but high-amplitude
impulse force. For example, the rotor is hung on a long, thin wire to mechanically isolate it
and then hit with a metal hammer to apply the impulse. This short, high frequency impulse
effectively excites the rotor simultaneously at all possible frequencies. By measuring the
frequencies of the peak amplitudes of the resulting rotor vibrations, the natural frequencies
and forced responses of the rotor can be identified. On the other hand, the rundown
test is performed by simply accelerating a gas turbine shaft to its maximum operating
speed, decoupling it and then carefully measuring its vibration amplitudes and frequencies
as it decelerates. Clearly, a rundown test can only be performed if the gas turbine’s
rotordynamic stability and safety are already well established.
Three types of transducers are commonly employed to measure rotordynamic vibrations on

gas turbine packaging as follows:
Proximity Probes: Proximity probes measure the actual rotor displacement (x) relative
to a fixed position. Modern proximity probes are usually either magnetic reluctance, eddy
current, or optical pickups. Most gas turbines employ a set of orthogonal radial eddy
current proximity probes for each radial bearing and two axial eddy current proximity probes
to monitor shaft vibrations relative to the gas turbine casing. These proximity probes can
typically measure vibration frequencies between 0 and 10 kHz.
Velocity Transducers: Velocity transducers measure the first derivative (dx/dt) of the
displacement (i.e., the actual free movement velocity) using a miniature piezo-electric or
piezo-resistive mass-spring system. These transducers are typically employed to measure
lower frequency free vibrations (100-1000 Hz) such as the gas turbine case, skid and other
subsynchronous vibrations.
Accelerometers: Accelerometers typically employ a miniature piezo-electric or piezo-

resistive, mass-spring system to measure the second derivative of the displacement (dx 2 /
dt2); i.e., the actual free movement acceleration. Accelerometers are most often used to
measure high frequency vibrations (1-100 kHz) such as the gas turbine gear meshing and
blade interaction frequencies.
Most gas turbines incorporate a combination of these three types of transducers to

accurately monitor and diagnose the shaft’s rotordynamic behavior. For safety reasons, no
gas turbine should ever be operated without properly functioning vibration instrumentation
and associated package alarm/shutdown switches.
Often, a transducer is combined with a spectrum analyzer to examine the rotordynamic

behavior. A spectrum analyzer performs a mathematical transformation of the time/
vibration signal into the frequency domain called a Laplace or Fourier transform (also
sometimes referred to as an FFT or Fast Fourier Transform). The output from the spectrum
analyzer FFT provides a plot of vibration amplitude versus frequency which is very similar to
the previously described frequency response plot.
Shaft Balancing
To minimize vibrations, a gas turbine’s shaft must be mechanically balanced; i.e.,

eccentricities must be physically eliminated. This is typically achieved by applying
counterweights and/or by removing material from the rotor at strategic radial locations.
Rather than removing material from the rotor, which may permanently damage the shaft,
compressors are typically balanced using counterweights. This method is also called trim
balancing. Compressors usually have several special access points along the shaft to allow
for easy application/removal of the balancing weights. Balancing weight, they range from
fractions of one gram up to one hundred grams. Several mathematical procedures have
been derived to determine the correct mass and radial location of the counterweights for
proper trim balancing.
To maintain proper rotor balancing, the above trim balancing procedure must be repeated if
any compressor shaft component and bearing elements are exchanged or repaired.
TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS
The topic of train torsional integrity deals with the torsional natural resonances, their
interference with operating speeds, sources of torsional excitation, type of excitation and
most importantly, the ability of individual components in the train to handle the peak static
and dynamic stresses within appropriate safety margins [2], [6]. While the topic affects all
types of compressor trains, it is particularly important for electric-motor-driven trains, due
to potential high excitation forces at start and for line faults, and due to the excitation of
multiples of the running speed if variable frequency drives are used. This section therefore
primarily focuses on electric-motor-driven trains (Figure 4-11).
Compressor
Hi-speed Coupling
Gearbox
EMD-VFD Lo-speed Coupling
Figure 4-11. Typical configuration of a electric-motor-driven train.
Questions that need to be answered are:
1. Is all the train equipment adequately designed to handle the torsional vibrations?
2. Will the motor operation at rated conditions be acceptable to the driven equipment?
3. Will the high-speed couplings provide safe operation at all steady-state and transient
conditions?
4. Given the air-gap torque pulsations, is all the train equipment designed to meet durability
standards from an endurance standpoint?
5. Can the train handle high transient torque levels from motor fault events?
Ascertaining torsional integrity of EMD-GC packages involve a series of analysis:
1. Determining torsional natural frequencies (TNFs) and their interference on low-speed

and high-speed shafts.
2. Steady-state harmonics from the VFD, subjecting the train to a forced response analysis
and evaluating the resulting individual component stresses from a High Cycle Fatigue
(HCF) standpoint. HCF is characterized by large cycles of small elastic deformations,
while its counterpart Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) refers to low cycles of large deformations
(plastic/elastic).
3. Transient fault events (such as 2-Phase and 3-Phase short circuits), subjecting the train
to transient torque through the fault time period, and confirming the resulting PU torque
levels are within safety margins.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) and Gas Machinery Research Council (GMRC) have

long recognized the need for providing appropriate torsional information and have outlined
this in guidelines [6], [7]. These guidelines are used extensively in the assumptions, analysis
and data interpretation.
TORSIONAL SOLUTION METHODS
Many references exist in the literature in the torsional formulation and solution methods
[6], [8-10], so this section will focus on the aspects relevant for interpretation of analytical
results presented in later sections. The torsional analysis is performed by a Finite Element
formulation of the train as branched systems (Fig. 4-12), developed by one of the authors.
Low speed Pinion High speed Centrifigul

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θ = θ 0 . sin(ωt )
Figure 4-12. Torsional simulation modelwhere, θ0 = Element
for a Finite Amplitude of the harmonic excitation, ω is the angular f
Analysis
The equation of motions for the Finite Element formulation is written
The twist in the shaft system () can be represented as a harmonic function:
θ = θ 0 . sin(ωt )
where
θwhere,
where,
The
θ0 = Amplitude of the harmonic excitation, ω is the angular frequency and t, the time.
= θequation
0 .sin(
0
ωoft )motionsoffor
= Amplitude thethe
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Finite Element  is the angular
formulation frequency
is written as: and t, the time.
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Theequation
The equationofofmotions
motionsforforthe
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formulation
is is written
written as:as:
where
where
where
The element matrices are assembled into system inertia [I], dampin
The element matrices are assembledThe
intocomputer
system inertia [I], damping
simulation [C] and
tool accepts stiffness [K]
mass-elastic information of all
matrices. It then provides solution to the second order partial differential equa
a) Steady-state solution: torsional vibration modes and respo
b) Damped response solution: torsional amplitudes for specif
c) Transient response
Chapter 4:solution: torsional| amplitudes
Rotordynamics 101 for time-
Runge-Kutta [7] or Newmark-Beta [8], are used to perform
The element matrices are assembled into system inertia [I], damping [C] and stiffness [K] matrices.
The fault transients arising from electric-motor (2-phase
The computer simulation tool accepts mass-elastic information of all the train components
and the sources of torsional excitation. It then provides the solution to the second order
partial differential equation in the form of:
A. Steady-state solution: torsional vibration modes and responses.
B. Damped-response solution: torsional amplitudes for specific harmonic excitations.

The element matrices are assembled into system inertia [I], damping [C] and stiffness [K] matrices.
The
The element
computermatrices aretool
simulation assembled into system inertia
accepts mass-elastic [I], damping
information [C]train
of all the andcomponents
stiffness [K] andmatrices.
the sources of torsional
C. Transient-response
The computer simulation solution:
tool accepts torsional amplitudes for time-varying forcing functions.
It then provides solution to the secondmass-elastic
order partialinformation
differentialof all the train
equation in thecomponents
form of: and the sources of torsional e
Time-marching
It then
a) provides methods,
solution
Steady-state to thesuch
solution: secondas Runge-Kutta
torsional order [8] or and
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responses the are
form used
of: to
perform
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b) Steady-state
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solution: oftorsional
torsional
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Transient
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(2-phase torsional amplitudes
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amplitudes
or 3-phase forspecific
etc.)harmonic
time-varying
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are analyzed with and
functions. Time-marching method
c) Transient
Runge-Kutta response solution: torsional
[7] or Newmark-Beta [8], amplitudes
are used to for time-varying
perform forcing
direct time functions.
integration Time-marching
of the methods
2nd order differential
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Runge-Kutta Forcing functions are[8],
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Torque: {T } = [ K ].{θ }
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Torque: {T } = [ K ].{θ }
{T}r
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IV. TORSIONAL INTERFERENCE STUDY
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The primary task in a torsional integrity study is to determine the train torsional resonances and review them against
The primary
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To address the concern of torsional integrity of the drive train, a methodology to ensure torsional integrity of VFD-EM
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Results are showntorsional
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and forcedareexcitation
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VFD-output frequencies (electrical) must be considered for interference. The goal is to
frequency, 4-pole 8700 HP motor driving a 10-stage compressor. Interference diagrams and forced excitation respon
keepCaterpillar:
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interference with necessary separation margins; where
interference is not avoided, the modes are shown to be safe from a torsional standpoint.
To address the concern of torsional integrity of the drive train, a methodology to ensure
torsional integrity of VFD-EMD driving Gas Compressors is shown. The train’s ability
to handle torsional interference, torque pulsation from VFDs and short-circuit fault
events without impacting the durability of the equipment is critical to end-users. To
this end, analytical torsional models are developed with API and GMRC guidelines, and
used to standardize train equipment. Results are shown for a 45-Hz corner frequency,
4-pole 8700 HP motor driving a 10-stage compressor. Interference diagrams and forced
excitation response analysis show that the train is safe from a torsional standpoint.
Transient analysis shows the peak torques that can be handled by all of the equipment.

Figures 4-13 and 4-14 show the torsional interference charts (Campbell diagrams) with
low-speed shaft as reference, for the train configuration mentioned earlier. One important
source of excitation to consider with electric motors is the VFD harmonics transferred to
the rotor through the air-gap. This information is provided by the motor vendor, and varies
based on the VFD-type, inverter design and number of voltage-cells. Based on the drive
design and topology, the fundamental VFD-induced excitation occurs at 6f, where f is the
frequency output of the VFD. Additional multiples of this fundamental occur at 12f, 24f
and 48f. For a 4-pole motor, these harmonics translate to 12x motor (6f), 24x motor (12f),
48x motor (24f) and so on, when plotted on the Campbell diagram. When the low-speed
shaft is referenced, torsional interference occurs within the operating speed range (900-
1890 rpm) between the following:
• 1st Torsional Resonance and 1X motor speed
• 2nd Torsional Resonance and 2X motor speed
• 2nd Torsional Resonance and 3X motor speed
• 3rd Torsional Resonance and 24X motor (12f VFD harmonic)
• 4th Torsional Resonance and 24X motor (12f VFD harmonic)
Figure 4-15 shows the torsional interference chart with high-speed shaft as reference.
Note that there are no interferences between the lower-order torsional resonances and any
significant excitation sources.
Altering train torsional frequencies to meet margins is not always possible, since any
modifications to equipment must not violate other design norms. The softer stiffness
elements in the train impact first few torsional modes strongly and hence, coupling designs
are reconsidered whenever modifications are sought. However, coupling changes (length,
EMD-STD; Motor 1 - 8.7kHP - 10Stg Compressor Map - LS

Natural Frequency (cpm)
Spin Speed (rpm)

Figure 4-13. Torsional interference – low-speed shaft as reference.

type, weights, etc.) can significantly impact package design and footprint. Hence, it is
best to incorporate coupling designs that can comfortably accommodate all technical
requirements, as well as equipment-access capabilities.
Based on the interference charts shown in Figures 4-13, 4-14 & 4-15, the low-speed
coupling design is optimized to provide the maximum separation margins and least torsional
response at excitation (explained in the next section). Both the torsional stiffness (length
and diameter) and inertia to a lesser extent were optimized.
EMD-STD; Motor 1 - 8.7kHP - 10Stg Compressor Map - LS

Spin Speed (rpm)
Figure 4-14. Continuation of torsional interference chart – low-speed shaft as reference.
STEADY-STATE HARMONICS AND TORQUE PULSATION
As explained earlier, when torsional interference cannot be avoided with operating

speeds, analysis must be conducted to prove that the train has low torsional response
to the excitation sources. This study also helps in choosing the optimum coupling
parameters (in addition to other coupling safety factors).
Torque pulsation from the VFD harmonics is a natural excitation source in EMD-GC
packages. Figure 4-16 shows a typical spectrum chart provided by motor vendors, showing
magnitudes of dynamic torque pulsation at various VFD-output frequencies.

EMD-STD; Motor 1 - 8.7kHP - 10Stg Compressor Map - HS
Spin Speed (rpm)
Figure 4-15. Torsional Interference – high-speed shaft as reference.
Air Gap Torque Amplitude

(% of nominal motor torque)
Harmonic
Order
Figure 4-16. Motor air-gap torque harmonic envelope (pulsation torque), typically 0.5-2%.
EWD-STD; Motor 1 - 8.7kHP - 10StgC Forced Resp - VFD Pulsation EWD

Torque (in-lb)
Speed (rpm)
Figure 4-17. Results of forced response torsional analysis – at the motor location.

The motor’s rated torque at the rated frequency is a critical parameter for this analysis. A
45-Hz-corner-frequency motor drive, which implies that the motor can produce the rated
torque up to 45 Hz, and then switches to constant power between 45 Hz and 60 Hz. The
pulsation magnitudes are referenced to the nominal motor torque.
A steady-state, forced-response torsional analysis is performed with this pulsation data to

determine the maximum dynamic torque for each of the train equipment. A damping ratio
of 1.67% (AF=30) is used based on the API [6] and GMRC [7] guidelines. However, lower
damping ratios are also considered, if the results show marginal safety factors.
Figure 4-17 shows the dynamic torque vs motor speed for all the torsional interferences
identified in the earlier section - 1X, 2X, 3X and 24X (12f) – at the motor location.
Figure 4-18 shows the same at the compressor location. Peak dynamic torque amplitudes
derived from the forced response analysis are then used to calculate the alternating stress.
The rated torque is used to calculate the mean stress. A Goodman diagram is a graph of
mean stress vs. alternating stress in a component, providing an idea of when the material
fails at some given number of cycles. With those two parameters, an endurance study is
constructed on the Goodman diagram [10] to confirm that the components have infinite life
(alternating stress below the Goodman line) and sufficient safety factors (ratio of maximum
allowable alternating stress on the line to the actual alternating stress) from a High-Cycle-
Fatigue perspective. For the motor and compressor locations, the Factors of Safety to the
limit line are 12.4 and 11.1 respectively. This is repeated for each of the train equipment.
Based on these results, the train is considered safe from a torsional interference standpoint.
EWD-STD; Motor 1 - 8.7kHP - 10StgC Forced Resp - VFD Pulsation EWD

Spin Speed (rpm)
Figure 4-18. Results of forced response torsional analysis at the compressor shaft location.
Separate from the train endurance analysis, components in the individual machinery such
as squirrel cage and fans in motors, are subject to fatigue analysis per API 516 and 517.

Endurance Limit
Alternating Shear Stress, psi
Main Shear Stress, psi
Figure 4-19. Endurance limit from torque pulsation – motor location – SF = 12.4.
Endurance Limit
Alternating Shear Stress, psi
Main Shear Stress, psi
Figure 4-20. Endurance limit from torque pulsation – Compressor location – SF = 11.1.
FAULT TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
Electric-motor drives can be subject to unexpected fault transients—such as phase-to-

phase faults or phase-to-ground faults. They could either be 2-phase short circuits or
3-phase short circuits. The API guidelines require motor vendors and driven-equipment
suppliers to consider these fault transients and ensure that the peak torques (expressed in
terms of the PU (Per Unit rated torque) experienced by the train equipment do not exceed
the component design limits.

Short-circuit information is provided by motor vendors. The faults shown are based on the
cumulative effects of the electrical design and topology, inclusive of protective relays and
breakers. In the event of a short-circuit, the motor shaft experiences an instantaneous peak
torque as the energy stored in the stator coils dissipates through the air-gap, then decays
over a small amount of time. The air-gap torques at fault conditions are shown in Figures
4-21 and 4-22.
2-Phase Short Circuit - Air-gap Torque vs Time

Torque (PU)
Time (ms)
Figure 4-21. Fault transients - 2-Phase short circuit, Max PU = -7.3.
3-Phase Short Circuit - Air-gap Torque vs Time

Torque (PU)
Time (ms)
Figure 4-22. Fault transients - 3-Phase short circuit, Max PU = -5.6.
A transient torsional analysis is performed using the above fault transients as input to
the equations of motion shown earlier. Time-marching is achieved using a Runge-Kutta
method. The goal is to determine the propagation effect of the transient torque from the
motor to other train equipment, their attenuation through the gearbox and the ability of the
low-speed and high-speed couplings to handle the instantaneous torques.

Figure 4-23. Results of transient torsional analysis from 2-phase short circuit fault event.
Figure 4-23 shows the results of transient torsional analysis from 2-phase short circuit
fault event—peak torques at motor shaft, low-speed coupling, high-speed coupling and
compressor shaft. Figure 4-24 shows the same for a 3-phase short circuit fault event.
Based on the peak torques transmitted during the fault events, the maximum shear
stress occurring in the components are calculated. These are compared with the shear
Figure 4-24. Results of transient torsional analysis from 3-phase short circuit fault event.

yield stress of the material to determine the safety factors. Also, the coupling designs
are verified to be capable of transmitting the maximum momentary torque shown by this
analysis.
Short-circuit events may be one-time unexpected events, however, it is imperative to

design the train equipment to survive such events for safety purposes.
CHAPTER 4 REFERENCES
[1] American Petroleum Institute, 2002, Axial and Centrifugal Compressors and Expander-Compressors
for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services, API Standard 617, 7th Ed., 2002.
[2] Corbo,M.A., and Malanowski, S.B., 1996, “Practical Design Against Torsional Vibrations”, Proc. 25th
Turbomachinery Symposium, pp. 189-223.
[3] Brun,K., Thorp,J., Meyenberg,C., Kurz,R. 2015, “Hydrodynamic Torque Converters for Oil &
Gas Compression and Pumping Applications: Basic Principles, Performance Characteristics and
Applications”, 2015, Turbomachinery & Pump Symposium, Houston.
[4] Glasbrenner,M., Venkataraman,B., Kurz,R., Cole, G.J., Lee,C., 2017, Electric Motor Driven Gas
Compressor Packages, Proc. 48th Turbomachinery Symposium.
[5] Kurz,R, White,R.C., Brun,K., 2012, “Upstream and Midstream Compression Applications- Part 2:
Implications on Operation and Control of the Compression Equipment”, ASME Paper GT2012-68006.
[6] API 684: Standard Paragraphs Rotordynamic Tutorial: Lateral Critical Speeds, Unbalance Response,
Stability, Train Torsionals, and Rotor Balancing.
[7] Application Guideline for Electric Motor Drive Equipment for Natural Gas Compressors, Version 4.0,
May 2009, Gas Machinery Research Council and Southwest Research Institute.
[8] Press, W.H., Vetterling, W.T., Teukolsky, S. A., Flannery, B. P., 1992, “Numerical Recipes in C”, The
Art of Scientific Computing, 2nd Edition.
[9] Newmark, N. M. ,1959 , "A method of computation for structural dynamics", Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, ASCE, 85 (EM3): 67–94.
[10] Shigley, J. E., and Mischke, C. R., Mechanical Engineering Design, New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.
1989.

CHAPTER 5
MECHANICAL DESIGN
Centrifugal gas compressors are very versatile machines—used in vastly different
industries—for all sorts of gases, pressures, temperatures, etc. Manufacturers must make
hard decisions, if they choose to cater to focused industries and applications or if they want
to pursue as many business opportunities as possible. Many suppliers have traditionally
covered broad ranges of applications with their technologies, thereby promoting the use
of centrifugal gas compressors that are custom designed for specific applications and
operating conditions. This requires significant project-based engineering and testing,
usually resulting in long lead times.
Solar Turbines designed gas compressors as a gas turbine accessory to meet the needs of
the oil and gas industry (upstream and midstream) only. This focus enables pre-engineering
and pre-testing of machine concepts that can be standardized to meet specific industry
application requirements.
One of the basic concepts for standardized compressors is the requirement that
all aerodynamic components within a common frame size must be mechanically
interchangeable. This approach covers a very wide aerodynamic and mechanical design
space (e.g. flow and head, pressure and temperature) within a fixed mechanical design.
Other components such as the driver, coupling, bearings, seals, rotor length and support
are common for that frame size—greatly reducing part count complexities. Extensive
pre-testing of the compressor frame establishes application limits that can be presented to
target customers with very high confidence levels.
Another side effect of this concept is the ability to re-stage the active components inside
the machine to adjust performance and maintain optimum efficiency when onsite operating
conditions change.
It is clear, however, that this methodology cannot cover all extreme operating conditions
that a particular custom design might be able to satisfy through dedicated engineering
efforts, extended lead times and higher product cost. Solar gas compressors have many
components and technical solutions that are very common in the industry, but also have
some design features that are unique. These special features have been developed and
perfected over decades, helped greatly by the dedicated focus on upstream and midstream
oil and gas applications.
Some typical features of modern centrifugal compressors utilized in upstream and

midstream oil and gas applications are:
• Radial vibration monitoring
• Axial position monitoring
• Rotor trim balancing capabilities (at both shaft ends)
• Thrust bearing thermocouples or RTDs
Chapter 5: Mechanical Design | 113

• Journal bearing thermocouples or RTDs
• Dry-gas face seals with separation seals
• Tilt-pad journal bearings, integral body (non-split)
• Self-equalizing, tilt-pad, double-acting thrust bearing
• Thrust collar with elastic pilot-centered sleeve
• Flanges or ports (typically ring joint or raised-face type)
• Balance piston for thrust balance
• Dry flexible disk couplings, using spline couplings to shaft ends
• Vertically split, barrel-type construction
• Impellers manufactured as investment castings, machined from a solid forging, brazed

or welded
• Impeller materials: stainless steel (eg. 15-5PH), titanium, inconel
• NACE H2S-resistant materials
Other features differ depending on individual manufacturer’s design practices (Figure 5-1):
• Modular rotor construction (central tie bolt and stacked impellers / spacers / stub-shafts)
or solid shafts (with the impellers keyed or shrunk on the shaft)
• Modular stator construction (stacked inlet and outlet system, diffusors, return channels,
end caps), vertically split, or horizontally split stators
• Casings cast from carbon steel or stainless steel, forged or fabricated
1st stage Completed

rotor and rotor
diaphram diaphram
being assembly
lowered into
position
Center Completed
body and assembly
endcap await with endcaps
module installed
Figure 5-1. Assembly of a compressor utilizing modular design.
114 | Chapter 5: Mechanical Design

Figure 5-2. Cross section of a high-pressure compressor.
CASING DESIGN
The compressor’s pressure-containing body is a vertically split “barrel” assembly

consisting of suction and discharge endcaps, which contain the bearing and seal
assemblies, and a centerbody, which holds the rotor and stator assembly (Figure 5-2).
The endcaps contain all the service ports for lube oil, dry gas seals, separation seals and
instrumentation. The casings comply with the design requirements of API 617, which in
turn uses many references from ASME Section VIII.
Finite-element-method computer codes are used to determine the stress levels and
deflections in the centerbody and the endcaps (Figure 5-3). Endcaps and centerbody are
connected using a lock-and-shear-ring arrangement. Drains are provided on both suction
and discharge sides of the casing.
Figure 5-3. Finite element stress calculation for a cast centerbody.

Forces opposing Moments opposing
to stress casing to stress casing
between flanges between flanges
Figure 5-4. Calculation of allowable nozzle loads.
CASING MANUFACTURE
Virtually all Solar gas compressors use cast steel centerbodies. The standardized design
supports extensive optimization of the casting process to ensure consistent and sustained
parts quality in the production phase. (Figure 5-4) Long-standing cooperation between
foundries, machining houses and Solar provides for a continuous flow of centerbodies
— the centerbody is not the long-lead item for a particular compressor build. After
finish machining, hydrostatic pressure testing of all compressor casings and endcaps is
performed at 1.5 times the maximum casing design pressure, independent of the particular
application pressure.
The benefits of extensive special tooling for shop assembly and field maintenance are other
positive outcomes resulting from the use of standardized products. Proper tooling permits
quick removal of the (Figure 5-5) discharge endcap, the rotor/stator assembly, insertion of
the restaged assembly (‘module’), and closing of the endcap, all typically within one shift.
Figure 5-5. Bundle (Module) and centerbody.

IMPELLER DESIGN
Each compressor family uses a set of standard impellers for various flow demands. The
impeller geometry is fixed—only the tip diameter may be modified for special (and rare)
applications. Tight tolerances during manufacture minimize any variance in aerodynamic
geometry, thereby providing highly accurate performance estimates after extensive
scaled and full-scale testing of impellers and their combinations with other aerodynamic
components such as inlets, volutes, diffusors and return channels.
Compressor impellers are designed to conservative stress levels, making them suitable for
sour gas applications (Figure 5-6). Careful design of blade leading and trailing edges avoids
blade vibrations that might trigger fatigue failure.
IMPELLER MANUFACTURE
Impellers are precision-cast stainless steel for strength and corrosion resistance. Precision
casting involves final machining of critical interfaces. Alternatively, impellers are machined
from solid forgings or machined as open blade impellers from a forging, with a separate,
brazed shroud (Figure 5-7).
Impellers go through the following manufacturing procedures that are developed and fixed
as part of the initial design effort:
• For cast impellers: wax check, casting, initial quality check and weld upgrades
• For machined impellers: forging quality checks (ultrasonic testing-UT), machining

programs including cutting tool definition
• For brazed impellers: forging quality checks (UT), machining programs including cutting
tool definition, shroud and impeller gap machining, brazing following defined heat
treatment cycles, UT inspection of braze
• Heat treatment
• Magnetic particle inspection
• Visual inspection
• Machining of interface features and balance-for-spin test
• Dimensional inspection
• Spin test to 115% of maximum mechanical speed, dimensional inspection
• Fluorescent dye penetrant inspection
• Final component balance

Figure 5-6. Stress calculation for an impeller. The picture also shows the labyrinth seals on the
hub and the shroud.
Figure 5-7. Impeller manufacturing methods: (left) machined, (center) cast, (right) machined with
brazed shroud.
ROTORS
Industry practice has traditionally utilized solid-shaft rotor construction with impellers
shrunk to the shaft. This results in a somewhat permanent rotor assembly that does not
readily permit the substitution of different impellers on the shaft, in the event of a restage,
due to the high cost and difficulty in removing and installing an impeller via the shrink-fit
process. Standardized concepts take advantage of modular rotor assemblies, consisting
of matching components like stub shafts, impellers, and (if required) rotor spacers (to
maintain a constant bearing span) and a centerbolt (also called tie bolt) (Figure 5-8). These
components are dynamically balanced individually and are rabbet-fit to each other for
concentric alignment. Torque is transmitted through dowel pins, as well as through friction
of the axial faces under high preload due to the tie bolt. The entire assembly is clamped
together with the centerbolt. Assembly and disassembly are straightforward, using special
tools. Special precautions are taken to ensure consistent balance quality throughout the
manufacturing process.

Stub Shaft
Center Tie
Bolt
Impellers
Stub Shaft
Tie Bolt Nut
Figure 5-8. Modular Rotor
BEARINGS
The high operating speeds of modern centrifugal gas compressors are made possible by
use of tilt-pad journal bearings. Traditional oil-film sleeve journal bearings suffer from fluid-
flow induced instabilities, commonly referred to as “oil whip” and “oil whirl,” which occur
at operating speeds two to three times above the lowest critical speed of the compressor.
The tilt-pad bearing is not prone to these problems because it does not generate forces on
the rotor that destabilize the system.
Two types of thrust bearings are used in centrifugal gas compressors: fixed tapered land
and self-equalizing tilt-pad thrust bearings. Both types perform well and have comparable
load capacities for same-size bearings. Self-equalizing tilt-pad thrust bearings differ from
the fixed tapered land bearings in two ways: Each thrust pad is an individual plate that
is free to pivot. As the thrust collar rotates, each pad tilts, generating the optimum load-
carrying oil film. Therefore, the bearing can accommodate slight misalignment between
the bearing and thrust collar. Loads will be equally distributed among the pads through the
movement of individual leveling links and disks. The self-equalizing tilt-pad thrust bearing
has been adopted as the bearing of choice for all modern compressor designs, while older
machines in the fleet are still supported with the fixed tapered land parts.
INTERSTAGE SEALS
Solar gas compressors make extensive use of abradable seals on the rotor—every
impeller has a shroud seal and a hub seal to reduce the backflow of pressurized gas after
compression. The seal consists of rotating labyrinths, cut from the impeller body, running
against a stationary ring that includes an abradable material: Babbitt, which is a sprayed
powder component or honeycomb structures filled with again a powder material. The
labyrinth tips of the impeller reduce the required clearance during the so-called break-in
process as part of the manufacturing cycle.

BALANCE PISTON
Depending upon the compressor configuration and application, the axial rotor thrust can
become very large. The balance piston is installed at the discharge end of the compressor
rotor to help counterbalance the axial forces of the impellers. The balance piston is a
drum larger in diameter than the rotor shaft, with seals on the periphery, running against
a replaceable seal ring (Figure 5-9). These seals can be abradable seals, similar to the
interstage seals, or hole-pattern seals positioned against a smooth shaft. While one side
of the balance piston is exposed to the discharge pressure from the last impeller, its
other side is referenced back to suction pressure via a balance return line. The pressure
difference multiplied by the balance piston area equals the balance piston thrust. The size
of the balance piston (taken from a standardized set of geometries) is selected to provide
optimum force balance to the rotor thrust. Depending on the actual operating point of the
compressor on the compressor map, the thrust varies in magnitude and also direction. The
balance piston selection ensures that the resultant axial force can be safely carried by the
axial bearing. A restage operation as noted above might therefore also trigger a reselection of
the balance piston and its associated seal from the standard set of components.
Stub Shaft Impellers Stub Shaft
Spacer Balance Piston
Figure 5-9. Shaft with stub shafts, impellers, spacer, and balance piston.
In Chapter 4 on Rotordynamics, the importance of controlling the excitation of the rotor, as

well as the importance of creating sufficient damping were referenced.
Recent developments facilitate the direct measurement of the available rotor system
damping, while operating at the speed, pressure and gas density of actual operating
conditions. This method involving the use of a magnetic exciter, which is essentially a
magnetic bearing mounted on the compressor rotor, allows the imposition of vibration
forces on the running rotor (Figure 5-10). If the exciter is turned off, the damping forces
lead to a decay in the vibrations. The ratio between two successive amplitudes is a direct
measurement of the logarithmic decrement of the rotor system.
To increase the damping from conventional hydrodynamic bearings, so called damper

bearings have been developed (Figure 5-11). These designs allow for additional damping
from an oil film created between the outer bearing and the bearing capsule. The use of

these bearings facilitates operation of compressors at higher speeds and higher discharge
pressures.
Figure 5-10. Measuring the actual damping of the rotor system in operation.
Damper Bearings
Figure 5-11. Damper bearings
Damper Seals
Figure 5-12. Damper seals (hole pattern seals)

Figure 5-13. Modeling of a damper seal located on the balance piston.
Another method that increases damping is the use of damper seals. (Figure 5-12) The hole
pattern of these seals—that can be used in lieu of conventional labyrinth or honeycomb seals,
especially on the balance piston—create damping forces that increase with the pressure
differential over the seal, thus improving the rotor’s logarithmic decrement (Figure 5-13).
Reducing the excitation forces on the rotor is another means of improving the compressor’s
rotordynamic behavior. A major source of excitation forces can be the shroud seal on
the impeller. The excitation results from instabilities caused by swirling flow entering the
labyrinth. As discussed in the chapter on aerodynamics, the leakage flow along the shroud
wall of the impeller accrues significant amounts of swirl, while travelling from the impeller
tip to the impeller shroud seal at the impeller inlet. Anti-swirl vanes (Figure 5-14) reduce
the amount of swirl in the flow when entering the labyrinth seal (Figure 5-15). Modelling
the effect of these vanes and the excitation forces in the labyrinth requires complex CFD
models that facilitate the capture of transient flow effects resulting from rotor eccentricity
(Figure 5-16). Figures 5-17 and 5-18 shows the effect of using anti-swirl vanes (ASV) in a rotor
showing high sub-synchronous vibrations that disappeared after the ASV were installed.
Anti Swirl Vanes
Figure 5-14. Anti-swirl vanes for the impeller shroud seals.

Figure 5-15. Swirl in the flow is reduced when entering the labyrinth seal.
Figure 5-16. Modelling the effect of anti-swirl vanes.

Figure 5-17. Effect of utilizing anti-swirl vanes in a rotor showing high sub-synchronous
vibrations that disappeared after the ASV were installed.
Eccentric Cavity Model
Fluid Cavity —
Whirling frame of
: Rotor Spin Speed reference, 
: Whirling Speed
Shroud — Rotating
(-) about eccentric
axis
Stator — Counter
rotating wall
Figure 5-18. Detailed numerical simulation.
SHAFT END SEALS
Compressor shaft-end seals and their support systems prevent the escape of process gas
along the shaft, as well as protecting the seal against oil ingress from the adjacent radial or
axial bearings.
Most modern compressors in oil and gas applications use tandem dry-gas face seals (DGS)
that are designed as self-contained cartridges (Figure 5-19). A rotating sleeve sits inside a
stationary body. The seal function is created by the action of two rings: the stationary ring
and the “mating” ring which rotates with the shaft via the shaft sleeve. The seal gas acts at
the gap between the rotating and stationary rings and creates a gas film that provides the
sealing effect, while at the same time ensuring frictionless operation. Since the gas film is
very thin, only a small amount of gas is actually lost through the seal.

The stationary ring is held against the mating ring by springs located in the housing—during
operation the gas seal pressure in the seal gap acts against this spring load. An O-ring seal
(‘dynamic O-ring’) allows small axial movements of the stationary ring with a minimum
of frictional forces, while maintaining full seal differential pressure across it. The shaft
sleeve becomes a part of the rotor. Therefore, it is centered on the shaft by means of pilot
surfaces and tolerance rings or O-rings.
For flammable and toxic gases, the above described seal system is effectively doubled,
hence called the tandem DGS (Figure 5-19), with the total pressure drop taken across the
primary seal and using the secondary seal as a backup seal in case of severe failure of the
primary seal, providing temporary protection of the compressor train until safe shutdown.
The space between the primary and the secondary seal can be routed to a flare in order to
dispose of the small amount of process gas leaking through the primary seal.
When stationary (non-rotating), the seal dam area of the mating ring is in contact with the
stationary ring, up to a differential pressure of about 689 kPa (100 psi). Above this pressure,
or under rotation, the rings separate due to increasing hydrostatic pressure between
the sealing faces. During dynamic operation, the rotating mating ring lift geometry, in
conjunction with the sealing dam, creates a pressure distribution that causes the primary
ring to move away from the mating ring. This very narrow gap allows a small leakage
flow to pass through the seal. Different seal manufacturers use different patterns for lift
augmentation.
For the DGS to perform satisfactorily, the amount, type, and size of contaminants—as well
as the gas properties of the seal gas (e.g. dew point) entering the seal—must be controlled.
Therefore, seal gas, which can be conditioned process gas, is brought between the inboard
side of the DGS and the process gas at a pressure higher than the adjacent process to
prevent ingress of contaminants.
Figure 5-19. Tandem dry gas seals.

To prevent lube oil from entering the DGS, a separation seal is installed between the
outboard of the seal cartridge and the bearings. Solar gas compressors use pairs of
segmented carbon rings with an air or nitrogen purge to create an effective dam against oil
ingress.
Dry gas face seals consist primarily of a stationary ring that is attached to the housing
and a mating ring that rotates with the compressor shaft. A spring keeps the face of
the stationary ring against the rotating face of the mating ring when the shaft is not
turning (Figure 5-20). Face separation is achieved when the seal pressure reaches 690
kPad (100 psid) across the seal. During operation, the groove pattern in the rotating seal
face (Figure 5-21) pumps the seal gas inward toward the un-grooved portion, or sealing
dam, creating a high-pressure area behind the sealing dam. This pressure distribution
separates the rotating and static seals, forming a small, controlled gap between 0.0025
and 0.0050 mm (0.0001 and 0.0002 in.) wide. This very narrow gap allows a small leakage
flow to pass through. Filtered seal gas, from either an external source or the compressor
discharge, is supplied to the face seal. The extremely small gap clearances of face seals
require clean and dry seal gas.
Primary Ring Static Mating Ring Rotating
Atmosphere Process
Rotating Shaft
Figure 5-20. Gas face seal assembly.
In the event the faces approach each other, a rapid rise in pressure instantaneously causes
separation. This automatic reversal is self-correcting, and the gap width stabilizes when the
hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces equalize.

Clockwise Shaft Rotation
Figure 5-21. Cross-sectional view of rotating seal face.
Normal Gap
FC = FO
FC FO
CLOSING FORCE OPENING FORCE
S P
Compression
Expansion
Gas Film
Spring Load Pressure
+ Hydrostatic Distribution
Figure 5-22. Balance of opening and closing forces on a dry gas seal (DGS).
Figure 5-23. Pressure distribution on a DGS face.

Dry seals can also have an intermediate labyrinth seal located between the primary and
secondary seals (Figure 5-22). The function of this intermediate labyrinth is to isolate
the primary vent from the secondary vent. Secondary seal gas, which must be an inert
gas such as nitrogen, may be injected between the secondary seal and the intermediate
labyrinth. This gas also requires the same cleanliness as the primary seal gas. Some of the
secondary seal gas passes through the labyrinth into the primary vent, rendering a non-
combustible mixture in the primary vent. The remainder of the secondary seal gas passes
through the secondary face seal into the secondary seal vent.
Several different rates of gas leakage, for gas leaking across the seal faces into the vent
have to be defined (Figure 5-23):
Maximum dynamic primary seal leakage rates per seal at the compressor’s highest
pressure and speed under dynamic operating conditions.
Normal leakage rates at operating conditions depend on suction pressure and speed, and
are typically less.
The static leakage rate (when the compressor is not running) is lower than the dynamic
leakage rate.
The leakage defined above should not be confused with the amount of seal gas that has
to be supplied, since the vast majority of the seal gas, as explained later, will leak across a
labyrinth back into the process gas.
Primary seal gas can be obtained from the compressor discharge or supplied by a
separate source. Either way, the seal gas must meet specific standards of supply
temperature, cleanliness, dryness, and pressure to assure the efficiency and long-term
operation of dry face seals. Seal gas must be provided during start-up, normal operations,
shutdown and pressurized hold, and at any time there’s process gas in the compressor
casing.
When the dry seal assembly is provided

with an intermediate labyrinth between the
primary and the secondary seal faces, an inert Separation Gas In
gas (nitrogen) may be injected into the area
between the labyrinth and the secondary seal.
The injected gas is referred to as secondary
seal gas. Its use is not mandatory, even if the Secondary
dry seal has an intermediate labyrinth. Vent
A separation seal assembly (Figure 5-24), which

is separate from the dry gas seal assembly, is
installed between the dry gas seals and the
compressor lube oil drain cavity (bearings).
Separation seals are the most outboard
component of the complete seal system
Oil Side Process Side
(Figure 5-25). Separation seals, also called
Carbon Segments
buffer seals, barrier seals or circumferential
seals by the industry, prevent bearing Figure 5-24. Typical separation seal assembly.

lube oil from migrating along the shaft to the dry gas seals (Figure 5-26). In addition, they
prevent seal gas from entering the lube oil system.
Secondary Seal Vent

Secondary Seal Vent Secondary Seal Gas In Primary Seal Gas In
Separation Air or N 2 In Intermediate Labyrinth
Lube Oil / Separation Primary Seal Vent
Air Drain Labyrinth Seal
Primary Seal
Separation Seals
Dry Gas Seal Assembly
Stub Shaft
Figure 5-25. Tandem seal assembly with intermediate-labyrinth seal.
Spiral Groove Comparison
Uni-directional Spiral Groove Bi-directional Spiral Groove
Figure 5-26. Uni-directional and bi-directional groove patterns.
The capability to operate a centrifugal compressor at elevated discharge temperatures

allows high pressure ratios, while avoiding the cost of additional intercoolers. Concerns are
focused on the impact on dry gas seals, as well as on hub and shroud shaft seals and the
balance piston seals. Figure 5-27 shows the results of a highly instrumented compressor
test at high discharge temperatures measured at various locations on the endcap, as
well as at the location of the dry gas seal. The tests, which also took different lube oil
supply temperatures into account, showed the successful operation at high compressor
discharge temperatures with no apparent degradation of aerodynamic compressor and seal
performance.

Endcap Instrumentation 0°
Lube Oil
Balance Piston Vent
Seal Gas
Gas Outlet Supply
Lube Oil
Discharge
Supply
270° 90°
Separation
Seal Supply Primary
Vent
Secondary
Vent Drain
Lube Oil
Outlet
180°
Discharge
Flow Path
Process
Labyrinth
Seal
DGS Bearing
End Cap
Figure 5-27. Measuring local temperatures for compressor operation at high discharge
temperatures.

Normalized Isentropic Head
Temperature, °C
Normalized Volumetric Flow Rate Circumferential Position, °
Figure 5-28. Tests at high discharge temperatures for validation of local temperature
distribution, dry gas seal operating temperatures and balance piston seal durability.
Circumferential temperature variation around the end cap: Generally, the warm side of the
compressor corresponded with the discharge flange side (Figure 5-28). The end cap surface
temperature exhibited additional variation compared to the DGS and secondary vent, due
to its proximity to the balance piston outlet port and the lube oil supply port. Linear trends
with respect to compressor discharge temperature were shown as an adequate fit to
predict the amount of variation at TC3 and TC6 locations (the end cap secondary vent and
end cap surface), but the linear trends at the TC2 DGS location were not as strong.
Temperatures near the DGS cartridge are significantly lower than compressor discharge
temperatures, and operating conditions at higher discharge temperatures may be
achievable with existing DGS materials (Figure 5-29).
Temperature, °C
Compressor Discharge Temperature, °C
Figure 5-29. The endcap temperature distributions compared to discharge temperatures ranged
from the warmest at the balance piston (about 95%) to the coolest at the DGS (about 65%).

CHAPTER 6
CONTROL OF CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSORS
Compressor control requires two primary objectives: meeting the external process
requirements and keeping the compressor within its operational boundaries. Typical control
scenarios that have to be considered are process control, starting and stopping units, and
fast or emergency shutdowns [1], [2], [3]. Controlling a centrifugal compressor involves
understanding the interaction of a compressor (with a given operating characteristic) and
with the process (having a distinct behavior).
Regarding the compressor, discussing the different control devices, such as variable
speeds, guide vanes, throttles or recycle valves, is necessary. Different compressor
operating conditions such as surge, stall, and choke must be considered. Knowing whether
a steady-state compressor map is still valid in the case of fast transients is also important.
The control system must be addressed as related to instrumentation and device

requirements, as well as the control methods of the drivers. Additionally, the goal of the
control system must be defined. The requirements to protect the process as well as the
equipment have, of course, priority. But other goals need to be defined, too, particularly
if the station involves multiple compression units, either in series or in parallel. Possible
goals can be to minimize fuel consumption, to minimize maintenance costs or to maximize
throughput.
For the process, one must understand the relationship between the flow through the
system and the pressures imposed on the compressor. These relationships are different
depending on their rate of change. In other words, one must expect different system
responses for fast and slow changes, as well as steady-state conditions.
Different upstream and midstream applications lead to different compression system

characteristics and control requirements, which in turn, are the result of compressor
requirements, such as high pressure ratio or wide operating range, and the process
requirements. Multiple unit installations—with multiple compressors per train, and
installations where the train has to serve multiple gas streams—require specific process
control considerations that match the compressors with the process system behavior and
the objectives of the station or system operator.
The behavior of compressors during emergency shutdowns will be discussed at the end
of this section. The control system’s function is simply to initiate the shutdown and to
open the recycle valve as fast as possible. However, the interaction of the compressor and
this system, in a highly transient situation, is of interest. The behavior during emergency
shutdowns has been covered in great detail in a number of papers, for example by Botros
et al. [4,5], Kurz et al. [6], Morini et al. [7] and Blieske et al. [8].
Chapter 6: Control of Centrifugal Compressors | 133

Head and Loss
Ideal Best Efficiency Point

Head
Isentropic Head
Incidence
Loss
Friction High Flow

Loss
Flow
Figure 6-1. Head-flow characteristic of a compressor at constant speed. Operational flow at

higher or lower than the design flow causes incidence losses.
THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Centrifugal compressor behavior can be described by its head-flow-efficiency relationships.

These relationships were explained in detail in the previous chapter on aerodynamics. The
basic relationship, for a compressor at constant speed is shown again in Figure 6-1. The
compressor shows a distinct relationship between head and flow. In the case of machines
with backwards bent impellers (the type in general used in upstream and midstream
compression applications), the head of the compressor increases with reduced flow. Due
to the increase in losses when the compressor is operated away from its design point,
the curve eventually become horizontal, and subsequently starts to drop again. The curve
section with positive slope is usually not available for stable operation. When the flow
is increased beyond the design flow, the losses also increase, and increase the slope of
the curve, sometimes to a vertical line. This is discussed in more detail in the section on
compressor aerodynamics.
134 | Chapter 6: Control of Centrifugal Compressors

Head Hs/Hs, 0
Actual Flow Q/Q0

Off-Design Point Design Point
Figure 6-2 Control methods for centrifugal compressors: Throttling, variable speed, and
adjustable guide vanes (Rasmussen et al. [9]).
Applying different control mechanisms—such as speed variations, adjustable inlet vanes, or

adjustable diffuser vanes—enables the compressor to operate on a family of curves, as can
be seen in Figure 6-2.
Figure 6-3 indicates the effectiveness and efficiency of different control methods. A
compressor that can be operated at varying speeds is of particular importance in upstream
and midstream applications, since this is the most effective and efficient control method.
(Figures 6-2 and 6-3). Using a throttle, recycling (Figure 6-4) or adjustable inlet vanes are
very effective ways to reduce the volumetric flow, but they’re not very efficient, because
the power consumption is not reduced at the same rate as a speed-controlled machine.
This control scheme works for one or more compressors, and can be set up for machines
operating in series, as well as in parallel.

Power (%) Recycle
Suction Throttle
Inlet Guide Vane
Speed
Vol Flow (%)
Figure 6-3. Power consumption for different control methods.
Compressor
Scrubber Cooler
Anti-Surge
Controller
Anti-Surge Valve
Figure 6-4. Recycle System
If speed control is not available, the compressor can be equipped with a suction throttle
or with variable guide vanes. If available, the latter configuration in front of each impeller is
rather effective, but the mechanical complexity usually proves to be prohibitive in pipeline
applications. The former is a mechanically simple means of control, but it has a detrimental
effect on overall efficiency.

COMPRESSOR PROTECTION
Within the control system, subsystems protect the compressor, as well as its driver. In
general, process control will be enabled as long as the compressor and its driver stay within
acceptable, predefined boundaries. For the compressor, these boundaries may include:
• Maximum and minimum operating speed
• Stability limit (aka surge line)
• Choke or overload limit (on some machines)
• Pressure, temperature, torque limits
STATION LEVEL
Further, at the station level, if multiple units are used, control can be exercised by selecting
the number of units in operation. Compressor configurations within a station can include:
• Single compressors
• Single compressors supplied from or delivering into multiple headers
• Multiple compressors operated in parallel
• Multiple compressors operated in series
• Multiple compressors, or compressors with multiple sections operated in a train
Variations may include:
• Multiple compressors in a train with control of intermediate pressures
• Multiple compressor trains in parallel
Series and Parallel Layouts

Pipeline Characteristic
LP Compressor
Head
LP+HP
LP
Series Configuration
Flow
1 Compressor Pipeline Characteristic

Head
2 Compressors
Parallel Configuration Flow
Figure 6-5. Compressors in series and parallel configurations.

If compressors operate in parallel, each will see about the same suction in discharge
pressure, but the flow will be split between the machines. If compressors operate in
series, the discharge pressure of the first machine becomes the suction pressure of the
next machine and so on. All machines process the same flow (unless there is recycling
or side streams), but the overall pressure ratio is divided between the machines. In some
instances, the gas is cooled with intercoolers (Figure 6-5).
With multiple units on a station, the question becomes how to control them to achieve
certain objectives. These objectives may be minimizing the running hours of units,
optimizing the capability to absorb load swings, minimizing fuel consumption or emissions.
The first objective requires running as few units as possible, while the second may require
running all or most units at partial load for most of the time. Minimizing fuel consumption,
which also equates to minimizing CO2 production, will usually involve strategies to cover the
load with as few units running as possible (i.e. running units as close to full load as possible
or not running them at all). The question then becomes is it better to run the operating units
with one at full load and the remaining unit at part load; or, to run all units at partial load.
It is important to note that in all scenarios, the load (i.e., the power made available to the
compressor is the control variable. The compressor speed is a result.
If the driver is a two-shaft gas turbine, a few basic guidelines follow from the fact that a gas
turbine achieves its best efficiency running at or near full load:
• For two identical units running, the answer is usually to run both of them at equal partial
load. This is accommodated by operating the compressors at equal turndown or at equal
gas turbine load (i.e., equal gas producer speed).
• For more than two identical units running, the difference in fuel usage between N units
running at the same load, and some units running at full load, and the remaining units
at partial load, is usually very small. The optimum is then more often determined by the
resulting operating points of the compressors.
• For units that are not identical, it is usually better to load the more efficient unit and
capture the load swings with the less efficient unit. In some instances, these schemes
are also dictated by the starting reliability of individual units, i.e., a low starting reliability
may dictate operational schemes that are otherwise less fuel efficient.
Many control schemes for multiple independent compressors employ turndown

equalization. These schemes seek to operate all compressors at the same turndown.
Turndown equalization for compressors operating in series works backwards from
turndown equalization for compressors operating in parallel. In series operation, one has
to increase the speed (and thus power) of the unit where turndown has to be reduced. For
units in parallel, increasing the speed (and power) of the unit will increase its turndown.
This is due to the different boundary conditions. In parallel operation, all units see the same
suction and discharge pressure, but the flow depends on the power that is fed into the
compressor. In series operation, the flow has to be the same through all machines (unless
recycle is employed). Increasing the power for one of the machines will increase the
amount of head that said machine will produce relative to the other machine, thus reducing
its turndown.

CONTROL OF COMPLEX CONFIGURATIONS
In this example, control of a three-body compressor train with two side streams is
discussed. The train is driven by a two-shaft gas turbine, allowed to operate over a wide
speed range (Figure 6-6). The speed of the train is the result of the equilibrium between
power output from the gas turbine and power consumption of the compressor train.
In other words, if the gas turbine power is increased, the train will increase its speed.
Each compressor symbol (Compressor 1, Compressor 2, Compressor 3) comprises the
compressor and its aftercooler. Each compressor has its own recycle valve, and there are
check valves between the compressor sections. Therefore, four means of controlling the
train are available: train speed and three recycle valves. Essentially, two control systems are
available: one, the process control system (depending on the case, will control one of the
flows or pressures), and two, the anti-surge system for each of the compressors.
Stream 2 Stream 2
Compressor Compressor Compressor

and Cooler 1 and Cooler 2 and Cooler 3
Stream 1
Figure 6-6. Section compressor train with two side streams.
SERIES-PARALLEL CONSIDERATIONS
In some applications, gas storage for example, it’s advantageous to be able to switch two
compressors from series to parallel operation and vice versa. In doing so, the operating
range can be significantly increased. In series operation, the units can provide high head,
while in parallel, the flow range is increased.
It is desirable to be able to switch from series to parallel operation, and vice versa, while
the compressors are running at or near full load. This is possible with an appropriate
arrangement of valves. The most elegant solution involves a control valve and two check
valves (Figure 6-7). With the control valve open, the machines operate in series, while
with a closed valve, they operate in parallel. The check valves will automatically open and
close based on the pressure differential over these valves, and therefore don’t have to be
controlled. In this arrangement, the opening and closing speed of the control valve is not
particularly important.

Figure 6-7. Compressors for series and parallel operation. Transfer from parallel to series
arrangement (C1 is the LP compressor, C2 is the HP compressor, P1 and P2 are the suction and
discharge pressures, respectively, SM is the surge margin for the compressors). The transfer is
controlled by the control valve, with the check valves opening and closing automatically. The
control valve is open for series operation, and closed for parallel operation. The delivered flow is
the same at the beginning and the end of the transfer.
The transfer from parallel to series configuration is simulated in Figure 6-7. It is shown that
neither machine will enter into surge. The LP compressor will be designed with higher flow
staging than the HP compressor.
PROCESS CONTROL WITH CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS DRIVEN BY TWO-SHAFT

GAS TURBINES
Centrifugal compressors, when driven by two-shaft gas turbines, are usually adapted to
varying process conditions by changing compressor speed. This is the most natural way
of controlling a system, because both the centrifugal compressor and the power turbine
of a two-shaft gas turbine can operate over a wide range of speeds without any adverse

effects. A typical configuration can operate down to 50% of its maximum continuous
speed, and in many cases even lower. Reaction times are very fast, thus allowing a
continuous load using modern, PLC based controllers.
Gas-turbine-driven centrifugal compressors are typically controlled by varying the power

input from the gas turbine. The compressor speed is then the result of the equilibrium
between power input from the gas turbine and absorbed power from the compressor
(Figure 6-8). Electric motor drives typically control the speed of the compressor, and the
power consumption is the result.
Equilibrium Operating Point
Compressor
Power Turbine
Power
Speed
Figure 6-8. Speed-power relationship for a centrifugal compressor and the power turbine. The
power turbine curve assumes a constant gas generator operating condition.
Ratio of Specific Heats 1.309

Specific Gravity 0.574
Suction Temperature 65.0 F
Suction Pressure 707.50 PSIA
Discharge Pressure PSIA
Flow MMSCFD (60 F, & 14.7 PSIA)
Figure 6-9. Centrifugal Compressor Performance Map: Operating at flow control or discharge
pressure control.

A simple case is flow control. The flow into the machine is sensed by a flow metering
element (such as a flow orifice, a venturi nozzle or an ultrasonic device). A flow setpoint is
selected by the operator. If the discharge pressure increases due to process changes, the
controller will increase the fuel flow into the gas turbine. As a result, the power turbine will
produce more power, causing the power turbine together with the driven compressor, to
accelerate. Thus, the compressor flow is kept constant (mode: constant flow in Figure 6-9).
From Figure 6-9, it can be seen that both the power turbine speed and the power increase
in that situation.
If the discharge pressure is reduced or the suction pressure is increased due to process
changes, the controller will reduce the fuel flow into the gas turbine. As a result, the power
turbine will produce less power and cause the power turbine, together with the driven
compressor, to decelerate. Thus, the compressor flow is kept constant (Mode: constant
flow in Figure 6-9).
Another possible control mode is to run the unit at maximum available driver power (or any
other, constant driver output). In this case, the operating points are on a line of constant
power in Figure 6-9.
Figure 6-10 shows how compressors automatically adapt to changing operating conditions.
Two control scenarios are considered: Running the compressor with a constant power
setting, or running the compressor to maintain constant flow. In either case, the process
is assumed to maintain the same pressures, for example, because the gas is delivered into
a larger pipeline. If the gas gets heavier (specific gravity increases), the compressor will
run slower because the same process conditions require less head. It must be noted that
the control system will not prescribe the speed. Also, the specific gravity does not have
to be known. The control system simply maintains either the power input, or it measures
the flow and adjusts the power input to maintain the flow. If the gas gets lighter, the
compressor will run faster. Since the flow at constant power is reduced, the compressor
may reach the point where the surge protection is activated, and the compressor will start
to recycle gas. Lowering the gas temperature will cause the compressor to run slower, and
increasing the suction pressure will also lead to a speed reduction. If the compressor is
controlled by constant power, the flow will increase significantly at that point.

Initial Design Condition at Higher Specific Gravity
Constant Discharge Pressure (SG was 0.7)
Isentropic Head, ft-lb f/lbm (000)

Inlet Volume Flow, CFM (00) Q Inlet Volume Flow, CFM (00) Q
Lower pecific Gravity Lower Suction Temperature

(SG was 0.7) (T1 was 100° F)
Inlet Volume Flow, CFM (00) Q Inlet Volume Flow, CFM (00) Q
Higher Suction Pressure

(P1 was 500 psia)
Figure 6-10. Reaction of a variable-speed

compressor to changes in operating
conditions, either controlled for power or
Inlet Volume Flow, CFM (00) controlled for flow.
INTERACTION OF THE COMPRESSOR & COMPRESSION SYSTEM
The operating point of a compressor is determined by the interaction between the system
it operates in and the compressor operating characteristics. For example, if a compressor
operates at a steady state in a pipeline, then an increase in flow through that pipeline will
require an increase of the pressure ratio (thus the head) of the compressor station, due to
the increased friction losses in the pipeline.
The maximum flow is limited by either the maximum allowable speed of the compressor
train, or the maximum available driver power. If more than one compressor operates at

a station, they can either operate in parallel or in series. Control strategies can be set to
attempt running all compressors at that station using the same surge margin. Additionally,
with multiple units available at a station, it is often advantageous to shut one or more units
down, rather than operating all of them in deep partial load.
BASIC PROCESS CONTROL WITH A GAS TURBINE DRIVER
The control system for a gas turbine driver process control is set up to run the engine to
maximum gas generator speed (i.e., full load), unless it runs into another limit first. Limits
can be established based on compressor suction pressure, compressor discharge pressure
or compressor flow. If, for example, suction pressure is controlled, the engine will run at full
load unless the suction pressure drops below its set point. In that case, the gas producer
speed is reduced. In the case of discharge pressure control or flow control, the engine will
run at full load unless the discharge pressure or the compressor flow exceeds its set point.
BASIC PROCESS CONTROL WITH ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVES
For constant speed electric motor drives, process control has to be accomplished using
one of the other, previously mentioned control methods (Figure 6-2). The complication lies
in the fact that control methods such as recycle control and suction throttling have only
limited capability to reduce the compressor’s absorbed power (Figure 6-3). Thus, a certain
level of oversizing the driver is required to make sure that there is enough power available
to operate the compressor at some point on its constant speed line.
For electric motor drives allowing variable compressor speeds (i.e. Variable-Speed
Gearboxes or Variable-Frequency Drives), the usual control variable is speed. Unlike the
gas turbine drives described above, the speed of the drive is adjusted to meet the process
control objective, until the required power exceeds the driver’s capability.
SURGE AVOIDANCE
Surge avoidance, while the compressor is on line, is one of the process controls for the
left boundary of the compressor map. The intervention of surge control should be virtually
unnoticeable. It should be as though the compressor has infinite turndown.
Understanding the principles of surge avoidance initially will make understanding

the remaining process controls easier. Some remarks about control dynamics and
measurements will make the concept of surge avoidance and its importance easier to
understand.
Successful surge avoidance involves five essentials. (White et al [3]:
1. A Precise Surge Limit Model: It must predict the surge limit over the applicable range
of gas conditions and characteristics.

2. An Appropriate Control Algorithm: It must ensure surge avoidance without
unnecessarily upsetting the process.
3. The Right Instrumentation: Instruments must be selected to meet the requirements

for speed, range, and accuracy.
4. Recycle Valve Correctly Selected for the Compressor: Valves must fit the
compressor map. They must be capable of large and rapid, as well as small and slow,
capacity changes.
5. Recycle Valve Correctly Selected for the System Volumes: The valve must be fast
enough and large enough to ensure the surge limit is not reached during a shutdown.
The piping system is the dominant factor in the overall system response. It must be
analyzed and understood. Large volumes will preclude the implementation of a single
valve surge avoidance system [3], [4], [5], [6].
This section does not cover the behavior of surge control systems during emergency
shutdowns. All that needs to be mentioned at this point is that the volume of the pipes and
vessels between the compressor discharge nozzle, the check valve and the recycle valve
should be kept as small as possible. If concerns about surge during emergency shutdown
arise, a separate hot recycle valve can be installed.
SYSTEM BEHAVIOR
The system within which the compressor operates—that is, the piping, valves, and
vessels—exhibits some relationship between the flow through the system and the
pressure drop imposed by the system.
In the context of compressor applications, it is important to understand this relationship,

since it has a profound impact on the selection of the correct compressor. Further, these
relationships tend to be different in steady-state operation versus transient operation.
The pipe system within which the compressor operates will impose its characteristic on the
compressor. Three fundamental steady-state system characteristics must be considered
(Figure 6-11):
1. Strong head-flow relationship (A)
2. Weak head-flow relationship (B)
3. Integrative relationship (C)
The case of strong head-flow relationship is, for example, seen in gas pipelines. Under
steady-state conditions, the pressure loss in the pipeline which imposes the suction
and discharge pressure on the compressor station increases significantly when the flow
through the pipeline has to be increased. The pressure levels are thus dictated by friction
losses, which depend on the gas velocity in the pipe.

Head
Flow
Figure 6-11. System characteristics and compressor map.
In a weak head flow relationship, the head requirement for the compressor head stays
more or less constant with changes in flow. This behavior is found in refrigeration
compressors, but also for situations where the process dictates a constant suction
pressure (e.g., separator pressure), while the discharge gas is fed via a short pipe into a
larger flowing pipeline. The compressor discharge pressure is more or less dictated by the
pressure in the large pipeline. Friction losses, therefore, have a very small effect, resulting
in very small changes in pressure losses with flow.
In an integrative relationship for example, as exists in storage applications (Kurz and Brun
[11]), the compressor fills a large cavity. That means the compressor discharge pressure
is increased as a function of the cumulative flow into the cavity, as a result of filling it with
gas. Similar conditions can be found in gas-gathering applications where (on a much slower
scale) the field pressure (and with it the compressor suction pressure) decline as a function
of the cumulative flow out of the gas field. These fields also have a strong head-flow
relationship, i.e., increasing the flow at any given time would lower the compressor suction
pressure.
The interaction between compressor characteristic and system characteristic then

becomes a basic ingredient for the control approach. Figure 6-12 shows how the power
input provided by the driver can be used to control the compressor operating point within
the constraints of the system’s behavior.

For given load setting
(e.g. NGP), compressor
will operate at a point
determined
by available power
and pipeline characteristic.
Pipeline
Characteristic
Isentropic Head
100%
80%
Load
Inlet Flow Volume

Figure 12: Available Power, Compressor Map and Pipeline Characteristic
Figure 6-12. Available power, compressor map and pipeline characteristic.
Compressor power P is a function of mass flow W and actual head H, and thus related
Compressor
to power
the coordinates in thePcompressor
is a function
map of mass
(Figure flow
6-12) W and
of inlet actual
density head
, inlet flowH,
Q, and thus relate
(Fig.isentropic
12) of inlet
headdensity ρ, inlet flow
Hs and efficiency : Q, isentropic head Hs and efficiency η:
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊∙ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ∙ (1)
𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂
This defines the line of constant power in Figure 6-12.
This defines the line of constant power in Figure 12.
Further, the transient system behavior must be considered (Figure 6-13). For example,
Further, the transient system behavior must be considered (Figure 13). A pipeline f
a pipeline can be operated in a transient condition by feeding more gas into the pipeline
condition by feeding more gas into the pipeline than what is taken off on the other end. T
than what is taken off on the other end. This is usually referred to as “line packing.” In
general, pipelines are operated under slowly changing operating conditions. While a pipel
general, pipelines are operated under slowly changing operating conditions. While a
unique station pressure ratio for a given flow (Figure 11,12), this is no longer true under t
pipeline under steady state conditions requires a unique station pressure ratio for a given
under transient conditions, for example during line pack after a fast increase in driver powe
down, the steady state relationshipsChapter
are no6:longer valid. Dynamic studies of pipeline
Control of Centrifugal Compressors | 147
behav
pipeline to changes in station operating conditions than a steady state calculation. In st
flow (Figures 6-11 and 6-12), this is no longer true under transient conditions. If the pipeline
operates under transient conditions, for example, during line pack after a fast increase
in driver power, or, if one of the compressors has to be shut down, the steady state
relationships are no longer valid.
Dynamic studies of pipeline behavior reveal a distinctly different reaction of a pipeline to

changes in station operating conditions than a steady-state calculation. In steady state
(or, for slow changes), pipeline hydraulics dictate an increase in station pressure ratio with
increased flow, due to the fact that the pipeline pressure losses increase with increased
flow through the pipeline.
However, if a centrifugal compressor receives more driver power, and increases its speed
and throughput rapidly, the station pressure ratio will react very slowly to this change.
This is due to the fact that initially the additional flow has to pack the pipeline (with its
considerable volume) until changes in pressure become apparent. Thus, the dynamic
change in operating conditions would lead (in the limit case of a very fast change in
compressor power) to a change in flow without a change in head. If the power setting is
maintained, the compressor operating point would then start to approach the steady state
line again, albeit at a higher speed, pressure ratio, flow, and power.
Head
Flow
Figure 6-13. Typical operating points, if transient conditions are considered, in this case due to a
fast engine acceleration from 50% to 100% load (Kurz et al [13]).
Experimental data presented and analyzed by Blieske et al. [8] indicates that the steady
state compressor map is still usable even in transient situations.
INTERACTION BETWEEN THE SYSTEM AND THE COMPRESSOR
For any situation, the process determines the suction and discharge pressure the
compressor ‘sees.’ Based on some control setting (available power, speed, guide vane
setting) the compressor will react to the situation by providing a certain amount of flow to

the system. Thus, the flow into the system is a result of the compressor characteristic (its
map) and some external control setting.
Different controls elicit different scenarios in these control situations. If the compressor is
controlled by the level of power that’s supplied, then the speed at which the compressor
runs is a result of the interaction between compressor and process. If the speed of
the compressor is controlled, the required power is an outcome. The same is true for a
constant speed machine (which in that sense is just a special case of a compressor that’s
forced to operate at a set speed).
Recycle control and throttle control are essentially supplemental ways to control the
compressor in certain situations. Recycling gas still maintains the system suction and
discharge pressure as long as the compressor stays on line, but it allows the compressor
to provide more flow than desirable or available from the system. Throttle control allows
the system to reduce suction pressure or the system discharge pressure the compressor
experiences.
Obviously, there are impossible outcomes. The compressor will not be able to operate at
conditions where the speed is too high or too low, where the power demand is too high,
or where the operation would cause an instability, such as surge. If the compressor is
not capable of operating at the system imposed suction and discharge pressure due to
constraints of power, speed, or flow range, it will go into full recycle, i.e., the compressor
will operate within the constraints of a new system, that is a throttle-valve-controlled
recycle loop.
It should be noted that the above principles also apply to transient situations, such as line
pack in pipelines (Kurz, et al. [12], and even highly transient situations, such as during an
emergency shutdown (Kurz and White, [6]; Moore et al,.[13]). Again, the system (which
is essentially the recycle loop as soon as check valves separate the recycle loop from the
main system) imposes a certain suction and discharge pressure on the compressor; the
available power comes from the inertia of the drive train, and the compressor speed is a
result of the interactions.
CONTROL OBJECTIVES
In a discussion of control, one has to define the goal of a control system. The requirements
to protect the process as well as the equipment, are priorities, of course. But other
goals need to be defined, too, particularly if the station involves multiple compression
units, either in series or in parallel arrangements. Possible goals can be to minimize fuel
consumption, minimize emissions, minimize maintenance costs or maximize throughput.

Isentropic Head
Isentropic Head
Inlet Flow Volume Inlet Flow Volume
Figure 6-14. Load increase. Pressure control (left), flow control (right).
Each of these goals has to be translated into operational requirements for the
compressors. For example, in a compressor station with three identical units, minimizing
fuel consumption may be accomplished by running only the minimum number of units
necessary for the duty. Generally, this will also minimize maintenance cost (since
the cumulative running hours are minimized), unless the gas turbine incurs additional
maintenance based on the number of starts.
Isentropic Head
Isentropic Head
Inlet Flow Volume Inlet Flow Volume
Figure 6-15. Load reduction. Flow control (left), pressure control (right).
From a process standpoint, pressure, power, speed and flow can be controlled. For
compression applications, controlling a process variable such as flow, suction or discharge
pressure is the goal. Speed and power are irrelevant from a process standpoint, except for
machinery protection or to maximize production (i.e. operation at full load or full speed).
Among the process variables in a compressor station, pressures tend to change relatively
slowly, while flow changes quickly.
For compression applications, pressure (except as a limiting factor) is also often not very
relevant. However, it’s often used for control purposes in pipelines, possibly because it’s
easier to monitor, especially if reciprocating compressors are involved. That leaves flow

control as the most advantageous way of controlling a compressor application. Figure 6-14
shows how the compressor tends to react under different control scenarios. It follows (Kurz
et al., [12]) that the fastest way to get to a new operating point is to accelerate the engine to
full power.
Both flow and pressure control will essentially make the engine operate at full load until the
control objective is achieved (Figure 6-14). Pressure control will lead to a large flow increase
into the pipeline, thus causing a faster pressure rise inside the pipeline. In other words,
pressure control will usually bring the compressor to the new set point faster than flow
control in systems with a strong head-flow relationship (Figure 6-11, Curve A).
The case where the unit is supposed to run at reduced flow is slightly more complicated,
because it also requires consideration of the anti-surge system (Figure 6-15). Upon setting
the control set point to a lower flow (or pressure), the gas turbine will reduce power (by
reducing gas producer speed). This will lead the compressor operating point to approach
the surge control line. Upon crossing the control line, the recycle valve will open to keep
the compressor from surging. The combination of an opened recycle valve and reduced
power will bring the compressor to the new set point. Notably, there is no concern about
interactions between power control and surge control.
SURGE AND SURGE AVOIDANCE
The phenomenon of surge was mentioned earlier in this chapter, as well as in Chapter 1 on
Compressor Aerodynamics. All modern compressors have anti-surge systems as part of
their control systems. These systems detect when the compressor gets too close to the
surge line and, as a response, gradually open a recycle valve. If this system does not work,
control systems have, as a backup, a system that detects surge. If it does, the compressor
shuts down. The behavior of a compressor during emergency shutdown or during other
fast process changes, must also be discussed.
But first, the nature of surge must be considered. This is important, because surge is a
system issue and can only occur as a result of the interaction between a compressor and
the system components (pipes, valves, coolers) around it. Stall, for example, may be a
precursor to surge, but it is not surge. For the purpose of this discussion, surge is defined
as a situation where the flow through the compressor is reversed. The cause is that the
system imposes a discharge pressure on the compressor that the compressor is no longer
able to overcome. System dynamics usually dictate the transient nature of surge, i.e., flow
reversal through the compressor lowers the discharge pressure, so the compressor will
come out of surge, only to go back into surge if the system geometry is not changed.
Precursors of surge are often increased compressor vibrations or small flow pulsations.
These are often described as mild surge. Their nature is, however, more related to the
onset of stall in one of the compressor components, which can lead to a flattening or even
a dip in the head-flow curve.

OPERATION DURING REVERSE FLOW
While the control system is supposed to keep the compressor from operating in surge,
a brief mention of the compressor situation when the system fails to prevent surge is
warranted. Test data exists describing the behavior of a compressor when it is subject
to reverse flow conditions. Kurz et. Al. [6] described the behavior of a compressor during
emergency shutdown against a closed recycle valve, and recently, Belardini et. Al. [15]
presented a detailed study focused on compressor behavior in reverse flow. Aust [16]
published detailed measurements of a centrifugal compressor during surge cycles
(Figure 6-16). Besides the normal, stable operation, the area of stable, reverse flow can be
identified, as well as an unstable transition area. Currently, the determination of the forces
and damage during surge cycles are the subject of research. In general, control systems are
designed to prevent the compressor from surging, but anecdotal evidence suggests that
most industrial compressors survive surge events without measurable damage.
Stable
reverse flow
Head
Normal
Operation
Transitional
flow
Flow
Figure 6-16. Behavior of a single-stage centrifugal compressor at positive and negative flow,
showing isentropic head coefficient versus flow for machine Mach numbers from 0.57 to 0.85
(Aust [16]).
STABILITY
Because surge is a system issue, the surge line—the limit where the compressor would
move to a reverse flow situation—is determined by the interaction between the system
and the compressor. From a control perspective, the surge line is simply a line on the
compressor map that the control system is set up to prevent crossing. Therefore, the
surge line could be determined by the onset of surge, but also the onset of rotating stall
or the onset of high vibrations. The latter two clearly are not ‘surge’. Figure 6-17 illustrates
such a situation. The compressor has a dip in the head-flow map, likely due to component
rotating stall. The manufacturer, therefore, sets the control line such that the compressor
is kept out of rotating stall. On a test stand, the compressor may surge at a much lower
flow (broken line).

For this discussion, it is better to focus on the stability line, which is the limit line at which
the system is stable. What does ‘stable’ mean? If a compressor operates at a certain
operating point, and a small disturbance (say, a slightly higher discharge pressure) occurs,
then in a stable system, the compressor will return to its original operating point after the
disturbance disappears. In an unstable system, it will continuously move away from the
operating point.
A compressor curve with a continuous rise in head and reduced flow is thus generally stable
(Figures 6-18 and 6-19), because an increase in discharge pressure will automatically cause a
reduction in flow, which will cause the system to move to a lower discharge pressure again.
As related to the transitional flow in Figure 6-16, a slight increase in pressure would force an
increase in flow, causing instability. Figures 6-18 and 6-19 also indicate that the stability limit
is not defined by the compressor, but rather by the compressor-system interaction.
Compressor Map with Performance Data
Actual Flow (m3/min)

Isentropic Head (ft-lbf/lbm
Isentropic Head (J/kg)
Actual Flow (cfm)
Figure 6-17. Where is the surge line?

System Stability (without downstream piping inertia)
System Stability (with downstream piping inertia)
Figures 6-18 and 6-19. System stability without and with downstream piping inertia.
THE SURGE CONTROL SYSTEM
The surge avoidance system prevents surge by modulating a surge-control (bypass)

valve around the compressor (Figure 6-20). A typical system consists of pressure and
temperature transmitters on the compressor suction and discharge lines, a flow differential
pressure transmitter across the compressor flow meter, an algorithm in the control system,
and a surge control valve with corresponding accessories.

Compressor
Scrubber Cooler
Anti-Surge
Controller
Anti-Surge Valve
Figure 6-20. Surge avoidance system schematic.
A surge avoidance system determines the compressor operating point, using the pressure,
temperature and flow data provided by the instrumentation. The system compares the
compressor operating point to the compressor's surge limit. The difference between the
operating point and the surge limit is the control error. A control algorithm (P+I+D) acts upon
this difference, or “error,” to develop a control signal to the recycle valve. When opened, a
portion of the gas from the discharge side of the compressor is routed back to the suction
side, and head across the compressor is prevented from increasing further. When the
operating point reflects more flow than the required protection margin flow, the surge-control
valve moves toward the closed position and the compressor resumes normal operation.
Successful surge avoidance involves five essentials:
1. A Precise Surge Limit Model – It must predict the surge limit over the applicable range
of gas conditions and characteristics.
2. An Appropriate Control Algorithm – It must ensure surge avoidance without

unnecessarily upsetting the process.
3. The Right Instrumentation – Instruments must be selected to meet the requirements

for speed, range, and accuracy.
4. Recycle Valve Correctly Selected for the Compressor – Valves must fit the
compressor. They must be capable of large and rapid, as well a small and slow, changes
in capacity.
5. Recycle Valve Correctly Selected for the System Volumes – The valve must be fast
enough and large enough to ensure the surge limit is not reached during a shutdown.
The piping system is the dominant factor in the overall system response. It must be
analyzed and understood. Large volumes will preclude the implementation of a single-
valve, surge-avoidance system.

THE SURGE LIMIT MODEL
In order to avoid surge, it must be known where the compressor will surge. The more
accurately this is predicted, the greater the amount of the compressor’s operating range
will be available to the user. A compressor’s operation is defined by three parameters:
Head, Flow and Speed. The relationship between the compressor’s operating point and
surge can be defined by any two of the three (Figure 21).
Surge Head Rise Turndown

Margin to Surge
Head Rise
Turndown
o Surge
Rise
Turndown
rge
H
H
N2 HQ
=2Head Q = Flow N = Speed
QN= Flow Figure 6-21. Q in different systems of reference.

2 2
N = Speed
Surge limit
Flow N = Speed
t Systems ofTheReference
first two models on the left of Figure 6-21 involve speed. The speed of the compressor
ems of Reference
at an operating condition is strongly influenced by changes in gas composition, because
of Figure 21 involve speed. The speed of the compressor at an operating condition is strongly influenced
the machine mach number will change. The head versus flow relationship on the right
ause 21
gure theinvolve
Machine MachThe
speed. number
speed will change.
ofmodeling
the The Head
compressor versus Flow
at anlimit
operating relationship
condition on theinfluenced
is strongly right provides
it without provides
being a means
affected gasfor
bywill conditions the
or surge
characteristics. without
The being affected
parameters by gas limit
conditions or
the Machine Mach number change. The Head versus Flow relationship onofthe
theright
surge
providesmodel
ms of being characteristics.
head across theby The parameters
compressor and head of the
across thesurge limit model on the right can be measured in
flowmeter.
hout affected gas conditions or characteristics. The parameters of the surge limit model
t.2.2 terms of head across the compressor and head across the flowmeter (Figure 6-21) [8].
head across the compressor and head across the flowmeter.
σ
 PD 
 σ  −1
 PD  PS 
H p =K ⋅  − 1 ⋅ T ⋅ SG ⋅ Z (1)
 PS  σ
Hp = K ⋅ ⋅ T ⋅ SG ⋅ Z (1)
σ
Thistoisthe
It applies both thehead
basicofequation for head.
the compressor It applies
( with pd andboth
ps to the head
discharge andof suction
the compressor
pressure)(with
or the pd
ring the flowandthrough
p
plies both to the head s the
dischargecompressor,
and suctionso there are
pressure) common
or the terms
head .
across These
the common
flow meter
of the compressor ( with pd and ps discharge and suction pressure) or the terms (units,
monitoring gas
the
mpressibility)
the flow
flow through arethrough
theequal inthe
both equations
so thereand
compressor,
compressor, so can
arethere beare
common cancelled.
common This results
terms.
terms . These These
commonin acommon
simplified
terms model
terms
(units, that
gas(units,
sssibility)
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equal
gas in both equations
temperature, specificand can be
gravity andcancelled. This results
compressibility) in a simplified
are equal model that
in both equations and can
uced flow. be cancelled. This results in a simplified model that is referred to as “reduced head” versus
“reduced flow.”
σ
 PD 
 σ  −1
 PD  PS 
 =  − 1
H REDUCED (2)
 PS  σ
H REDUCED = (2)
σ
be able to react appropriately to changes in power or the process. There are two very different situations
le to react appropriately
156 to changes
| Chapter in power
6: Control or the process.
of Centrifugal There are two very different situations
Compressors
rosses the protection line, that is, at the same rate it has been moving left for the past several hours,
THE CONTROL ALGORITHM
A surge avoidance control needs to be able to react appropriately to changes in power or

the process. There are two very different situations to which the system must respond.
If the operating point slowly crosses the protection line—that is, at the same rate it has
been moving left for the past several hours—movements opening the recycle valve should
be small and slow. The interdiction of the surge avoidance control should be unnoticeable.
It should be as though the compressor had infinite turndown.
Conversely, if the operating point races across the compressor map, the recycle valve
should begin opening before the operating point crosses the protection line. Reaction of the
control should be aggressive to protect the compressor. In this case, the concern is less
about the process, as it has already been impacted.
A sudden change in the system produces a control response. This is a standard control
test. Ping it and see how it rings. Figure 6-22 reflects reactions of variously tuned controls.
Low gains produce a slow response. A critically damped control produces an aggressive
response but settles down quickly. If the gains are too high, the system will oscillate.
What does a surge avoidance system do most of the time? Hopefully nothing! Then, with
very little margin, it must act aggressively, probably requiring gains higher than could be
maintained stable to protect the compressor. To avoid instability, the gains are reduced to
close the valve. Once surge has been avoided, the control system should bring the process
back on line slowly and smoothly to avoid further upsets.
The need for extremely high gains is driven by the following: Surge avoidance systems
normally utilize commonly available plant-process-control components. As such, these
components are designed
for ruggedness, reliability,
and low maintenance. In Error
general, they are not focused
on speed of data acquisition. Single
Information about changing Gain
process conditions is often System
Response
1/10 of a second old. As will
be seen in later sections,
significant advances in
surge-control-valve action
have been made recently.
However, the response of Smooth
the valve is typically the Response
dominant lag in the system.
Figure 6-22. Reaction of a control system to an error signal.
INSTRUMENTATION
To avoid surge, the control needs to know where the compressor is operating in relation to
surge in real time. Again, how close the protection margin can be placed to surge depends

on how accurately and how quickly the change in flow is reported to the control. Correctly
selected, instrumentation is essential. The system must have accurate measurements
of the suction and discharge pressures and temperatures, and the rate of flow. Flow is
the most important parameter as it will move the fastest and farthest, when approaching
the surge limit. Ideally, the flow transmitter should be an order of magnitude faster
than the process. Unfortunately, compared to pressure and temperature transmitters,
flow transmitters tend to be slow. Even the best surge-avoidance control will allow a
compressor to surge, if it is connected to a slow transmitter.
FLOW-MEASURING DEVICES
Most commercially available flow-measuring devices (Figure 6-23) are accurate enough
for surge avoidance, however, it is the transmitter that slows things down. A differential
pressure transmitter’s response time is inversely proportional to its range; thus, the
stronger the signal, the faster the response.
Devices that develop high DP signals are desirable. Those with low signal levels tend to
have low signal-to-noise ratios. Transmitters for low DP signal ranges typically have slow
response times. Devices that create an abrupt restriction or expansion to the gas, such as
orifices, cause turbulence and, subsequently, create noise.
It is preferable to place the flow-measuring device on the suction side of the compressor.
Typically, variations in pressures, temperatures and turbulence of the gas are lower
upstream of the compressor. Also, the device must be inside the innermost recycle loop
(see Figure 6-20).
At a minimum, failure of the device will cause the compressor set to be shut down until the
device can be replaced. If the failure results in pieces being ingested by the compressor, it
can cause an expensive overhaul. For this reason, devices that are cantilevered into the gas
stream are not recommended. Low-cost, flow-measuring devices do not necessarily result
in cost savings over the long run.
Low Permanent Pressure Loss (PPL) devices are often recommended, however, their
benefits may be marginal. The lost-power, cost-impact of operating a device can be
calculated. For example, a flow meter developing a 100-inch H2O signal and a 50% PPL
flowing 100 MMSCFD (50 lb/sec) is equivalent to about 20 hp.
As noted, strong-signal devices are highly preferred. Pitot types (Annubars & Verabars)
have a relatively low-signal level, around 25 inches H2O. In the middle are orifices and
venturis with a moderate signal of around 100 inches H2O. Compressor suction-to-eye
provides a strong signal, (around 700 inches” H2O) with the added benefit of not causing
any additional pressure loss.
Suction-to-eye uses the inlet shroud or inlet volute of the compressor as a flow-measuring
device. This feature is now available on many compressors. The design requirements
for the inlet volute and the flow measuring device have several things in common.
Performance of the first stage impeller and the device is dependent on the uniform
direction and velocity of the flow presented to it.

Placement of the eye port is critical to the operation of suction-to-eye flow measurement.
As the impeller approaches surge, an area of recirculation begins to develop at the outer
perimeter of the inlet to the impeller. If the eye port is placed too close to the impeller’s
outer perimeter, the relationship of the DP to flow will be affected. Fortunately, the meter
factor (C’) typically remains nearly the same for the same surge margin. Hence, selecting
the meter factor at the desired surge-protection margin will contribute to effective surge
avoidance.
In a typical pipeline application (600 psi suction pressure), suction-to-eye will develop
25 psid (692 inches H2O). This is nearly seven times the differential of an orifice plate.
Typically, the signal-to-noise ratio is high, and there is no additional permanent pressure
loss. For surge avoidance, the suction-to-eye method is strongly recommended.
COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION
Optimal performance of any control system is dependent on the speed, accuracy, and
resolution of the instrumented process conditions. To achieve optimal performance, the
instruments should have performance specifications an order of magnitude better than the
requirements for the system. Typical gas-compression systems have a first-time constant
of about one second; hence, no instrument should have a first-time constant of greater
than 100 ms. The surge-control system is expected to discriminate between single-digit
percentages of surge margin; hence, measurement of the process parameters should
be accurate to 0.1%. The final control elements (recycle valves) probably can resolve 1%
changes in their command signals; hence, the process variables should be resolved to at
least 0.1% (10 bits) of their normal operating range. Over-ranging transmitters degrade
resolution.
Nozzle Oriface Venturi Turbine Flow Meter

Nozzle Metering Principle
for an Oriface
Ultrasound Flow Meter Pilot-type Probe Elbow Flow Meter
Figure 6-23. Flow-measuring devices.

THE SURGE CONTROL VALVE
Earlier, how the control should react differently to gradual and rapid approaches to surge
was discussed. Likewise, the valve must address these two very different requirements.
For the gradual approach, it should behave like a small valve and produce smooth throttling.
For the rapid approach, it should act like a large, fast valve to handle sudden major changes.
There are three general valve characteristics (Figure 6-24): quick opening, where most of
the valve’s capacity is reached early in its travel; linear, where capacity is equal to travel;
and equal percentage, where most of the capacity is made available towards the end of the
valve’s travel. All three types of valves have been used in various configurations as recycle
valves.
Equal-percentage valves, and in particular noise-attenuating ball valves, are recommended

for surge avoidance systems with a single surge-control valve. They perform like smaller
valves when nearly closed and bigger valves when close to fully open. Figure 6-25
is a comparison of two types of equal-percentage valves. For a given valve size, the
noise-attenuating ball valve is often twice the cost of the globe valve, but it provides
approximately three times the Flow Coefficient (Cv) or capacity. Also, it is more reliable as
it is less susceptible to fouling and improper maintenance.
Employing a valve with an equal percentage characteristic may provide the capacity needed
to avoid surge during a shutdown, while maintaining enough resolution at less than 50%
capacity to provide good control at partial recycle. With an equal percentage characteristic,
the valve typically has greater resolution than a single linear valve selected to fit the
compressor.
Capacity
Travel, %
Figure 6-24. Valve Types

Flow Coefficient
Travel, %
Figure 6-25. Comparison of ball and globe valves.
MULTIPLE VALVES
If the volumes on either side of the compressor are large, use of multiple valves may be
needed. If an integrated approach is used, the total valve capacity will be reduced.
Probably the most common is the hot-and-cold, recycle configuration (Figure 6-26). Usually
the cooled (outer) valve
is modulating, and the
hot (inner) valve is a quick
opening on-off type.
Generally, the two valves
are sized independently.
If the cooled valve has
a solenoid, its capacity
can be considered with
that of the shutdown
valve; subsequently, the
shutdown valve can be
smaller.
An alternate to this
configuration is having
a second cooled valve
in parallel with the
first. This arrangement
provides some measure
of redundancy. During
control, the two valves
are operated in cascade. Figure 6-26 Arrangements with fast-stop (hot-gas bypass) valve
That is, they have different (top) and separate recycle (anti-surge) valve (bottom).

set points, say 9% and 10% surge margin. Under normal movements of the operating
conditions, only the 10% surge-margin valve (primary valve) will open. If movement is
fast enough to push the operating point down to 9%, the secondary valve will open. If the
primary valve becomes fouled and no longer positions properly, the control can place it in
the secondary position, and the secondary valve becomes the primary valve. This change
can be made without taking the compressor offline.
The advantages of the two parallel valves do not come without a price. In normal operation,
2% to 5% of the pressure rise across the compressor will be lost across the cooler. In the
shutdown scenario, the required flow through the cooler to avoid surge may be 2 or 3 times
the normal flow. This will result in 4 to 9 times the pressure drop across the cooler. This
additional pressure drop may significantly increase the needed recycle valve-capacity.
Recycle valves need to be fast, and capable to be positioned accurately. They also need to
be properly sized for both the compressor and the piping system. A valve well suited for
modulating recycle around the compressor may not be suitable for a shutdown. (See the
Review of Piping Volumes section below.)
For some two-valve applications, single-purpose valves may be suitable, one for controlled
recycling, and one for shutdown. A valve having linear characteristics is appropriate for
controlled recycling, and a valve having quick-opening characteristics such as a globe or ball
valve is appropriate for shutdown.
For applications where the compressor speed lines are fairly flat (little increase in head for
a decrease in flow) from the design conditions to surge, extra-fast depressurization may
be required. To achieve this, two quick-opening valves may be employed. In this case, a
single 6-inch linear-characteristic valve is replaced by two 4-inch quick-opening valves. The
two 4-inch valves should have slightly less flow capacity (Cv), but they will open nearly 45
milliseconds faster. For linear valves, 50% travel equals 50% capacity. For quick-opening
valves, capacity approximately equals the square root of travel. As such, the two 4-inch
valves will have 70.7% of their fully open capacity at 50% open. Comparing the two
arrangements, 250 ms after the shutdown is initiated, the two 4-inch, quick-opening valves
will have 56% more flow capacity than the single 6-inch linear valve.
For throttling, the valves are operated in cascade or split range. For most controlled
recycling, only one valve is opened. Although the valves have a quick-opening
characteristic, the valves are smaller, thus the capacity based on percent travel is less. The
two quick-opening valves operated in cascade or split-ranged will have the same Cv as the
6-inch linear valve at 25% travel.
VALVE ACTUATION
As previously discussed, there are two operational scenarios for the surge avoidance
system; modulating (minimum flow control) and rapid depressurization for shutdown. By
inserting a three-way solenoid valve into the positioner’s output, the valve can be made to
open with either a proportional (4-20 mA) signal for modulating control, or a discrete (24
VDC) signal for total fast opening.

The primary difference between a surge-control valve and a standard-control valve is in its
actuation system. The preferred actuator for surge avoidance is spring return, fail open. This
design is simple, reliable, and ensures the compressor is protected in the event of a power
failure. Both spring-and-diaphragm and spring-and-piston actuators are used. The spring-
and-diaphragm actuator is most commonly used on globe valves. The spring-and-piston
actuator is more often used on ball valves. The more powerful spring-and-piston actuators
are required on rotary valves due to the greater forces required to accelerate the mass of
the ball. Some ball valves are not suitable for surge control applications because their shafts
and attachments to the ball are not strong enough to transmit the torque required to open
these valves at the required speeds.
Surge-control valves must be able to open very quickly. As such, their actuators will have
strong springs, very large air passages, and shock absorbers at their ends of travel. This
must be considered when sourcing recycle valves for surge avoidance.
The accessory unique to a sound-surge-control valve assembly is the single-sided booster

or exhaust booster. Essentially, this is a differential-pressure relief device. Opening the
booster vents the actuator pressure to the atmosphere. The threshold for opening is about
0.5 psid. There is a small restriction (needle valve) between the control pressure from
the positioner via the three-way solenoid valve and the top of the booster. Small, slow
reductions in pressure (opening the valve) do not cause the booster to open. Large, fast
reductions in pressure developing more than 0.5 psid across the restriction, cause the
booster to open. If the solenoid valve is deenergized, the top of the booster is vented to the
atmosphere, and the booster fully opens.
Standard industry quick-exhausts are not recommended for this application. They have a
high threshold for opening (typically 2-to-4 psid) and an equally high threshold for reclosing.
Although they may work well for
fully opening the valve, they will
not work well with the positioner.
Positioners should be selected for

high capacity and quick response
to changes in their control
signals. Most of the major valve
manufacturers have released
second and third generation
smart positioners that are suitably
fast for this application. Figures
6-27 and 6-28 show globe and
ball valves with the preferred
instrumentation configurations.
Figure 6-27. Globe valve assembly.

RECYCLE VALVE SIZING TOOL
The recycle valve needs to be

sized based on the expected
operating conditions of the
compressor. A valve-sizing
program can facilitate matching
a recycle valve to a compressor.
The compressor data is entered
into the tool in its normal form
(pressures, temperatures, heads,
speeds and flows). Various
operating conditions for a specific
application are then entered, such
as the minimum and maximum
operating speeds, pipe operating
pressures, temperatures, relief
valve settings and cooler data, if
applicable. The tool calculates the
equivalent valve capacities or Cv
Figure 6-28. Ball valve assembly.
information from that data.
Typically, the surge limit of a compressor equates to a single valve capacity or Cv (Figure
6-29). The valve can be selected based on valve Cg, Cv and Xt tables from surge-control
valve suppliers. As previously described, a single surge control valve application will have
an equal-percentage-characteristic. Once a valve is selected, several performance lines
of a specific opening can be developed and overlaid on the compressor map. The equal
percentage characteristic valve should be set at approximately two-thirds travel at the surge
conditions. The valve evaluation in Figure 6-30 shows such a valve superimposed on the
compressor map, with its flow characteristic at 60%, 70% and 100% open.
Recycle Valve Sizing

X (P/P1)
Cv
Figure 6-29. Almost constant Cv at the surge limit.

ISA Recycle Valve Evaluation
Equal Percentage Characteristic
Ratio P2/P1
M3/hr
Figure 6-30. Valve matched to compressor.
REVIEW OF SYSTEM VOLUMES
The design of the piping and valves, together with the selection and the placement of
instruments, will significantly affect the performance of an anti-surge control system. This
should be addressed during the project planning stage, because the correction of design
flaws can be very costly once the equipment is installed and in operation.
As described above, the control system monitors the compressor operating parameters,
compares them to the surge limit, and opens the recycle valve as necessary to maintain
the flow through the compressor at the desired margin from surge. In the event of an
emergency shutdown or ESD, where the fuel to the gas turbine is shut off instantly, the
surge valve opens immediately, essentially at the same time the fuel valve is closing.
The worst-case scenario for a surge control system is an Emergency Shutdown (ESD),
particularly if the compressor is already operating close to surge when the engine
shutdown occurs. If an ESD is initiated, the fuel supply is shut off immediately and the
compressor will decelerate rapidly under the influence of the fluid forces counteracted by
the inertia of the rotor system. Based on test data and theoretical considerations, a 20%
to 30% drop on compressor speed within the first second after shutdown is common. A
30% loss in speed equates to approximately a loss in head of about 50%. Therefore, the
valve must reduce the head across the compressor by about half at the same time as the
compressor loses 30% of its speed.
The larger the volumes are in the system, the longer it will take to equalize the pressures.
Obviously, the larger the valve, the better its potential to avoid surge. However, the larger
the valve, the poorer its controllability at partial recycle. The faster the valve can be opened,
the greater the flow that can pass through it. There are, however, limits to the valve
opening speed, dictated by the need to control intermediate positions of the valve, as well
as by practical limits to the power of the actuator. The situation may be improved by using a
valve that’s only boosted to open, thus combining high opening speed for surge avoidance
with the capability to avoid oscillations by slow closing.

If the discharge volume is too large and the recycle valve cannot be designed to avoid
surge, a short recycle loop (hot recycle valve) may be considered (Figure 6-26), where the
recycle loop does not include the aftercooler.
While the behavior of the piping system can be predicted quite accurately, the question
about the rate of deceleration for the compressor remains. It is possible to calculate
the power consumption for a number of potential steady-state operating points. They
are imposed by the pressure of the discharge volume, which dictates the head of the
compressor. For a given speed, this determines the flow that the compressor feeds into
the discharge.
EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN
Earlier, it was mentioned that a compressor is protected from surge by a controlled recycle
system. However, situations exist where the operating conditions change so fast that the
control function is overridden, and the control system opens a recycle or anti-surge valve as
fast as possible.
In these situations, safety considerations require the units to be shut down as fast as
possible (Kurz et al., [1]). This is usually referred to as emergency shutdown (ESD). Should
this happen, the fuel supply (for a gas turbine driver) or the electricity (for an electric motor)
is turned off instantly. Due to the inertia of the train, the train speed will decay at a certain
rate after the power is shut off. In such an ESD, the anti-surge valve opens (Figure 6-20)—
regardless of the compressor’s operating point—at maximum opening speed to the fully
open position.
In that situation, the process system dictates, as described above, the suction and
discharge pressure for the compressor. However, the compressor speed decays, and
so does the capability of the compressor to produce head. Therefore, the discharge
pressure has to be reduced, which is done by recycling gas from the discharge side of the
compressor to the suction side, while at the same time, isolating from the downstream
process with a check valve (Figure 6-20). It is obvious that the slower the speed decays,
the more time the system has to lower the pressure ratio. Therefore, a slower-speed decay
is helpful to avoid surge.
Figure 6-31 shows the behavior of the compressor in such a situation. While the speed
drops rapidly, the process determines the compressor head that the compressor must
overcome. The fast opening of the recycle valve reduces the system head. The flow
initially is significantly reduced, and only starts to increase again due to the opening of the
valve. The essential events in this shutdown occur within a second or so of the shutdown
initiation. The valve is fully open after about two seconds. Due to the fast decay in speed,
keeping the compressor from surging during the first few seconds is critical, while surge
events at lower speeds usually lack the energy to cause any damage [6], [7].

Speed (rpm) and REV Position (100x
Isentropic Head (J/kg) Compressor
Compressor Actual Flow (m3/min
% open)
Time (sec)
Compressor Map with Transient Events from 19800 RPM

Actual Flow (m3/min)
Isentropic Head (ft-lbf/lbm)
Isentropic Head J/kg))
Actual Flow (cfm)
Figure 6-31. Compressor during ESD: (top) Compressor actual flow, head and speed, recycle
valve position vs. time. (bottom) Traces of Compressor operating points during ESD from various
operating conditions. (Moore et. al. [13]).
The behavior of the compressor during an ESD is highly dependent on the system
dynamics, in particular the gas volume between compressor discharge, discharge check
valve and recycle valve, as well as the size and opening speed of the anti-surge valve. This
is due to the fact that the difference between suction pressure and discharge pressure has
to be reduced fast. The more gas can flow through the anti-surge valve, and the smaller
the volume on the pressure side (as well as the volume on the suction side), the faster this
is accomplished (Figures 6-20, 6-32). For control purposes, the anti-surge valve should
be relatively small, to allow for precise flow control. To keep the compressor from surging
during ESD, one would like a larger valve than optimal for the control purpose. Also, while
a small gas volume is desirable between compressor discharge, discharge check valve
and recycle valve, the potential need for a cooler often increases this volume to the point,
where a single valve cannot be sized for control and ESD. Figure 6-32 shows two surge

system options among
multiple arrangements,
where two valves are
employed to overcome this
difficulty.
Both arrangements
assume the use of an
aftercooler in the recycle
loop to allow for infinite
recycle. Figure 6-32a
shows the use of a hot
bypass valve that is only
active for an ESD. This
valve is not a control valve;
it simply has to open as
fast as possible during an
ESD. Since the hot bypass
loop is not cooled, the
inlet temperature in the
compressor can increase
significantly during an Figure 6-32. Arrangements with fast stop (hot gas bypass) valve
ESD. The second option (top) and separate recycle (anti-surge) valve (bottom).
(Figure 6-32b) shows two
valves in parallel. The fast
stop valve also does not need to be a controlled valve. During an ESD, both valves open.
Another key factor to consider is the shutdown behavior of the driver. During a safety-
critical emergency shutdown, the driver is deenergized instantly, i.e. the fuel supply to the
Engine Shutdown - Shaft Speeds

Shaft Speed, %
Time from Shutdown (sec)
Figure 6-33. Engine shutdown simulation (shaft speeds), 23MW industrial gas turbine.
PCT_N_GP is the gas producer speed; P_CT_N_PT is the power turbine speed [17].

Engine Shutdown - Temperatures
Flow Path Temperatures
Time from Shutdown (sec)
Figure 6-34. Engine shutdown simulation (temperatures), 23MW industrial gas turbine (T2, T5, T7
are the respective temperatures at the compressor exit, the power turbine inlet and the exhaust
temperature. TRIT is the firing temperature, and TPZ is the primary zone temperature [17].
gas turbine, or the electricity supply to a motor is instantly stopped. Despite the fuel cutoff,
the gas turbine continues producing power for a brief, but critical moment.
The gas turbine is stopped by closing the fuel valves. As can be seen in
Figures 6-33 and 6-34 (Kurz et al. [17]), the gas turbine still produces power even after
shutting off the fuel supply due to the gas producer thermal and mechanical inertia.
The output decays fast. For midsize two-shaft gas turbines, the residual power typically
becomes negligible at about 300 ms after the fuel valve is shut down.
The fast decay in power output is primarily due to the fast drop in the temperature of the
exhaust gas supplied to the power turbine. In Figure 6-34, this is the temperature T5 of the
gas entering the power turbine, which declines even faster than the ‘firing temperature’,
that is the temperature of the
gas leaving the combustor,
or entering the gas producer
turbine rotor (TRIT).
The general system behavior

can be described by applying
D-P
conservation laws for

energy, inertia, heat transfer,
compressor and valve
characteristics. For relatively
short pipes, with a limited
volume (such as the systems Time
desired for recycle lines), the
pressure at the valve and the
Figure 6-35. Simplified system and transient characteristic.

pressure at the compressor discharge will not be considerably different. For situations
like this, the heat transfer can also be neglected. In such a simple system, the boundaries
for the gas volume on the discharge side are established by the discharge check valve,
Figure 35: Simplified
compressor, system
and recycle and(Figure
valve transient characteristic
6-20). The volume(Use Figure
on the fromside
suction GMC Surge Guideline).
is usually
orders of magnitude larger than the discharge volume and, therefore, can be considered
infinite. Thus, to simplify the analysis of a system, the suction pressure can be considered
The general
constant. system
This is notbehavior
a generalcan bebut
rule, described
is usedby
to applying conservation
simplify the laws for energy, inertia, heat transfer, com
following considerations.
characteristics. For relatively short pipes, with a limited volume (such as the systems desired for recycle lines), the
valve and the
This yields thepressure at compressor
simplified discharge
system, consisting of will not befilled
a volume considerably different.
by a compressor For situations like this, the heat t
and
neglected.
emptied through a valve (Figure 6-35). Basically, the dynamic behavior of the system side are established by the d
In such a simple system, the boundaries for the gas volume on the discharge
valve, compressor, and recycle valve (Figure 20). The volume on the suction side is usually orders of magnitude la
is that of a fixed volume where the flow through the valve is a function of the pressure
discharge volume and, therefore, can be considered infinite. Thus, to simplify the analysis of a system, the suction p
differential constant.
considered over the valve.
This isInnot
a surge avoidance
a general system,
rule, but is useda to
certain amount
simplify of the valve’s
the following considerations.
flow yields
This capacity
thewill be consumed
simplified system, to recycle the
consisting of aflow
volumethrough
filledthe
by acompressor.
compressor andOnlyemptied
the through a valve (Figure 35)
behavior
remainingofcapacity
the system is that offor
is available a fixed volume where
depressurizing the flow through
the discharge volume.the valveaissystem,
In such a function of the pressure differe
In a surge
mass and avoidance
momentum system,
balance a certain
have toamount of the valve’s
be maintained (Sentzflow[18],capacity
Kurz andwill be consumed
White [19]). to recycle the flow thro
Only
From the
thisremaining
completecapacity is available
model, some for depressurizing
simplifications the discharge
can be derived. They’revolume.
based onIn the
suchtype
a system, mass and momen
be maintainedthat
of questions (Sentz
need [17],
to beKurz and White [18]). From this complete model, some simplifications can be derived, b
answered.
questions that need to be answered.
For relatively short pipes, with limited volume (such as the systems desired for recycle
For relatively
lines), short pipes,
the pressure at the with
valvelimited
and thevolume (such
pressure as the
at the systems desired
compressor forwill
discharge recycle lines), the pressure at the va
be very
pressure at compressor discharge will not be considerably different. Also, due to the short duration of any event, the
similar. Also, due to the short duration of any event, the heat transfer can be neglected.
also be neglected. Therefore, mass and momentum conservation is reduced to:
Therefore, mass and momentum conservation are reduced to:
dp 2 k ⋅ p 2
= [Q − Qv ]
dt V
The
The Volume
volume (V) V isis filled
filled by the compressor
by the compressorwith with aa flow
flow Q
(Q)coming
comingfrom
fromthe
thecompressor,
compressor,and emptied by the flow Qv
The valve flow is determined by the pressure ratio p2/p1. The compressor
and emptied by the flow (Qv) through the valve. The valve flow is determined by the operating point changes also based
on the pressure ratio p2/p1. For any time, the equation above therefore allows
pressure ratio (p2 /p1). The compressor operating point also changes based on the pressure to calculate the change in compresso
pressure p2.
ratio (p2 /p1). For any time, the equation above enables you to calculate the change in
This also means that the discharge pressure change depends on the capability of the valve to release flow at a highe
compressor
coming fromdischarge pressure
the compressor. (p2). shows that the pressure reduction for a given valve will be slower for larger pi
It also
This also means that the discharge pressure change depends on the capability of the valve
to release flow at a higher rate than the flow coming from the compressor. It also shows
that the pressure reduction for a given valve will be slower for higher pipe volumes (V).
Figure 6-36. Power turbine rotor, coupling and compressor rotor contribute to the system inertia.
In a shutdown situation, the compressor speed decelerates, because its inertia

(Figure 6-36) is counteracted by the absorption of power while still pumping gas. The
behavior of the compressor during ESD is thus governed by two effects. The inertia of
the system consisting of the compressor, coupling and power turbine (and gearbox where

Figure 36: Power turbine rotor, coupling and compressor rotor contribute to the system inertia.
Figuresituation,
In a shutdown 36: Power theturbine rotor,speed
compressor coupling and compressor
decelerates , becauserotor contribute
its inertia to the
(Figure 36)system inertia. by th
is counteracted
In a shutdown situation, the compressor speed decelerates , because its inertia (Figure 36) is counterac
while still pumping gas. The behavior of the compressor during ESD is thus governed by two effects. The iner
whileshutdown
still pumping gas. The behavior of speed
the compressor during ESD is inertia
thus governed by
36)two effects.
consistingInofa the situation,
compressor, the compressor
coupling and power turbine decelerates
(and gearbox , because
whereits
applicable)(Figure is countera
is counteracted by th
consisting of the compressor, coupling ofand power turbineduring
(and gearbox where applicable) is counterac
into the fluid by the compressor (mechanical losses are neglected). The balance of forces thus yields: effects.
while still pumping gas. The behavior the compressor ESD is thus governed by two
into the fluid
applicable)
consisting of by
thethe compressor
is counteracted by the
compressor, (mechanical
torqueand
coupling lossesturbine
(T) power are into
transferred neglected).
the fluid
(and The balance
by the
gearbox of forces thus
compressor
where applicable) yields:
is countera
into the
(mechanical
dN fluid by
lossesthe compressor
are neglected).(mechanical
The balancelosses are
of forces neglected).
thus yields: The balance of forces thus yields:
T = −2π ⋅ J ⋅ dN
T = −2dtπ ⋅ J ⋅
dN
dt
T = −2π ⋅ J ⋅
dt
KnowingKnowing
the inertiathe(J)inertia
of the(J)system
of the (Figure
system 36) (Figure
and6-36) measuring and measuring
the speedthe speed with
variation variation
timewith
during rundown
Knowing therundown
inertia (J) of the system (Figure 36) and measuring the speed variation with time during
thus, the power transferred
time during to the gas:the torque and, thus, the power transferred to the gas.
yields
thus,
Knowingthe power transferred
the inertia (J) of the to the gas: (Figure 36) and measuring the speed variation with time during
system
thus, the power transferred to the gas:
dN
P = T ⋅ N ⋅ 2π = −(2π ) ⋅ J ⋅ N ⋅2 dN
2
(9)
P = T ⋅ N ⋅ 2π = −(2π ) dt ⋅J ⋅N ⋅ (9)
dN
dt
P = T ⋅ N ⋅ 2π = −(2π ) ⋅ J ⋅ N ⋅
2
(9)
If the rundown would follow
If the rundown wouldthrough similar operating
follow through dt points, points,
similar operating then P~N then, which3 would lead to a rundown beh
3 P~N , which would lead
If the rundown would follow through similar operating points, then P~N 3
, which would lead to a rund
to a rundown behavior of:
dN k NIf2 the rundown would
k follow through similar 1 operating (10)
points, then P~N3, which would lead to a rund
= dN2 → k∫ NN−22dN = −2 2 ∫ dt + ck→ N (t ) = − 1 (10)
dt J (2π ) = → ∫J N(2π dN
) = 2 ∫
dt + c → N (kt ) = − 1
dt Jk (2Nπ )
dN 22
J (2kπ ) − t− k 1 1 (10)
= → ∫ N −2 dN = 2 ∫
dt + c →JN(2(πt ) )=2 − − N t =0 2 t −
dt J (2π ) 2
J (2π ) −
J ( 2kπ ) N 1
t − t =0
Figure 37Figure
shows6-37 the behavior
shows theofbehaviora compressor during rundown
of a compressor J ( 2π ) 2
duringwith
N t =0
rundown a nonwith
functional recycle valve. It shows th
a non-functional
Figure 37 shows the behavior of a compressor during rundown with a non functional recycle valve. It
the compressor
recycleoncevalve. theIt gas
shows turbine fuel supply
the rapid is turned
deceleration of the off.compressor
It also shows onceperiods
the gaswhere the compressor actua
turbine
the compressor
Figure once the gas turbine fuel supplyduring is turned off. It with
also shows periods where the compre
by compressor supply is turned off. It also shows periods where the compressor actually surged recycle valve. It
37 shows
vibrations).
fuelcompressor
by
the behavior of a compressor rundown a non functional
the compressorvibrations).
once the gas turbine fuel supply is turned off. It also shows periods where the compre
(determined by compressor vibrations).
by compressor vibrations).
N (1/s)
Figure 37: Speed of a compressor during emergency shutdown

Figure 37: Speed of a compressor during emergency shutdown
Figure 37: Speed of a compressor during
t (s) emergency shutdown
Start-up Considerations
Start-up Considerations
The design Start-up
of the Considerations
anti-surge
Figure
The 6-37.
design Speed
of ofand
the anti-surge
recycle system
a compressor during
and recycle
also impacts the
emergency
system
start-up of the station. Particular attention has to
also shutdown.
impacts the start-up of the station. Particular attentio
to start up the station without having to abort the start due to conditions where allowable operating conditions are
to start up the station withoutand having to abort thealso
startimpacts
due to conditions where allowableParticular
operatingattenti
condi
arise fromThethe design
fact that ofthe
thecompressor
anti-surge mayrecycle
spend system
a certain amount the start-up
of time recycling of the
gas,station.
until sufficient discharg
arise
to from
start up the
the fact thatwithout
station the compressor
having tomay
abort spend
the a certain
start due amount
to conditionsof time
whererecycling
allowablegas,operating
until sufficien
cond
open the discharge check valve (Figure 3), and gas is flowing into the pipeline.
open the
START-UP
arise from discharge
the fact check
CONSIDERATIONS
that valve
the (Figure may
compressor 3), and gasaiscertain
spend flowing into the
amount ofpipeline.
time recycling gas, until sufficien
Virtually all of the mechanical energy absorbed by the compressor is converted into heat in the discharged gas
openVirtually
system, this
all of check
theisdischarge the mechanical
valve energy
(Figure 3),absorbed
and gas isby the compressor
flowing
moreinto
is converted into heat in the disch
the pipeline.
Theheat
design
system,
recycled
thisof heat
into the
theisanti-surge
recycled
compressor
and
into recycle
theenergy
suction
systemand
compressor also then
impacts
suction and
energy
the
then start-upadded to it.
of the
moreisenergy
A cubic foot of natu
station.
added
Virtually
about 2 lbParticular
(depending all
on of the mechanical
composition). The specificabsorbed
heat of by the
natural compressor
gas is about converted
0.5 Btu/lb intotoheat
(again
it. Aincubic
depending
foo
the disch
on
about
system, 2 lb (depending
attention must on composition).
be given to the The specific
capability of heat of
starting natural
up the gas is
station about
without0.5 Btu/lb
having (again depe
equals 1.416 hp. Ifthis
theheat is recycled
recycle into the 1000
system contains compressor suction
cubic feet, thereandis athen
ton of more
gasenergy added
in it. 1416 to it.raise
hp will A cubic foo
the tem
equals
to abort
about 21.416 hp. Ifdue
the(depending
lb start the to
recycle system
onconditions contains
where
composition). 1000 cubic
allowable
The specific feet,
operating
heatrecycle. there isgas
conditions
of natural a ton ofexceeded.
gas in it.
areabout
is 1416(again
hp willdep
rai
1 degree per second. This approximates what happens with 100% At 100% recycle,0.5 Btu/lb
eventually this will
1Problems
degree
equals 1.416per
maysecond.
hp.arise
If the This
from approximates
the fact
recycle what
thatcontains
system happens
the compressor
1000 cubicwith 100%
mayfeet,spend recycle.
there a certain At 100%
is a ton amount recycle,
of gas inofit.time eventually
1416 hp will rai
1 degree per second. This approximates what happens with 100% recycle. At 100% recycle, eventually

recycling gas, until sufficient discharge pressure is produced to open the discharge check
valve (Figure 6-20) and gas is flowing into the pipeline.
Virtually all of the mechanical energy absorbed by the compressor is converted into
heat in the discharged gas. In an uncooled recycle system, this heat is recycled into the
compressor suction, and then more energy is added to it. A cubic foot of natural gas at
600 psi weighs about 2 lb (depending on composition). The specific heat of natural gas is
about 0.5 Btu/lb (again depending on composition). One Btu/sec equals 1.416 hp. If the
recycle system contains 1000 cubic feet, there is a ton of gas in it. 1416 hp will raise the
temperature of the gas about 1 degree per second. This approximates what happens with
100% recycle. Eventually, at 100% recycle, this will lead to overheating at the compressor
discharge. The problem usually occurs when there is a long period between the initial
rotation of the compressor and overcoming the pressure downstream of the check valve.
Low-pressure-ratio compressors often do not require aftercoolers. Four strategies can

be employed to avoid overheating the uncooled
compressor during start-up:
1. Accelerate quickly
2. Delay hot gas reentering the compressor
3. Dilute hot gas reentering the compressor
4. Throttled recycle
Compressors without cooling capability must be

accelerated and placed on line quickly to avoid
overheating. Uncooled compressor sets cannot
be started and accelerated to idle. They must be
accelerated quickly through the point where the
discharge check valve opens and the recycle valve
closes. If acceleration slows when the discharge
pressure is met, and recycle valve closes slowly, Figure 6-38a. Original station layout.
a shutdown may still occur. Often, standard start
sequences are very conservative and can be
shortened to reduce the time it takes to bring a
compressor on line.
Extending the length of the recycle line downstream

of the recycle valve increases the total volume of
gas in the recycle system. This reduces the heat
buildup rate by delaying when the hot gas from the
compressor discharge reaches the suction. Some
heat will be radiated through the pipe walls. If the
outlet is far upstream into a flowing suction header,
dilution will occur.
Figures 6-38a and 6-38b outline a solution to a

rather difficult starting problem for a compressor
Figure 6-38b. Improved station layout.

station without aftercooling capability. In Figure 6-38a, to start the first unit is relatively
easy, because there is virtually no pressure differential across the main line check valve,
and therefore the unit check valve will open almost immediately, allowing the flow of
compressed gas into the pipeline. However, if one additional unit is to be started, the
station already operates at a considerable pressure ratio, and therefore the unit check valve
will not open until the pressure ratio of the starting unit exceeds the station pressure ratio.
Ordinarily, the unit would invariably shut down on high temperature before this can be
achieved. By routing the recycle line into the common station header (Figure 6-38b), the
heat from the unit coming on line is mixed with the station suction flow. This equalizes
the inlet temperature of all compressors; higher for the compressors already on line, lower
for the compressor coming on line. With this arrangement, overheating of a compressor
coming on line is nearly always avoided.
Figure 6-39 shows the problem of a conventional system that includes 3000 ft of 24 in.
pipe without aftercooling. The temperature in the recycle line starts to rise and, assuming a
shutdown setpoint of 350° F, the compressor would shut down after about 20 minutes.
3000' of 24" Pipe

Discharge Temperature
Minutes
Figure 6-39. Temperature buildup.
The three-part Figure 6-40 outlines the startup event with the revised system. The power
turbine and the compressor start to rotate once the gas producer provides sufficient power.
Subsequently, the gas temperature rises, but because the discharge pressure required to
open the check valve is reached fast enough, overheating can be avoided. The temperature
rise in the recycle loop during startup is shown as a function of (Figure 6-40a) power
turbine and compressor speed, (Figure 6-40b) gas producer speed and (Figure 6-40c) time
(in minutes).
The power turbine starts to turn at about 75% gas producer speed, at which point the
temperature starts to rise. After the discharge check valve opens (at 0.2 minutes after the
compressor starts to rotate), 95% gas producer speed and 70% power turbine speed), the

temperature drops rapidly. Further analysis of the start-up problem indicates the advantage
of throttling the recycle valve, rather than starting the unit with the recycle valve fully open.
With the valve-sizing tool described previously, the exact valve opening that will be required
to maintain a specific surge margin at steady-state operation can be determined. As the
compressor is accelerating, flow is increasing. The pressure in the discharge is lower and
the pressure in the suction is higher than they would be, if the compressor operated at this
steady-state speed. This is due to the effect of the suction and discharge volumes. This
also causes the flow to be higher, and subsequently, the surge margin will be higher. As
such, if the valve is set at a fixed position to obtain a fixed small surge margin, the actual
surge margin will be higher during acceleration.
To use this strategy safely, the control must be able to sense a loss of acceleration (flame
out), and if detected, open all recycle valves immediately. As the compressor’s volumes, up
and downstream, cause the surge margin to be higher during acceleration, they make surge
avoidance more challenging with the loss of speed.
Figure 6-30 illustrates this. At 70% open setting, the startup of the compressor is
significantly closer to the surge line than at 100% open setting. For any given speed, the
power requirement of the compressor is lower when it is closer to surge than when it is
farther in choke. Therefore, for a given amount of available power, the start is quicker if
the compressor operates closer to surge. If the rate of acceleration is quicker, the heat
input into the system is lower. Actively modulating the surge during start-up is virtually
impossible as the parameters defining the surge limit of the compressor are too low to be
practically measured. Returning to Figure 6-30, the surge limit of a compressor matches
well with a fixed travel (constant Cv) line for a recycle valve. As such, a compressor can be
started with a fixed recycle valve position.
Temperature
NPT
Figure 6-40a. Temperature (°F) vs. NPT (%).

Temperature
NGT
Figure 6-40b. Temperature (°F) vs. NGP (%).

Temperature
Time
Figure 6-40c. Temperature (°F) vs. Time (min.).
REPLACING RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
In many instances, centrifugal compressors are used to replace reciprocating compressors.

Because the operating characteristics of reciprocating compressors, described by:
• A near vertical head-flow characteristic at constant speed.
• Control devices that lead to discontinuous changes in characteristics (unloading,

deactivation, clearance control).
• Operating map is not continuous (pulsation, rod reversal, etc.).

rel Flow (%)
Figure 6-41. Compressor efficiency at different flow rates based on operation along a steady-
state pipeline characteristic (pressure ratio at 100% flow = 1.4).
The different operating characteristics of the driver and the compressor, applied to
the prevailing system characteristics, lead to different operating points compared to a
centrifugal compressor applied to the same system characteristics. Therefore, suboptimal
results will often occur if the centrifugal compressor that replaces one (or often several
reciprocating compressors) is sized to simply replicate the operating points that were
observed during the operation of the reciprocating compressor. Rather, the system
characteristics should be studied to find the best centrifugal compressor solution.
For example, the impact of different compressor characteristics on the efficiency achieved
under operating conditions imposed by the system is highlighted in Figure 6-41. A variable-
speed centrifugal compressor is compared with a reciprocating compressor. Unlike a
centrifugal compressor, a reciprocating compressor will deliver a lower efficiency when the
pressure ratio drops (Noall and Couch [20]).
The typical steady state pipeline operation (Figure 6-11) will yield an efficiency behavior as
outlined in Figure 6-41. This is the result of evaluating the compressor efficiency along a
pipeline steady-state operating characteristic. Both compressors would be sized to achieve
their best efficiency at 100% flow, while allowing for 10% flow above the design flow.
Different mechanical efficiencies have not been considered for this comparison.
The reciprocating compressor efficiency is derived from valve efficiency measurements in

Noall and Couch [20], with compression efficiency and losses due to pulsation attenuation
devices added. The efficiencies are achievable with low-speed compressors. High-speed
reciprocating compressors may be lower in efficiency. The graph shows the impact of
the increased valve losses at lower pressure ratios for reciprocating machines, while the
efficiency of the centrifugal compressor stays more or less constant (Kurz et. al. [21]).

[1] Kurz, R., Brun, K., 2017 “Process Control for Compression Systems”, Proceedings of
ASME Turbo Expo 2017, GT2017-63005.
[2] Kurz, R., White, R.C., Brun, K., 2015, ‘Surge Control and Dynamic Behavior for
Centrifugal Gas Compressors’, 3rd Middle East Turbomachinery Symposium, Doha, Qatar.
[3] White, R.C., Kurz, R., 2006, ‘Surge Avoidance for Compressor Systems’, Proc. 35th
Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, Tx.
[4] Botros, K.K., Ganesan, S.T, 2008,” Dynamic Instabilities in Industrial Compression
Systems with Centrifugal Compressors, Proc. 37th Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston,
Tx.
[5] Botros, K.K., 2011, “Single vs. Dual Recycle System Requirements in the Design of High
Pressure Ratio, Low Inertia Centrifugal Compressor Stations”, ASME GT2011-45002.
[6] Kurz, R., White, R.C., 2004,”Surge Avoidance in Gas Compression Systems”, Trans
ASME JTurbo,Vol.126,pp.501-506.
[7] Morini, M., Pinelli, M, Venturini, M., 2007,”Development of a One-Dimensional Modular

Dynamic Model for the Simulation of Surge in Compression Systems”, ASME JTurbo, Vol.
129, pp437-447.
[8] Blieske, M., Kurz, R., Garcia-Hernandez, A., Brun, K., 2011,”Centrifugal Compressors
During Fast Transients”, Trans ASME JEGTP ,Vol.133, pp072401.
[9] Rasmussen. P.C., Kurz, R., 2009, “Centrifugal Compressor Applications”, 38th
Turbomachinery Symposium., Houston, TX.
[11] Kurz, R., Brun, K., 2009, Assessment of Compressors in Gas Storage Applications,
ASME GT2009-59258.
[12] Kurz, R., White, R.C., Brun, K., 2014, ‘Transient Operation in Pipeline Compressor
Stations’, ASME Paper GT2014-25016.
[13] Moore, J.J., Garcia-Hernandez, A., Blieske, M., Kurz, R., Brun, K., 2009, ‘Transient
Surge Measurements of a Centrifugal Compressor Station During Emergency Shutdowns’,
Proc. 3 8th Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, Tx.
[15] Belardini, E., Rubino, D.T., Tapinassi, L., Pelella, M., 2016, Four Quadrant Centrifugal
Compressor Performance, Proc. 1st Asia Turbomachinery and Pump Symposium,
Singapore.
[16] Aust, N., 1988, Ein Verfahren zur digitalen Simulation instationaerer Vorgaenge in
Verdichteranlagen, Diss. UBwHH, Hamburg, Germany.
[17] Kurz, R., Mendoza, R., Burnes, D., Saxena, P., Alexander, S., 2018, On Gas Turbine
Safety in Offshore Operations, ASME GT2018-75003.
[18] Sentz, R.H., “The Analysis of Surge,” Texas A&M Turbomachinery Symposium, 1980.

[19] Kurz, R., White, R.C., 2004, “Surge Avoidance in Gas Compression Systems”, Trans
ASME JTurbo Vol.126, pp.501-506.
[20] Noall, M., Couch, W., “Performance and Endurance Tests of Six Mainline Compressor
Valves in Natural Gas Compression Service,” Gas Machinery Conference, Salt Lake City,
Utah, 2003.
[21] Kurz, R., Winkelmann, B., Mokhatab, S., 2010, “Efficiency and Operating
Characteristics of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Compressors”, Pipeline and Gas Journal,
2010.

CHAPTER 7
COMPRESSOR DRIVERS
Gas compressors can be powered by different types of drivers, including gas turbines,
steam turbines, expanders, or electric motors. Some attempts have been made to drive
centrifugal compressors with reciprocating gas engines, but the speed mismatch and the
operating characteristics of a gas engine complicate this combination. [1,2]
Gas turbines for compressor drives are usually two-shaft designs, with a free power
turbine. This design facilitates a large speed range. Some applications utilize single-shaft
gas turbines, but only provide very limited speed variations.
Steam turbines and expanders provide a wide range of speeds, similar to twin-shaft gas
turbines. However, steam turbines are rarely used in upstream and midstream applications,
because unlike downstream applications, usually no process steam or pressurized process
gas is available. Expanders are also used in refrigeration cycles.
The basic electric motor drive is a constant-speed motor, usually driving the compressor via
a gearbox. So-called Variable Speed Hydrodynamic Drives (VSHD) are capable of varying
their output speeds, while using a constant-speed motor. Lastly, a Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD) can be utilized. Since an electric motor’s speed is determined by the frequency of the
electric current and voltage supplied to the motor, modifying the power supply frequency
by using a variable-frequency drive is a convenient way to vary the motor’s speed.
Variable frequency drives either use a gearbox between the motor and the compressor,
or accommodate directly driven applications without a gearbox. Gas turbines (adapted
from [2]) use thermodynamic principles of the Brayton cycle, which essentially defines the
requirements for the gas turbine components.
Temperature
3
T( ) max p5
2
p2= p3 5 1 7
p1= p7
3 5
2 7
1 Entropy
Figure 7-1. Brayton Cycle
The Brayton or gas turbine cycle (Figure 7-1) involves compression of air or another working
gas, and the subsequent heating of this gas (either by injecting and burning a fuel or by
indirectly heating the gas) without a change in pressure, followed by the expansion of the
hot, pressurized gas. The compression process consumes power, while the expansion
Chapter 7: Compressor Drivers | 181

process extracts power from the gas. Some of the power from the expansion process can
be used to drive the compression process. If the compression and expansion process is
performed efficiently enough, the process will produce useable power output.
The process is thus substantially different from a steam turbine (Rankine) cycle that does
not require the compression process, but derives the pressure increase from external
heating. The process is similar to processes used in diesel or Otto reciprocating engines
that also involve compression, combustion, and expansion. However, in a reciprocating
engine, compression, combustion and expansion occur at the same place (the cylinder), but
sequentially, in a gas turbine, they occur in dedicated components, but all at the same time.
The major components of a gas turbine include the compressor, the combustor and the
turbine.
The compressor (usually an axial-flow compressor, but some smaller gas turbines also use
centrifugal compressors) compresses the air to several times atmospheric pressure. In
the combustor, fuel is injected into the pressurized air from the compressor and burned,
thus increasing the temperature. In the turbine section, energy is extracted from the hot
pressurized gas, thus reducing pressure and temperature. A significant part of the turbine’s
energy (50 to 60%) is used to power the compressor, and the remaining power can be
used to drive generators or mechanical equipment (gas compressors and pumps). Industrial
gas turbines typically utilize one of three primary arrangements for the major components:
Single-shaft gas turbines have all compressor and turbine stages running on the same
shaft.
Two-shaft gas turbines consist of two sections: the gas producer (or gas generator) with
the gas turbine compressor, the combustor, and the high pressure portion of the turbine
on one shaft and a power turbine on a second shaft (Figure 7-1). In this configuration, the
high-pressure or gas-producer turbine only drives the compressor, while the low-pressure
or power turbine, working on a separate shaft at speeds independent of the gas producer,
can drive mechanical equipment.
Multiple-spool engines: industrial gas turbines derived from aircraft engines sometimes
have two compressor sections (the HP and the LP compressors), each driven by a separate
turbine section (the LP compressor is driven by an LP turbine using a shaft that rotates
concentrically within the shaft that is used for the HP turbine to drive the HP compressor),
and running at different speeds. The energy left in the gas after this process is used to
drive a power turbine (on a third, separate shaft), or the LP shaft is used as the output
shaft.
The compressed air from the compressor enters the gas turbine combustor. Here, the fuel
(natural gas, natural gas mixtures, hydrogen mixtures, diesel, kerosene and many others) is
injected into the pressurized air and burns in a continuous flame. The flame temperature is
usually so high that any direct contact between the combustor material and the flame has
to be avoided, and the combustor has to be cooled, using air from the engine compressor.
Supplemental air from the engine compressor is mixed into the combustion process for
additional cooling.
182 | Chapter 7: Compressor Drivers

The combustion process and emissions control are other important topics. Unlike
reciprocating engines, gas turbine combustion is continuous. This is advantageous because
the combustion process can be made very efficient, with very low levels of products
having incomplete combustion such as carbon monoxide (CO) or unburned hydrocarbons
(UHC). The other major emissions component, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), are not related
to combustion efficiency, but are strictly related to the temperature levels in the flame
(and the amount of nitrogen in the fuel). The solution to NOx emissions, therefore, lies
in reducing the flame temperature. Initially, this was accomplished by injecting massive
amounts of steam or water into the flame zone, thus ‘cooling’ the flame. This approach has
significant drawbacks, not the least of which is the requirement to provide large amounts of
extremely clean water (the fuel-to-water ratio is approximately 1:1).
Since the 1990s, combustion technology has focused on systems often referred to as
dry low NOx combustion, or lean-premix combustion (Figure 7-2). The idea behind these
systems is to make sure that the mixture in the flame zone has a surplus of air, rather than
allowing the flame to burn under stoichiometric conditions. This lean mixture, assuming the
mixing has been done thoroughly, will burn at a lower flame temperature, and thus produce
less NOx. One of the key requirements is the thorough mixing of fuel and air before the
mixture enters the flame zone. Incomplete mixing will create zones where the mixture is
stoichiometric (or at least less lean than intended), thus locally creating more NOx. The
flame temperature has to be carefully managed in a window that minimizes both NOx and
CO. Lean-premix combustion systems keep the NOx, as well as CO and UHC emissions,
within prescribed limits for a wide range of loads, usually between full load and about 40%
or 50% load. In order to accomplish this, the air flow into the combustion zone has to be
manipulated over the load range.
The gas turbine power output is a function of the speed, the firing temperature, and the
position of certain secondary control elements, like adjustable compressor vanes, bleed
valves, and in rare cases, adjustable power turbine vanes. The output is primarily controlled
by the amount of fuel injected into the combustor. Most single-shaft gas turbines run at
constant speed when they drive generators. In this case, the control system modifies fuel
flow (and secondary controls) to keep the speed constant, independent of generator load.
In general, higher loads will lead to higher firing temperatures.
Two-shaft machines are preferably used to drive mechanical equipment, because being
able to vary the power turbine speed provides a very sophisticated way to adjust the driven
equipment to process conditions. Again, the power output is controlled by fuel flow (and
secondary controls), and higher loads will lead to higher gas producer speeds and higher
firing temperatures.

AIRFLOW 70%
30%
Conventional
FUEL Same Inlet

Turbine
FUEL Temperature
Lean-Premixed
50%
AIRFLOW 50%
Figure 7-2. Conventional and lean-premix combustion systems.
Figure 7-3 shows the influence of ambient pressure and ambient temperature on gas
turbine power and heat rates. The influence of ambient temperature on gas turbine
performance is very distinct. Any industrial gas turbine currently in production will produce
more power when the inlet temperature is lower, and less power when the ambient
temperature increases. The rate of change cannot be generalized and is different for
different gas turbine models. Full-load gas turbine power output is typically limited by the
constraints of maximum firing temperature and maximum gas producer speed (or, in twin-
spool engines, by one of the gas producer speeds). Gas turbine efficiency is less impacted
by the ambient temperature than the power.
The humidity in the air impacts power output, but to a small degree, (generally, not more
than 1 to 3%, even on hot, humid days). The impact of humidity tends to increase at
higher ambient conditions. Lower ambient pressure, for example, due to a higher site
elevation leads to lower power output, but has practically no impact on efficiency. It must
be noted, however, that the impact of the inlet pressure drop on power and efficiency
will be more severe, Figure 7-3.
Performance vs Power and Heat vs

Ambient Temperature Elevation Efficiency at Part Load Operation
Relative Thermal Efficiency, %
Heat Rate
Heat Rate 100
Power, Heat Rate
Power, Heat Rate
Power Power
Ambient Temperature Elevation 50 Load, % 100
Power Turbine Speed
Optimum
Speed
Power
Increasing
Ambient
Temperature
40 Npt, % 100
Figure 7-3. Performance Characteristics

Gas turbines operated at partial load will
generally loose some efficiency. Again, the
efficiency reduction operating at partial load
is very model specific. Most gas turbines
show a very small efficiency drop for at
least the first 10% of load reduction. In
two-shaft engines, the power turbine speed
impacts available power and efficiency. For
any load and ambient temperature, there is
an optimum power turbine speed. Usually,
reducing the load (or increasing the ambient
temperature) will reduce the optimum
power turbine speed. Small deviations from Figure 7-4. Compressor driven by a two-shaft
the optimum (+/-10% for example) have gas turbine
very little impact on power and efficiency
(Figure 7-4).
Electric motor drive configurations

include variable frequency drive (VFD)
speed controlled motors that drive the
compressor either directly or via a gearbox
(Figure 7-5), and constant speed motors
driving the compressor via a variable speed
gearbox (VSHD, Figure 7-6).
Since the electric motor speed (for

induction type motors, synchronous motors Figure 7-5. Electric-motor drive package:
and permanent magnet motors alike) is constant-speed motor driving the compressor
determined by the frequency of the electric via a variable-speed gearbox.
current and voltage supplied to the motor,
a convenient way to vary the motor speed
is to modify the power supply frequency by
using a variable-frequency drive [1-3].
Another way to create a variable speed drive

is by using a constant speed motor, and a
variable-output-speed gearbox [1, 2], often
referred to as Variable Speed Hydrodynamic
Drive (VSHD). The basic VSHD components
are a hydrodynamic torque converter
coupled with a planetary gear. The planetary
Figure 7-6. Electric-motor drive package: VFD
gear is designed as a superimposing gear,
controlled motor driving the compressor via a
with the torque converter driving one of
speed-increasing gearbox.
the planetary gear components. The torque
converter acts as the control unit for the
output speed. The VSHD uses a constant-speed electric motor. Both the VHSD and the
VFD are controlled by setting their speeds, until the available power becomes a limit.
For the purpose of this discussion, an adjustable-speed drive (ASD) is used to describe

various methods for adjusting the speed of a variable-speed compressor, such as variable-
frequency drives (VFD) and variable-speed hydrodynamic drives (VSHD).
In many applications, the performance characteristics of the driver—for example, the power
as a function of ambient conditions or the power output at various output speeds—are
important considerations. In general, a VFD controlled motor is a constant torque machine,
thus exhibiting a linear drop in power with speed (Figure 7-7), implemented by maintaining
VFD EMD Power/Speed Characteristics

Percent Driver Power
Percent Driver Speed
Figure 7-7. Speed-power characteristics for variable-frequency drives [1].
a constant Volts/Hz ratio, until, above a certain corner frequency, the motor becomes
power limited. There are exceptions to this behavior, where the motor is oversized to
provide constant power over a wider range (Expanded Power Range, EPR), or where the
torque is reduced with speed, often for thermal reasons. The speed-power relationship
has a significant impact on control concepts for variable-speed drives. In particular, the
linear reductions of power seen in most VFD controlled electric motors imposes a limit on
flexibility, compared to VSHD and two-shaft gas turbine drives.
A VSHD shows a speed-power relationship similar to a two-shaft gas turbine, but with a
smaller usable speed range (Figure 7-8).
The fact that the electric motor output is not subject to changes in ambient temperature
(within limits) is another important feature. This means the convenience of providing more
power at lower ambient temperatures is lacking, but the same power is available on hot and
cold days is an advantage. This can be important in applications where the load demand is
dependent on ambient conditions.
Further, the starting characteristics, including the amount of torque at low speeds, or, for
constant speed electric motors, the amount of additional current that’s required during
start-up must be considered (Figure 7-9).

Output Torque in %
The drive motor starts unloaded.

The driven machine can also be
started under weak power grid
conditions. Driven machines with
a high mass moment of inertia are
easier to start-up.
Output Speed in %
Figure 7-8. Operating map of a VSHD [1].
Whether the units are installed on shore, offshore or subsea determines access to
maintenance intervention, as well as the environmental conditions (for example salt in
the air) the equipment has to be designed for. For electric drivers, the question is also
whether the electricity can be brought to site via transmission lines, or whether it has to be
generated on site, usually with gas turbine driven generators.
Motor torque curve at full voltage

Motor torque curve at reduced voltage
Torque
Load torque curve

Reduced torque curve supported
by hydrodynamic variable speed
planetary gear
Area of quite low acceleration margin
Motor Speed
Figure 7-9. Squirrel-cage induction motor capability curve at different voltage levels and load
torque curves [1].

[1] Kurz,R., Mistry,J., Davis,P., Cole,G., 2021, Application and Control of Variable-Speed Centrifugal
Compressors in the Oil and Gas Industry, IEEE/PCIC Paper PCIC2020-AT-19.
[2] Kurz,R., Winkelmann,B., Brun,K., 2019, Performance of Industrial Gas Turbines, Proc. 48th
Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, Tx.
[3] Glasbrenner,M., Venkataraman,B., Kurz,R., Cole,G.J., 2017,Electric-Motor Driven Gas Compressor

Packages: Starting Methods for Large Electrical Motors and torsional Integrity, Proc. 46th
Turbosymposium, Houston, Tx.

CHAPTER 8
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS IN
OIL & GAS APPLICATIONS
Found in reservoirs all over the world, oil and natural gas are contained in the pore
spaces of the reservoir rock. Usually, reservoirs contain mixtures of lighter and heavier
hydrocarbons, as well as CO2, water, and sometimes H2S. Some types of reservoirs allow
the oil and gas to move freely, making it easier to extract. Other reservoirs restrict the flow
of oil and gas and require special techniques to move the oil or gas from the pores to a
producing well [1-3].
Figure 8-1. Natural gas movement from the well to the user.
Even today, with advanced technologies, more than two-thirds of the oil present may not be
recoverable from some reservoirs. Once an oil or gas reservoir is discovered and assessed,
the task is to bring a saleable product to a user, as well as to maximize the amount of oil or
gas that can ultimately be recovered. In the past, natural gas was often seen as a byproduct
of oil production, and may have been flared, especially if no infrastructure existed to deliver
the gas to potential users. However, even in these situations, the gas can be used to enhance
oil recovery. On the other hand, countries such as the
United States have built extensive pipeline networks
to transport gas from the well to users [1].
Figure 8-1 shows the path of natural gas from wells

to users. In general, activities close to the oil and
gas field are considered upstream, while activities
involving the transport and storage of gas are
considered midstream applications.
Many oil and gas wells are located on the ocean floor,
and production requires an offshore platform (Figure
8-2) or subsea installations. The reservoirs are
Figure 8-2. Offshore drilling platform.
typically at elevated pressure. A series of valves and
equipment (“Christmas Tree”) is installed on top of
the well, to regulate the flow of hydrocarbons from the well. Early in its production life, the
underground pressure will often push the hydrocarbons all the way up the well bore to the
surface. Depending on reservoir conditions, this "natural flow" may continue for many years.
Chapter 8: Centrifugal Compressors in Oil & Gas Applications | 191

When the pressure differential
is insufficient for the oil to flow Power Demand
naturally, mechanical pumps must
Power Demand
be installed to bring the oil to the
Oil production
surface. This process is referred
to as artificial lift [1].
Oil Production
Most wells follow a predictable

pattern where production will
increase for a short period, then
peak and follow a long, slow
decline (Figure 8-3). Reservoir 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22
conditions determine the shape of Time (Years)
this decline curve, how high the
production peaks, and the length Figure 8-3. Typical change in oil production from an
of the decline. The decline curve offshore well.
can be positively influenced by:
1. Cleaning out the well bore to help oil and/or gas move more easily to the surface.
2. Fracturing or treating the reservoir rock with acid around the bottom of the well bore
to create better pathways for the oil and gas to move through the subsurface to the
producing well.
3. Drilling additional wells.
4. Employing enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques.
Depending on reservoir conditions, the techniques collectively referred to as enhanced oil

recovery (EOR) employ one of two methods designed to increase production:
1. Water injection (‘water flooding’).
2. Injection of various other substances (hydrocarbons, steam, nitrogen, carbon dioxide)

into the reservoir to remove more oil from the pore spaces.
When geologists began studying time-lapse seismic monitoring results (‘4-D’), they
were surprised to discover that one of the most basic notions about the movement of
oil in a reservoir—that it naturally settles between lighter natural gas above and heavier
groundwater below—oversimplifies the behavior of real oil fields. Actually, most wells
produce complex, fractal drainage patterns that cause the oil to mix with gas and water.
It also became clear that traditional techniques may leave 60% or more of the oil behind.
This led to the strategy of pumping natural gas, steam, carbon monoxide or nitrogen into
the reservoirs. This injection spreads through the pores in the rock and pushes oil that
otherwise would have been abandoned toward the existing wells. Applications where gas
is injected into the oil reservoir for pressure maintenance and to enhance oil recovery by
miscible flooding with lean, methane-rich gas are usually referred to as gas re-injection [3].
Most oil wells produce oil, gas and water. This mixture is separated at the surface.
Initially, the oil well may produce mostly oil with a small amount of water. Over time, the
192 | Chapter 8: Centrifugal Compressors in Oil & Gas Applications

percentage of water increases. This produced water varies in quality from very briny to
relatively fresh. Where this water cannot be used for other purposes, it may be reinjected
into the reservoir—either as part of the waterflooding technique describer above or for
disposal (returning it to the subsurface).
The oil is then sent to a treatment plant for processing in a gas-oil separation system,
where its pressure is reduced in several stages. In each decompression stage, the
associated gas (also called flash gas) is released in a separator until the pressure is
ultimately reduced to slightly above atmospheric pressure. The crude oil is then sent to a
stabilizer column where it is heated and cascaded through a series of bubble trays spaced
throughout the column. Hydrogen sulfide (if present) and any remaining light hydrocarbon
boil-off from this process is collected at the top of the column, while the sweetened
heavy crude is drawn off from the bottom. The stabilized oil is then cooled and stored.
The streams collected from the top of the stabilizer unit are treated in accordance with
environmental regulations.
Natural gas wells do not produce oil, but usually do produce some number of liquid
hydrocarbons, which are called condensate. Natural gas liquids (ethane, propane, butane)
are removed at a gas processing plant, along with other impurities, such as hydrogen
sulfide and carbon dioxide. Natural gas liquids often have significant value as petrochemical
feedstock. Also, natural gas wells often produce water, but the volumes are much lower
than typically found in oil wells.
Map of U.S. Interstate and Intrastate Natural Gas Pipelines
Figure 8-4. U.S. Transmission Pipeline Network.
Natural gas is usually transported through pipelines (Figure 8-4), except in cases where
a pipeline cannot be economically built. In that case, the gas can be liquefied (LNG:
Liquefied Natural Gas) and transported on a ship. As part of the transportation process in
pipelines, gas can be placed in storage facilities, which often use former gas fields or salt

A - Salt Caverns
B - Mines
C - Aquifers
D - Depleted reservoirs
E - Hard-rock caverns
Figure 8-5. Gas Storage
caverns. This helps balance differences in supply and demand on a seasonal or daily basis
(Figure 8-5).
Usually, all applications upstream, including a gas plant, are considered ‘upstream’
applications, while the applications related to bringing gas to the ultimate users are referred
to as ‘midstream.’ Applications in refineries, chemical and processing plants are considered
‘downstream’ applications [1].
TYPICAL GASES
Gas which has to be compressed usually consists of mixtures of light hydrocarbons

(alkanes), nitrogen and carbon dioxide. In many applications, especially midstream pipeline
and storage applications and in many upstream applications, the dominant component is
methane. Often, especially in upstream applications near the well, the gas is saturated
with water. Hydrogen sulfide may be present, and the gas may also have significant CO2
levels. In refrigeration applications, heavier hydrocarbons may have to be compressed.
The conversion of process variables (temperature, pressure, flow, gas composition) into
variables relevant for the compressor (enthalpy, entropy, density) is performed using
equations of state (EOS). Frequently applied EOS include Redlich-Kwong, Redlich-Kwong-
Soave, Peng-Robinson, Lee-Kesler-Plocker, the Starling version of the Benedict-Webb-
Rubin model, and the AGA 8 adaptation in ISO20765-1 [1,2,3].
Natural gas containing significant amounts of H2S and CO2 is usually referred to as sour

gas (as opposed to sweet gas). A number of gas fields produce sour gas and, in many
instances, the removal of H2S and CO2 is part of the gas plant operation (see above). In
some instances, sour gas is compressed untreated, in particular when it is used in gas
re-injection applications [1]. In particular, higher levels of H2S can lead to sulfide stress
cracking of materials in an aqueous environment. Carbon dioxide alone is inert and not
corrosive. It has, however, a high affinity for water, and when combined, forms carbonic
acid, which corrodes carbon steel. In the presence of liquid water, H2S and CO2 form
corrosive acids, and one of the issues when compressing sour gas into the dense phase
region is that water can drop out if the temperature is lowered. NACE MR0175 provides
information on requirements and recommendations for the selection and qualification
of carbon and low-alloy steels, corrosion-resistant alloys, and other alloys for service
equipment used in oil and natural gas production and treatment plants. In environments
containing H2S, failures could pose a risk to plant personnel, the health and safety of
the public, as well as the environment. NACE MR0175 also defines limits for H2S partial
pressure in the gas, depending on the pH value of the environment, beyond which special
material considerations apply. The high toxicity of H2S also requires specific attention to
avoid and detect leakages [1].
APPLICATIONS1
Upstream Reservoirs
All oil and gas reservoirs produce hydrocarbon mixtures, albeit at different mole weights.
Many oil reservoirs also produce gas (associated gas), and many gas reservoirs also
produce heavier hydrocarbons, called condensates. Oil reservoirs can be classified in one
of five ways. The distinction is primarily made by the mechanism that drives the oil from
the reservoir to the well.
1. Undersaturated reservoirs tend to exhibit a rapidly declining reservoir pressure, and they
produce very little, or no gas.
2. Undersaturated, solution-drive reservoirs also have a fast pressure decline, but

produce gas. The produced gas-to-oil ratio is initially low, rises to a maximum, and then
declines again.
3. Gas-cap drive reservoirs have pressure that tends to fall relatively slowly with a
continuously rising produced gas-to-oil ratio.
4. Water drive reservoirs tend to maintain a high reservoir pressure and produce little gas.
5. Combinations of the above mechanisms.
All oil reservoirs only produce a fraction of the oil contained in the formation, even with
enhanced recovery method such as water flooding) and steam or gas injection. Gas
injection uses produced natural gas or a miscible gas such as CO2 [1].
1
An effort has been made to use the most common industry definitions. However, some of the
definitions are used interchangeably, and some applications might be combined in a single compressor
or compressor train.

Gas reservoirs generally contain no oil, but produce gas or gas with varying amounts of
condensates and/or water. Typically, primary recovery methods are sufficient for porous rock
formations. Very tight formations (such as shale) require fracking to essentially increase the
porosity. Dry gas reservoirs produce mostly methane and ethane, with minor amounts of
heavier gases. The gas pressure in the reservoir pushes the gas to the surface. Typically, a
choke is employed to control the flow rate. The gas pressure is reduced when the reservoir is
producing. If the gas pressure required at the surface is at 500 psi (for example, to be fed into
a pipeline), the reservoir flows gas until the reservoir pressure can no longer overcome this
pressure. At that point, compression is necessary to further produce gas. Typically, production
is continuous until the pressure at the well head drops below 70 to 100 psi (5 to 7 bar).
Condensate reservoirs contain larger amounts of heavier hydrocarbons, such as propane,

butane and pentanes. They can exist as either a gas or a liquid, depending on pressure and
temperature.
OIL PRODUCTION OR WHAT TO DO WITH THE GAS?
Natural gas is often a by-product of oil production. Since the primary goal is producing oil,
the question becomes: what to do with the gas? The first step is always to separate the
oil (and water) from the gas (Figure 8-6). This separation is often done at about 40 to 80
bar ( 600 to 1100 psi). The problem is that the separation process still leaves gas dissolved
in the oil and water vapor in the gas. To deal with the former, the pressure of the oil is
reduced in one or more steps. At each step, the pressure reduction leads gas to flash from
the liquid. The lower the pressure becomes, the heavier this flash gas becomes. It must
be recompressed, usually to about the same pressure as the gas leaving the production
separator. The gas can now be used in different ways (Figures 8-7, 8-8 and 8-9):
• Gas Lift
• Gas Reinjection
• Gas Export
Figure 8-6. Oil and gas field production steps. Associated gas is found and produced along with
oil. Non-associated gas is natural gas that is not in contact with or dissolved in oil.

Figure 8-7. Offshore platform with depletion compression (gas-reinjection), condensate
stabilization (flash gas compression), export compression to onshore gas plant via subsea
export pipeline.
Gas lift (Figure 8-10) is a method of increasing oil flow by injecting gas into the well that
aerates the crude, thereby enhancing the flow of crude to the surface. Some operators
use the same compressor train to both feed a gas lift service and export compression to
feed gas into a pipeline. Gas lift is a process in which produced gas is compressed to a
higher pressure and recycled down the well casing through gas lift valves into the tubing
at a predetermined depth to lighten the column of liquid in the tubing. This reduces the
difference between the downhole pressure and the pressure at the well head. Compressor
discharge pressures are typically 100 to 120 bar (1400-1700 psi), but sometimes up to
200 bar (2900 psi) may be required for such applications, necessitating compressors with
relatively high throughput and a high compression ratio.
Figure 8-8. Combination of flash gas compression and gas reinjection.

Reinjection (Figures 8-9 and 8-10) is a
method of enhancing oil recovery by
compensating for the natural decline of
an oil field’s production by increasing the
pressure in the reservoir. The desired
production is restored by stimulating the
recovery of additional crude oil. Using this
technique, the field exploitation can be
increased by up to 20%. The gas that is
reinjected is usually the associated gas
separated from the crude oil during the flash
and stabilization phases. Other gases, such
as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, may also be
used. The gas is reinjected into the reservoir Figure 8-9. Flash gas compression and
in dedicated wells, and the oil is forced reinjection.
to migrate toward the well bores of the
producing wells. Gas-injection projects may
also involve the injection of CO2 or nitrogen into the reservoir. Especially for deep reservoirs,
very high compressor discharge pressures 140 to 820 bar (2000 to 12,000 psi) are required.
Due to the high aerodynamic forces the gas can exert on the rotors, these compressors are
challenging from a rotordynamic standpoint. Recent advances in material technology enable
associated sour gases containing high percentages of H2S and/or CO2 to be re-injected
without the need for sweetening. Depending on the depth and physical characteristics of
the field, very high injection pressures may be required. High-pressure barrel compressors
are normally used in this application [1].
Gas Lift System
Separator
Compressor
other wells
Reservoir
Figure 8-10. Schematic illustrates the typical gas-lift system.

Inlet
Separator
Gas Cond. 27-KA301
Train No. 1 Pipeline
Compressor
Gas Cond.
Train No. 2 Pipeline Compressor Train No. 2
Gas Cond. Pipeline Compressor Train No. 3

Train No. 3
Pipeline Compressor Train No. 4
Pipeline Compressor Train No. 5

NGL Train
Crossover Valve
Figure 8-11. Illustration of sales gas export compression from an offshore platform.
If the platform or the oil field is located reasonably close to a potential consumer of the
gas, it may be exported via a pipeline. Export gas is compressed to feed a subsea pipeline
(an offshore platform) that transports the gas to shore. Discharge pressures are often
high, typically 70 to 140 bar (1000 to 2000 psi), but sometimes as high as 200 to 240 bar
(3000 to 3500 psi) to reduce pipe diameter, and also because the gas usually cannot be
recompressed between the platform and the shore (Figure 8-11). Depending on whether
this compressor receives gas at well pressure, or whether there is a gas gathering train
upstream, configurations can vary from machines with only a few stages to triple-body
trains [1]. Export compressors are also used in gas fields for the same purpose.
Tradeoffs are often the required compression power on the platform versus the cost of
the pipeline, especially if pressure is not dictated by already existing systems. In many
applications, the gas contains significant amounts of heavier hydrocarbons, and a concern
is the formation of liquid slugs in the flow line, where dropping gas temperatures may then
lead to harmful condensation.
In all the aforementioned applications, the water that stayed in the gas as a vapor can cause
problems, since at high pressures and low temperatures, the water either can drop out as
a liquid, thus creating corrosion problems, or form hydrates, which may clog flow lines.
The task therefore becomes removal of water vapor in a dehydration unit (Figure 8-12) or
avoiding hydrate formation and/or corrosion.

Water
Stripping
column
Main line
dry gas
Steam or
direct fired
Bubble Reboiler
plates
Surge tank
Main
line LLG
Filter
wet
gas Water rich
glycol
Absorber
Lean glycol Pump
Figure 8-12. Water must be removed to avoid hydrate formation and/or corrosion.
Dehydration units are designed to absorb water vapor by using liquids like Triethylenglycol
(TEG). The liquid can then be separated, and the absorbed water can be removed from the
TEG by heating.
Figure 8-13. Different gas reservoirs may be present at several locations having differing
compositions and multiple depths.

Pressure Plot
PSIA
Figure 8-14. Gas field with a sprawling network of low-pressure pipes.
GAS FIELD
Gas fields (Figures 8-13 & 8-14) produce gas of various compositions:
Dry (Lean) Gas - Water dry (no condensable water) gas with little or no heavier hydrocarbons
that could be recovered as condensates.
Condensate - Heavier hydrocarbons in a gas field that form liquids by precipitation (mostly
pentane and heavier hydrocarbons).
Wet Gas - Contains condensable hydrocarbons.
As described earlier, for many gas formations, the well head pressure drops (Field pressure
in Figure 8-15) relatively fast, and, in order to produce a large fraction of the gas in the field,
additional wells have to be drilled, and gas gathering compression has to be applied [1].
This compression duty sees low suction pressure (3 to 15 bar), and has to bring the gas
pressure to about 80 to 100 bar. The compressors must be able to handle the fact that both
the gas flow and the suction pressure will decline over time, while the discharge pressure
stays relatively constant. Pressure ratios are high, so intercooling between compressor
bodies is important (Figure 8-16). Depending on the rate of field decline, compressors are
either sized for the final pressure conditions, or compressors are restaged. The approach
with two or three individual compressor bodies has the advantage that the train can be
optimized for the lower pressure ratio and higher flow during the early life of the field,

Example Shale Gas Field Production vs Pressure Curve
Figure 8-15. Well production profile.
using a single compressor body. An additional body can be added to optimize for the high
pressure ratio and low flow in later years (Figure 8-17).
Gas Turbine Driver
Figure 8-16. Gas gathering compressor train.

Compression Coverage Map
Suction Pressure
Standard Flow
Figure 8-17. Illustration of declining gas field production over the course of several years and
five phases.
The discussion on wet gas compression (i.e. compressing gas that carries liquids) has
drawn significant attention. Predicting compressor performance becomes difficult, because
a two-phase mixture at the inlet, and possibly at the compressor discharge requires
consideration of evaporation effects and the resulting changes in flow and temperature
in the compressor (Figure 8-18). The possibility of liquid slugs also creates risks for the
machine, due to transient thrust loads or erosion from large droplets.
rel. Efficiency
rel. Volume Flow
Figure 8-18. Compressor efficiency for different gas volume fractions (GVF) [1].

GAS PLANT COMPRESSION
Gas plants (Figure 8-19) are designed to produce dry export gas (i.e. gas with very little
water, a low hydrocarbon dewpoint, limited amounts of CO2 and other contaminants) and
LPG products (Ethane, Propane and Butane). For the range of gas compositions at the inlet,
the plants have specified recovery targets for the heavier hydrocarbons. The process steps
inside the plant include:
1. Primary separation
2. Frontend compression (boost compression, inlet compression)
3. CO2 removal
4. Mercury/chloride removal
5. Gas dehydration
6. Gas expansion (turboexpander)
7. LPG/condensate fractionation
8. Dry (sales) gas compression
9. Storage and utility distribution.
In a gas plant, three compression functions must be facilitated:
1. Boost compression (inlet compression) to bring the gas from delivery pressure (from the
gas gathering system) to plant pressure.
Gas Processing Plant Flow Chart
Import
Compression/
Gas Boost
Residue Compression
Gas Boost
Sales Gas Compression
Head Station
Figure 8-19. Typical gas plant schematic.

Acid gas
HOCH2CH2NH2
Purified C
gas
Lean amine
solution
Reactivator
Absorber
C P
Sour
gas
R
Rich amine
solution
Figure 8-20. Amine process for CO2 and H2S removal (using mono-ethanolamine
HOCH2CH2NH2).
2. Recompression (sales gas compressor) to bring the natural gas from plant pressure
to pipeline pressure, with a suction pressure of 15 to 30 bar (200 to 400 psi), and a
discharge pressure of about 70 to 100 bar (1000 to 1500 psi) (depending on the pipeline).
This function may also be referred to as pipeline head station (essentially depending on
whether the compressor is operated by the gas plant or the pipeline operator).
3. Turbo expander/compressor for the low-temperature cryogenic cycle.
For the removal of CO2 in a gas plant typically either amine processes or membranes are
used (Figure 8-20).
The necessary removal of CO2 is performed in an absorber, where a liquid amine solution
is sprayed in the gas column, and absorbs the CO2 . The rich amine solution can then be
heated, thus separating the amine from the CO2. In many instances, the exhaust heat
from a gas turbine can be used as a heat source for this process. After the heating in the
reactivator, the amine can be reused.
2.2 MIDSTREAM
Compared to rail or trucks, pipelines provide a very cost-efficient method for transporting
energy over long distances. However, gas flowing through a pipeline is subject to pressure
losses that increase with flow velocity and the length of the pipe. Every 50 to 100 miles, a
compressor station (Figure 8-21) is necessary to recompress the gas and compensate for
the pressure losses. In general, operation as close as possible to the maximum operating
pressure of the pipeline reduces power requirements for the compressors, and thus fuel
consumption (Figure 8-22). Therefore, the distance from station to station is subject to
careful optimization [1,2,4]: The closer the stations are spaced, the lower the pressure

ratio per station, as well as
the overall pipeline power
consumption. On the other
hand, the capital expenditures
to build the pipeline increase.
Optimal pipeline pressures—

depending on the length of
the pipe, as well as the cost of
steel—are in the range of 40
to 160 bar (600 psi to 2200
psi) balancing the amount of
power required to pump the
gas with the investment in
Figure 8-21. Pipeline compressor station with three
pipe. Today, most interstate
compressor trains in parallel.
and intercontinental pipeline
systems operate at pressures
between 60 to 100 bar (1000 and 1500 psi), although operating pressures for older systems
might be lower. The pipeline compressors are placed at regular intervals along the pipeline,
usually spaced for pressure ratios between 1.2 and 1.8. Besides geographic necessities,
the distance between compressor stations is usually determined by an optimization for
CAPEX and OPEX, which establish the best pipeline diameter, number of stations and the
station pressure ratios (Figure 8-23).
Pressure ratios higher than normal are found if pipelines operate in remote areas, or at subsea
levels. Some pipelines transport gas over long distances, without significant gas takeoffs
along the way and relatively constant operating conditions. Other pipelines form part of an
intricate network with a variety of feeders and takeoffs along the line. In these networks,
you’ll often find compressor stations with a variety of sizes, capacities and compressor types.
Large daily and even hourly fluctuations can have a significant impact on pipeline system
operating conditions. For any type of pipeline, the driver power and its dependency on
ambient conditions play major roles in planning station layouts and system operation.
The gas usually has to be compressed to pipeline pressure at a head station (usually
coming from a gas plant). This head station often sees pressure ratios of 3 or more.
Subsea pipelines often have only a head station (commonly referred to as export
compression), but no stations along the line. They are either used to transport gas to shore
from an offshore platform (see export compression), or to transport gas through large
bodies of water. In either case, relatively high pressures (100 to 250 bar, 1500 to 3700 psi)
are common [4].
A few onshore pipelines worldwide make use of the added compressibility of the gas at
pressures above 140 bar (2000 psi, depending on gas composition) and operate as ‘dense-
phase’ pipelines at pressures between 125 and 180 bar (1800 and 2500 psi). Not only natural
gas is transported in pipelines, but also CO2. CO2 is non-corrosive, as long as it is dehydrated.
Most applications transport CO2 in its dense phase, at pressures above 140 bar (2000 psi), in
particular to avoid two-phase flows when ambient temperatures drop.

The gas pressure in a pipeline is reduced due to friction losses. They depend on the flow
velocity of the gas in the pipe. The compressors at each compressor station take the gas
from arrival pressure, and recompress (or boost) it back to the pipeline operating pressure.
For a given pipeline, this means that the more gas goes through the pipeline, the higher
the pressure ratio at the compressor station becomes. Many pipelines operate under
constantly changing operating conditions, so that a steady operation is rare. Therefore,
the true operating conditions at a compressor station require compressors having a wide
operating range (Figures 8-24 and 8-25) [2].
If pipeline throughput has to be increased, three possible concepts can be utilized:
1. Building a parallel pipe (looping)
2. Adding power to the compressor station (i.e. adding one or more compressors to the
station)
3. Or a combination of both.
If power is added to the station, the discharge pressure can be increased (assuming this is
not already limited by the pipeline maximum operating pressure). The station will therefore
operate at a higher pressure ratio. The added compressors can either be installed in parallel,
or in series with the existing machines. If the pipeline is looped, the pressure ratio for
the station typically is reduced, and the amount of gas that can be pumped with a given
amount of power is increased. In either scenario, the existing machines may have to be
restaged (for a higher pressure ratio and less flow per unit in the case of added power, or
more flow and lower pressure ratio in the other case.
Pressure/Flow Profile
Pressure Flow
Flow (MMSCMD)
Pressure, MPa
Distance (km)
#1 #7 86.00
ND = 48" x 1000 km MMSCMD
Figure 8-22. Graphic representation of pipeline pressure and flow.

Present Value
1500 PSIA MAOP - 500 MMSCFD
Note: Each line represents 12 points. The

first point on the left is with 40 stations,
50 miles apart and the last point on the
right is with 2 stations, 1000 miles apart.
Present Value, $MM
Theoretical Pipe O.D., in
Figure 8-23. Pipeline design considerations are influenced by distance between stations [4].
Polytropic Head, ft-lbF/lbm
Inlet Volume Flow, cfm
Figure 8-24. Steady-state pipeline operating conditions

Head, ft
Actual Flow, acfm
Figure 8-25. Upstream and midstream: the myth of the design point.
Seasonality of U.S. Gas Demand by Sector
Residential
Trillions Cubic Feet

Billions Cubic Feet
Electric Power
Industrial
Commercial
Total Demand (right scale)
Based on latest 3-year averages; "Other" demand included in Total

Source: EIA Annual Energy Review 2005
Figure 8-26. Seasonal changes in U.S. gas demand and the corresponding need for gas storage.

GAS STORAGE
The need for natural gas storage facilities dates back to the early 20th century in the US
and Canada. These local-regional storage facilities assure natural gas supply during the
winter heating season. This became necessary because the high winter demand frequently
exceeded the capacity of the local pipeline and production infrastructure (Figures 8-5 &
8-26). The introduction of a gas spot market in the mid-80s also contributed to an increased
demand for gas storage facilities. Currently, more than 400 storage facilities in North
America and over 130 in Europe are in operation. The vast majority of these gas storage
facilities use depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs, aquifers or salt caverns for storage. The
former two options involve storage in porous rock layers, while the latter is created by
washing a cavity out of a salt dome. These types of storage facilities are very safe, reliably
preventing leaks or other safety hazards. In either case, the gas company injects natural gas
into the storage field when demand is low and withdraws it from the storage field during
times of high demand [1].
Historically, storage was used to respond to the peak demands on the coldest winter days.
Natural gas demand used to be at its highest during winter, primarily due to home heating
requirements (Figure 8-26). In recent years, however, mostly due to increased demand
from natural gas fired power plants, demand has become less seasonal. Because of this
shift, well-placed natural gas storage has become even more important to natural gas
operations.
Today, North American natural gas storage plays a key role in balancing supply and demand,
particularly consumption during peak-demand periods. Storage can reduce the need for
both swing natural gas production deliverability and pipeline capacity by allowing production
and pipeline throughput to remain relatively constant. Customers may use storage to
reduce pipeline demand charges, to hedge against natural gas price increases or to
arbitrage gas price differences. Pipelines and local distributors use storage for operational
reliability and flexibility, providing an outlet for unconsumed gas supplies or a source of gas
to meet unexpected demand.
Storage at market trading hubs often provides balancing, parking and loan services. In the
future, additional conventional storage will be needed to meet growing seasonal demands,
and high deliverability storage will be required to serve fluctuating daily and hourly power
plant loads. Gas supply and demand in many pipeline systems shows significant seasonal
changes, which is further aggravated by the periodic influx of liquefied natural gas. Gas
storage facilities, where gas is stored during times of low demand or high supply, and
removed during times of high demand or reduced supply are an important means of
managing the gas supply.
Gas compressors are required to inject gas from a pipeline into the underground for
storage, and to extract gas from storage and feed it into the pipeline. Typical pipeline
pressures range from 40 to 100 bar (600 to 1500 psi), and from this pressure, the gas has
to be compressed to final storage pressure, typically between 100 and 200 bar (1500 and
3000 psi). The compressor duty is cyclical in nature. Traditionally, the cycles were seasonal,

with fluctuating pipeline and storage pressures gradually changing during the course of
each season. However, based on spot-market fluctuations, daily demand cycles, market
conditions, and/or short-term weather patterns, a facility may be required to change its
operating patterns several times a day.
Gas compression is required to fill the storage facility, as well as recompress gas when the
facility is emptied. The compression task is therefore described as filling a large, constant
volume with gas. The limiting factor is the available driver power (Figure 8-27). The resulting
operating conditions for the compressor are: initially, the low pressure ratio enables high
flow conditions. The pressure ratio has to increase with an increasing amount of gas in
the facility, therefore reducing the possible flow for a power-limited compression system
(Figure 8-27). This can be efficiently accomplished with multiple compressors, capable
of operating either in a series or a parallel configuration. The multiple compressors can
either be driven by multiple drivers, or in a tandem configuration, by a common driver
(Figure 8-27).
Storage
Storage
Storage
To Reservoir
To Reservoir Reservoir Filled
Reservoir Filled
LP HP 2 Compressor in series
LP HPSeries Path 2 Compressor in series
Parallel Path Series Path

Constant Power
Parallel Path
HEAD
Constant Power
HEAD
2 Compressor in parallel
2 Compressor in parallel
Control Valve Compressor Beginning

Single Compressor
Control Valve Compressor Beginning
Surge control, check valves and coolers not shown. Single Compressor
Surge control, check valves and coolers not shown. FLOW
FLOW
Reservoir Storage - Withdrawal Cycle

Reservoir Pressure
Reservoir Inventory
Figure 8-27. The gas compression functions required to operate a storage facility.

2.3 LNG Condenser
1 4 5
LNG is essentially large-scale refrigeration P
nt
ta
ns
Co
(Figure 8-28) to -160°C (-260°F), which
S=
is the temperature required to liquefy
1 2 Condenser
3 4 5
natural gas. Although pipeline quality gas Evaporator
P
nt
is used, CO2, water and H2S are removed
ta
ns
Co
for liquefaction. LNG product is methane
S=
NRE
+ some heavies (1000-1100 Btu/scf). HL H1

H22
H3 H4 H5
3
The volume reduction from gas to liquid H
Evaporator
= 600:1. The LNG process evolved from Processes:

1 to 2 = Expansion NRE
small-scale refrigeration compressors 2 to 3 = Evaporation
HL H1 H3 H4 H5
powered by steam turbines (1969 was 3 to 4 = Ideal (Isentropic)
H2
Condenser Compression
H 2O
first commercial LNG export by Conoco 3 to 5 = Actual Compression
H
5 to 1 = Condensing
Phillips from Alaska). Modern plants are
built in large-scale capacities of 4.4 to 8.8 Compressor
MMTPY capacity with GT or EM driven Condenser H 2O

3 4 or 5
centrifugal compressors. (5.0 MMTPY ~
Evaporator Ideal
65 MW compression hp). As shown in Actual
Compressor
Figures 8-29 and 8-30 [1,2], the entire LNG 1 2
process must be viewed from wellhead Expansion Valve (or 3float valve) 4 or 5
to consumer, not just the simple LNG Evaporator Ideal
production plant. Actual
1 2
Expansion Valve (or float valve)
Figure 8-28. Basic refrigeration cycle.
Production Wellstream Transport Liquefaction
Storage and Loading Shipping Receiving Terminal

(Courtesy ExxonMobil Corporation)
Figure 8-29. The complete LNG process from upstream to downstream.

Fuel
Pretreatment
Natural
Compression
Gas Sweetening Hydrocarbon LPG
Fractionation Fuel
Fuel
Pretreatment
End Flash / LNG
Dehydration Chilling Liquefaction N₂ Rejection Storage
Hg Removal
Refrigeration
System
Several separate gas streams:

• Natural Gas (to be liquefied)
Several separate gas streams: - Natural Gas (to be Liqeufied)
• Refrigeration Gas(es)
• Fuel Gas - Refrigeration Gas(es)
- Fuel Gas
Figure 8-30. LNG processing
Specialized turbomachinery designs are required for large scale refrigeration cycles in
LNG applications, pushing the envelope of the centrifugal compressor design flows, the
cryogenic heat exchanger size and the horsepower rating of the refrigeration drives. Over
the past 50 years, the refrigeration cycles and drivers have continuously evolved to meet
the needs of ever larger LNG plants.
As the train size has leveled off and material costs continue to rise, many operators have
“standardized” on two types of refrigeration cycles. These cycles effectively dictate
compressor selection and horsepower requirements:
The APCI Split MR cycle (Split C3MR) requires two large industrial-frame turbines or
synchronous electric motors in the 72-80 MW range.
The ConocoPhillips Optimized Cascade (CoP OC) cycle requires six, 30 MW-range gas
turbines or electric motors.
Other refrigeration cycles may be closely or equally competitive in terms of efficiency, but
difficult to justify given the risk of new technology qualification.

Figure 8-31 shows the mixed fluid cascade LNG cycle, and Figure 8-32 shows LNG cycle
selections over the last 30 years.
Figure 8-31. Mixed fluid cascade LNG process.
LNG Refrigeration Cycle Selection

Percent of Worldwide LNG capacity
Figure 8-32. LNG refrigeration cycle selections.

True standardization will never be fully possible for LNG plants since each LNG facility must
confront unique site development issues, electrical power options (or lack of), construction
execution plans and the associated modularization strategy, and its own project economics.
LNG TURBOMACHINERY
The evolution of LNG plants and the related turbomachinery can be divided into distinct
time periods:
1. Steam Turbine Drive Era (1970-1989). Early LNG improvements were mainly defined in
terms of train capacity increases, gaining savings through economies of scale.
2. Gas Turbine Drive Development (1990-2009). Efficiency gains and cycle

improvements were characterized by new gas turbine validation and cycle innovations
that pushed efficiency gains, as train capacities began to level off.
3. Recent (2010-current). Higher capital costs and reliability concerns have dictated driver
and cycle selection, resulting in more uniformity. Electric motor drive precedent has now
been set, but still needs further development. A case for smaller train capacities has also
driven users to install mid-size aero-derivative turbines instead of frame units. The modern
era for LNG plants has just begun and will be determined by the next 20-year cycle.
The typical LNG process turbomachinery can be divided into three steps:
Pre-cooling - Propane compressor, typically largest flow rates and largest horsepower
required. 60-70 MW for 4.5-5.5 Mmtpy. Pushes the limits of electric motor and variable-
speed drives.
Primary Liquefaction - Ethylene or Mixed Refrigerant compressor may involve 2-4 stages
of compression, 45-55 MW for 4.5-5.5 Mmtpy. Side streams typically used with interstage
cooling. Use of more stages can help plant flexibility.
Sub-cooling and Plant Fuel Compression - Smallest and simplest design/drive.
Some important considerations for LNG turbomachinery include:
• LNG compressors typically run over a very tight range (+/- 10%). GT emissions and
efficiency can be well controlled within this range.
• Size of drive equipment may limit EMD selection to maximum of 65-70 MW for VFD
technology to date.
• Emissions / environmental sensitivity of area may restrict GT option although electric

power on site for EM can be a challenge.
• Variable speed EMD often considered for ease in starting motor and capacity / speed
changes.
• Significant process interdependencies.
• Propane is a heavier MW gas compared to pipeline NG with higher SOS. This changes
centrifugal compressor design somewhat.

• Operational range more consistent than upstream or pipeline applications, so efficiency
of drivers can be exploited to an extent.
• Large flow rates and equipment size, related maintenance strategies for large trains.
• Sidestream and intercooling designs: Differing strategies on mixing sidestream with

large axial passage versus injection nozzles with greater mixing and also higher DP.
Design predictions must be accurate to match process throughput.
• High flow coefficients and high Mach numbers produce narrow flow maps with limited
choke and surge margin.
• Higher sensitivity to choke conditions and increased dynamic forces on blades.
• Importance of robust surge control system design.
Besides large scale LNG development, there is also a market for smaller scale LNG, in the
range from 0.1 to 0.5MMTPA. They support efforts to use stranded gas reserves, or to
provide an attractive fuel for vehicles, E&P efforts, locomotives, or ships. These smaller
installations usually use less capital-intensive refrigeration cycles, like the Single Mixed
Refrigerant (SMR) cycle, or a reverse Brayton cycle, using Nitrogen or Nitrogen mixtures as
refrigerant. The single mixed refrigerant is usually a mixture of methane, ethylene and other
hydrocarbons (Figure 8-33).
Figure 8-33. Nitrogen (left) and single mixed refrigerant (right), LNG refrigeration cycles. [1,2]

[1] Kurz,R., Gunn,B., Brun,K., 2020, Oil and Gas Applications for Centrifugal Compressors,
Proc. Asia Turbomachinery and Pump Symposium 2020.
[2] Brun,K., Kurz,R.,2019, Compression Machinery for Oil and Gas, Elsevier Gulf
Professional Publishing.
[3] Kurz,R., Brun,K., 2012, Upstream and Midstream Applications, ASME GT2012-68005.
[4] Kurz,R., Ohanian,S., Brun,K., 2010, Compressors in High-Pressure Pipeline Applications,

ASME GT2010-22018.

CHAPTER 9
OPTIMIZING COMPRESSOR STATIONS
Rainer Kurz, Avneet Singh, Roman Zamotorin, Matt Lubomirsky
The economic success of installations depends on factors such as availability, initial cost
and equipment operating costs. The latter includes fuel, maintenance and possibly the
creation of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. In many instances, compressor installations
consist of multiple compressors. These could be multiple compressors at the same station,
operating in series or parallel configurations. These could also be compressors operating in
various compressor stations along a pipeline. In either case, the compressors may not be
identical in terms of size, performance and/or power consumption.
The challenge is to plan, size and control the units such that certain operating parameters—
for example fuel consumption—are optimized. Other considerations may involve the
minimization of operating hours per unit. The control system must rely on measurable
parameters. The system has to be reliable even if parameters that are not directly measured
change during operation. The optimization must consider the operational behaviors of
the compressor and the driver, as well as the control methods, all of which have been
previously discussed. Detailed discussion can also be found in references [1-6].
Optimization may also include discussions relating to space and weight requirements,
especially in off-shore applications. Kurz and Sheya [7] provide a discussion on the relative
merits of electric drivers vs. gas turbine drives in offshore applications.
Optimization issues were discussed in the past by Pinelli et. al., [8] for an offshore gas
gathering application with gas turbine drivers, and Nøstebø et. al., [9] for an offshore gas
export applications using electric motors as drivers, and Kurz et al., 2003 [10] or Zamotorin
et. al., 2018 [11]. The former study investigates the arrangement of multiple compressor
trains, either in parallel or series/parallel configuration for a declining gas field, that is a gas
field where the gas suction pressure declines. Conditions are assumed to be steady state.
The second study assesses a gas export station with five basically identical electric-motor-
driven compressors in a parallel arrangement. Depending on the required gas flow, different
strategies are discussed. The load-sharing strategy assumes that the operating compressors
are controlled for equal turndown. The study by Kurz et. al., 2003 [6] evaluates the impact
of the number of compressor units per station on fuel consumption, for changing pipeline
operating conditions, and Zamotorin et. al., evaluate the impact of different control concepts.
The present study attempts to provide a more generalized view that involves consideration
of the equipment in a station, but also can include the behavior of the entire compression
system, using a pipeline with multiple compressor stations as an example. Different
compressor control modes are considered and very simple, as well as the introduction
of more complicated concepts. Unlike the referenced study by Nøstebø et al., [5], this
discussion assumes gas turbine drivers, and considers in particular the impact of the
changes in gas turbine efficiency with load and speed.
Compressor drivers exhibit performance characteristics that are dependent on their

running speed and their load. Figures 9-1 and 9-2, for example, show the impact of load on
efficiency and the impact of power turbine speed for a two-shaft industrial gas turbine.
Chapter 9: Optimizing Compressor Stations | 219

Figure 9-1. Thermal efficiency ( th) as a function of load for four different two-shaft gas turbines.
P*/P
N*/N
Figure 9-2. Power Turbine: Power versus Speed.
As described above, the working principles of an industrial gas turbine determine

two important operating characteristics: power output increases with lower ambient
temperatures and fuel efficiency is lower at partial-load operating conditions. Furthermore,
the impact of different power turbine speeds on power and efficiency is relatively small, at
least for the range of speeds not too far away from the power turbine’s optimum speed.
Industrial gas turbines typically develop their best efficiencies at full load, with the power
turbine running at its optimum speed. Other drivers, such as electric motors, may show
a more pronounced dependency on available power, depending on speed and a different
relationship between load and efficiency.
220 | Chapter 9: Optimizing Compressor Stations

Isentropic Head
Inlet Volume Flow
Figure 9-3. Performance map for a variable-speed centrifugal compressor.
The driven compressor for the applications in question is a centrifugal compressor, that is
coupled with the power turbine, either directly or via a fixed-ratio gearbox. Therefore, the
most effective and efficient way of controlling the compressor operation is by varying its
speed (Figure 9-3). A centrifugal compressor can work at its best efficiency over a wide
range of speeds. It should be noted that ‘control by varying the speed’ does not mean
‘controlling the speed.’ The control mode typically applies to a process parameter, for
example: suction pressure, discharge pressure or flow. Any deviation from the controlled
parameter will lead to an adjustment of the engines power output, which will result in a
change in compressor speed as discussed in the chapter about controls.
If multiple units operate in a station, different ways of load sharing are possible. Two
frequently used methods involve, either keeping all engines at the same relative load or
keeping all driven compressors at the same distance from their surge line, thus at the same
turndown. Turndown is defined as the distance of the compressor operating point from the
surge line for constant head.
The operating point of the driven compressor is determined by the system in which it’s
working. The system (for example a pipeline upstream and downstream from a compressor
station) imposes the suction and discharge pressure on the compressor. The compressor
reacts to it, based on the power available, with a certain flow. The flow, in turn, may alter
the suction and discharge pressure the system imposes on the compressor.

The pipe system within which the
compressor operates will impose its
characteristic on the compressor. Three
fundamental steady-state system
characteristics need to be considered
(Figure 9-4):
Head
A - strong head-flow relationship
B - weak head-flow relationship
C - integrative relationship
For example, the case of a strong

head-flow relationship (A) is seen in
gas pipelines. Under steady-state
Flow
conditions, the pressure loss in the
pipeline, which imposes the suction and Figure 9-4. System characteristics and
discharge pressure on the compressor compressor map.
station, increases significantly when
the flow through the pipeline must be
increased. The pressure levels are thus dictated by friction losses, which depend on the
gas velocity in the pipe. In a weak head flow relationship (B), the head requirement for the
compressor head stays more or less constant with changes in flow. This behavior is found
in refrigeration compressors, but also for situations where the process dictates a constant
suction pressure (e.g., separator pressure), while the discharge gas is fed via a short pipe
into a larger flowing pipeline, so the compressor discharge pressure is more or less dictated
by the pressure in the large pipeline. Friction losses, therefore, have a very small effect,
resulting in very small changes in the pressure losses with flow.
In an integrative relationship (C), which exists for example in storage applications (Kurz and
Brun [6]), where the compressor fills a large cavity. That means the compressor discharge
pressure is increased as a function of the cumulative flow into the cavity, as a result of
filling the cavity with gas. Line (C) is essentially showing a series of operating conditions at
constant power. Similar conditions can be found in gas-gathering applications where (on a
much slower scale) the field pressure (and the compressor suction pressure along with it)
declines as a function of the cumulative flow out of the gas field. Additionally, these fields
also have a strong head-flow relationship, i.e., increasing the flow at any given time would
lower the compressor suction pressure.
Unfortunately, minimizing fuel consumption is not the only optimization goal used. Other
characteristics that play a role include maximizing availability, possibly also for short term
events, leading to partly loaded units in anticipation of a rapid increase in load (in the world
of power generation, this would be called a spinning reserve). Minimizing the number of
starts or minimizing running hours could be other requirements.
OPTIMIZATION IN THE PLANNING STAGE
When a compressor station or a number of related compressor stations in a pipeline are

planned, certain considerations must be made (Kurz et. al., 2003 [5]). These include:

suction pressure) declines as a function of the cumulative flow out of the gas field. These fields additionally
flow relationship, i.e., increasing the flow at any given time would lower the compressor suction pressure.
• Steady-state and transient capabilities and requirements of the system.
Unfortunately,
• Growth minimizing
requirementsfuel
andconsumption
capability. is not the only optimization goal used. Other characteristic
maximizing availability, possibly also for short term events, leading to partly loaded units in anticipation of
the world of cost
• Total powerofgeneration, this delivered
ownership and would be cost
calledtoashippers
spinningand
reserve). Minimizing the number of starts, or
customers.
could be other requirements.
The first consideration involves the capability to cope with changes in flow capacity on all
time scales (i.e., hourly, daily, seasonally). The pipeline hydraulics relate pressure losses to
OPTIMIZATION
the flow throughIN THE PLANNING
the pipeline, STAGE
determining the compressor operating conditions in terms
of
When a compressor station, or a number ofdetermining
head and actual flow, and subsequently the required
related compressor power
stations in afrom the driver.
pipeline are planned, certain
Contractual requirements and obligations,
made (Kurz et al., 2003). These include: such as pressures and volumes at transfer
points, also must be considered.
• Steady-state and transient capabilities and requirements of the system
The second consideration deals with the fact that the nominal capacity of a pipeline may
• Growth requirements and capability
grow when additional customers demand an increased supply of natural gas. In fact,
• Total
many costpipelines
new of ownership andwith
start out delivered
50% orcost to capacity
less shippers and
and grow
customers
to full capacity over
several years, or are sized for easy expansion. Often, predicting the growth rate involves
The first consideration involves the capability to cope with changes in flow capacity on all time scales (i.e.
a significant degree of uncertainty. The growth scenarios, if foreseeable, drive a station’s
The pipeline hydraulics relate pressure losses to the flow through the pipeline, determine the compressor op
layout
of head andtoactual
possibly
flow,allow
and additional power
subsequently to be installed
determine at thepower
the required station level
from thelater or additional
driver. Contractual requirem
stations to be installed along the pipeline. The alternative
as pressures and volumes at transfer points, have to be considered. scenario, where the pipeline
usage declines over the years (e.g., because the gas supply from the field declines), is also
The asecond consideration deals with the fact that the nominal capacity of a pipeline may grow when addit
possibility.
higher supply of natural gas. In fact, many new pipelines start out with 50% and less capacity and grow to
years, or must
You are sized for easybetween
distinguish expansion. Often,
growth the prediction
scenarios of the rate
that increase of growth
pipeline shows
capacity a significant degree
by adding
scenarios,
powerifalong
foreseeable,
the pipelinedriveand
a station layout
scenarios thattoadd
possibly
powerallow additional
and loop power. The
the pipeline1 to beformer
installed at the stati
stations alongwill
scenario thealways
pipeline. The alternative
require an increasescenario, where
in pressure theatpipeline
ratio usageOften,
the station. declines over the years (e.g., b
replacing
the field declines),compressors
single-stage is also a possibility.
with two-stage compressors, or installing compressors in series
to meet the higher pressure ratio is necessary. The latter scenario will usually increase
We have to distinguish between growth scenarios that increase pipeline capacity by adding power along the
the flow though the station1and will be covered by installing additional units parallel to the
add power and loop the pipeline . The former scenario will always require an increase in pressure ratio in the s
existing
to replace ones.
single-stage compressors with two-stage compressors or install compressors in series to meet the
latter scenario will usually increase the flow though the station and will be covered by installing additional u
ones.Total cost of ownership reflects the cost to install, operate and decommission the station.
While the first two considerations reflect the capability to generate revenue, the latter
Totalfocuses
cost of on
ownership reflectscosts.
the necessary the cost to install,
These costs operate
(ci) may and decommission
appear at any pointthe stations.
in time While the first tw
during
capability to generate
installation, revenue,
operation the latter focuses
and decommissioning of on
thethe necessary
station. An easycosts.
wayThese (ci) may
costs cost
to compare of appear at
installation, operation and decommissioning of the station. An easy way to compare
ownership is to use a net present value (NPV) calculation, assuming a fixed discount rate "r" cost of ownership is
(NPV) calculation, assuming
for "n" time periods: a fixed discount rate "r" for "n" time periods:
n ci (3)
NPV = ∑
i =1 (1 + r ) i

Lost Revenue
Revenue reduction resulting from equipment downtime is an important element of the total cost of owne
LOST
revenue, REVENUE
total annual downtime is multiplied by the estimated lost revenue per hour (Hsu and Hasselfeld [12
the modeling of risk through the useful life of the project, as well as the economic value associated with this
[13]).Revenue
The riskreduction
can rangeresulting from equipment downtime is an important element in
from hardware selection to maintenance practice and control system set points. T
calculating the total cost of ownership. To determine the lost revenue, total annual
downtime is multiplied by the estimated lost revenue per hour (Hsu and Hasselfeld [12]).
1
Looping
1 a pipeline
Looping meansinstalling
a pipeline means installing an additional
an additional pipeline pipeline
parallel to parallel toone.
the existing the existing one.

4
Another problem lies in the modeling of risk through the useful life of the project, as well as
the economic value associated with this risk. The risk can range from hardware selection to
maintenance practice and control system set points. The net effect of these risks translates
into downtime or added fuel costs and, hence, added cost or reduced production output2.
In many cases, lost production for a day creates a loss on the same order of magnitude as
the fuel cost for one driver for a whole year. A few days of otherwise lost production can
"pay" for the cost of a spare gas turbine. The requirement derived from this is to plan the
stations such that they are tolerant to planned and unplanned outages. This could mean
installing a spare unit or to optimize the installation such that the failure or downtime of
one unit has the smallest possible impact on the capacity of the overall pipeline. It also
means that the downtime in case of failure or planned outage must be minimized. Possible
concepts include engine exchange programs, available spare engines, and preventive
maintenance to name a few.
Studies at the start of the planning process typically assess station size. For pipelines, the
starting point is the distance the pipeline has to cover and the amount of gas that needs to
be transported. Optimization studies then assess the impact of pipe diameter, operating
pressure, and number of compressor stations. Tradeoffs include the cost for the pipe,
the cost for the compression equipment, and the operating cost for the different choices.
Larger pipes reduce the amount of compression power to be installed, but increase the
cost for the pipe. Having stations closer together reduces the amount of power to be
installed and reduces the fuel cost, but increases maintenance requirements. Figure 9-5
shows the result of such an evaluation, with the recommendation for a 28-inch pipe, and a
compressor station pressure ratio of about 1:4.
CHANGING OPERATING CONDITIONS
While some compressor stations are more or less operated at constant load, many
installations see widely fluctuating operating conditions. These fluctuations are, in concept,
foreseeable during the planning stage. Given the load dependency of the driver efficiency,
a station that runs under a wide range of loads will often operate in part load, thus incurring
higher fuel consumption, unless one has multiple units, with the option to shut down units,
rather than operating in part load. First, consider the desirable number of compressors in
station as related to the range of load fluctuations. Finally, consider the impact of changing
ambient temperature. Since the engine output changes with the inlet temperature, even at
constant station flow demand (that is, with the compressors consuming constant power),
the engine load (relative to the maximum available power) can fluctuate with changing
ambient temperatures.
Figure 9-6 outlines a typical operating scenario for pipeline stations, showing a wide variety
of operating points (Case A) and another scenario for a typical interstate pipeline (Case B).
Here, data for four stations along the pipeline during summer and winter conditions were
averaged. For the purpose of this evaluation, the load (i.e., the power requirement relative
2
Lost revenue can be considerable. Assuming gas prices of $3 U.S. per MMBtu and an LHV of 900
Btu/SCF, a pipeline pumping 500 MMSCFD achieves a revenue of 500 MMSCFD X 900 MMBtu/
MMSCF X $3/MMBtu = $1,350,000 U.S. per day. For comparison, the fuel cost for a typical 7,000-hp
driver would be approximately $1,500,000 U.S. per year.

Present Value
1500 PSIA MAOP - 500 MMSCFD
Note: Each line represents 12 points. The

first point on the left is with 40 stations,
50 miles apart and the last point on the
right is with 2 stations, 1000 miles apart.
Present Value, $MM
Theoretical Pipe O.D., in
Figure 9-5. Pipeline optimization.
to the available power at each station and respective ambient conditions) for each of the
two scenarios were mapped into different load classes.
The data in load classes lend themselves to a study that assesses the effect of different
station designs, in particular the number of units used. Fuel usage can be calculated,
as well as the emissions for Case A and Case B, (Figure 9-6) assuming the following
scenarios3:
1. One 100% unit with th = 35% at full load and a compressor with s = 87%
2. Two 50% units with th = 34% at full load and a compressor with s = 86%
3. Two 50% units with th = 35% at full load and a compressor with s = 87%
4. Three 33% units with th = 32% at full load and a compressor with s = 85%
5. Three 33% units with th = 35% at full load and a compressor with s = 87%
The figure then shows the relative fuel usage (and thus also CO2 emissions) for the
different scenarios, based on a part-load efficiency penalty as outlined in Figure 9-1.
3
Obviously, this calculation can be performed for a real scenario by taking into account a large
number of different operating points, with the actual engine and compressor performance for each
of these points.

Because different gas turbines exhibit different behaviors regarding their respective part-
load efficiencies, each series of calculations is performed using a curve that reflects the
steepest drop in part-load efficiency and one that reflects the least-steep drop in part-load
efficiency in Figure 9-1. There is a minimum in fuel usage for the curve that reflects the
steepest drop in part-load efficiency and one that reflects the least steep drop in part-load
efficiencies in three units (which incidentally is the station layout). The more stations used,
the less important the slope for part-load efficiency becomes. The minimum in fuel usage
also implies a minimum in CO2 production.
Relative Usage
Head
Flow Class, % power

Relative Usage
Load Variation
Hours Class, % power
Figure 9-6. Case A for a pipeline with large load fluctuations (top), Case B for pipeline with
smaller fluctuations (bottom).
Case A (Figure 9-7) exhibits a clear advantage of multi-unit stations. Because the smaller
units are operated closer to full load for most of the time, the resulting fuel usage is lower
than for single-unit stations. This holds true for both slopes in part-load efficiency and even
if the smaller units achieve a lower base efficiency than the larger units. For virtually all
cases, a station with three or four units minimizes the fuel usage. Additional units yield no
additional benefits.
Case B (Figure 9-8) gives a somewhat different picture. Comparing Figures 9-8 (left) and
9-8 (right) shows that the conclusion regarding the optimum number of stations depends
highly on the baseline efficiency of the packages involved. If the smaller units have the
same design efficiency as the larger units, then a three-unit station is advantageous. If
we assume lower efficiencies for the smaller units than for the larger units, a one or two
unit station uses less fuel.

Fuel Usage
Fuel Usage
Number of Units Number of Units
Figure 9-7. Case A, Scenarios 1, 3, 5 (left) and Scenarios 1, 2, 4 (right)

Fuel Usage
Fuel Usage
Number of Units Number of Units
Figure 9-8. Case B, Scenarios 1, 3, 5 (left) and Scenarios 1, 2, 4 (right)
Having said that, it again needs to be emphasized that a station outage may result in
significantly higher costs due to lost revenue than the fuel cost for an entire year. Obviously,
a standby unit reduces the exposure significantly. Also, if the station uses multiple units,
then the unavailability of one of these units has a smaller impact on the amount of gas that
can be produced (admittedly, the chances that one out of four units fails are higher than the
chances that one out of two units fails).
Besides fluctuations in the required compressor power, as described above, you may
also encounter situations where the ambient temperatures show large swings, especially
between summer and winter conditions. Depending on the number of units in a station,
the situation during low ambient temperatures may enable shutting down a unit entirely.
Of course, if the station flow is to be maintained, the compressors in operation will

Isentropic Head, ft-lbf/lbm (000)
Isentropic Head, ft-lbf/lbm (000)
Inlet Volume Flow, CFM (00) Q
Inlet Volume Flow, CFM (00) Q
Figure 9-9. Two units vs three units: Capability to shut a unit down.
see a larger flow (Figure 9-9). In the figure above, the advantage of smaller units (three
units in a station) over larger units (two units in a station) is illustrated. The station with
three units can accommodate the shutdown of a unit, while for a station with two units,
the compressor that remains in operation will not be able to handle the increased flow.
Shutdown of units, instead of running units in part load has a positive impact on fuel
consumption (Figure 9-10) and maintenance cost (a unit that is shutdown does not accrue
fired hours; a unit operating in part load does).
30MW 23MW 23MW
Summer
Non-Summer
Annual
Figure 9-10. Fuel Consumption

Compression Coverage Map
Suction Pressure
Standard Flow
Figure 9-11. Declining gas field.
In cases where the operating conditions change significantly over time, which is a situation
frequently encountered in installations near oil or gas fields, concepts that take advantage
of package flexibility may be considered. The example below shows a situation at a
declining gas field, where, over time, gas flow and suction pressure dropped. The addition
of another compressor to the train to accommodate the declining suction pressure, and
the resulting increase in pressure ratio had been planned, so the skid was prepared to
accept an additional compressor body. Together with targeted restages, that enabled reuse
of existing aerodynamic hardware, the wide range of operating conditions was covered
(Figure 9-11).

BASIC OPERATIONS OPTIMIZATION
On the station level, simple, but very effective methods include the concept of loading
all involved units evenly, and running the least number of units necessary. The downside
of this approach is that if done consistently, the number of starts and stops for the units
increases. Loading units evenly can either be accomplished by running all compressors
at the same distance from their respective surge line, or by running all gas turbines at the
same load setting, for example by equalizing their gas producer speed relative to the speed
at full load (Zamotorin et al., 2018 [11]).
Additional considerations are required if the units involved are different in size and operating
characteristics. Many compressor stations combine units of different size and vintage. The
newer units may be less expensive to operate, may have a higher fuel efficiency, and may
be bigger (in terms of power output) compared to the older units. One of the key tasks
may be to restage the compressors of the older units in order to be able to contribute at a
reasonable cost to the station operation. For the purpose of this study, it’s assumed that
Additional
this has considerations are required if the units involved are different in size and operating characteristic
happened.
stations combine units of different size and vintage. The newer units may be less expensive to operate, may have a h
and may
More be bigger
involved (in terms
methods ofinclude
would power simulations
output) compared to systems
of entire the older (for
units. One of of
example, thea key tasks may be to re-stage
the olderwith
pipeline unitsmultiple
in ordercompressor
to be able tostations,
contribute
andatmultiple
a reasonable cost to the
compressor unitsstation operation. For the purpose of this st
per station)
this has
using happened.
numerical simulations.
More involved methods would include simulations of entire systems (for example, of a pipeline with multiple com
multiple compressor units per station) using numerical simulations.
SIMPLE SCHEME
SIMPLE SCHEME
A simple, but very effective scheme is outlined as follows: Assume a compressor station
A simple,
with but very
one large effective
unit (KC), scheme
and three is outlined
smaller as follows:
units (TC), Let usinassume
all operating weFor
parallel. have a compressor station with one
simplicity,
three smaller units (TC),all operating in parallel. For simplicity, the smaller
each of the smaller units produces half the power of the larger unit [11]: unit produces half the power of the larg
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 2 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
and the
and the compressors
compressors areare aerodynamic
aerodynamic scales,
scales,thus
thusmaintaining
maintainingaerodynamic
aerodynamicsimilarity.
similarity. The parallel operation force
at the same
parallel suction
operation and discharge
forces all units topressure.
operate atBased on thesuction
the same above, and
the total available
discharge station power P = 5 PTC.
pressure.
We canonnow
Based thedefine
above,different
the totalload steps:station power P = 5 P .
available TC
Different load steps can now be defined:

Step 1: P=PTC
Step 2:
Step 1: P=P
P=PKC
TC
or P=2 PTC
Step 3: P=PKC + PTC or P=3 PTC
Step 4:
Step 2: P=P
P=PKC
KC
+ 2P
or P=2
TC P TC
Step 5: P=PKC + 3PTC
Step 3: P=PKC + P TC or P=3 P TC
Step P=PKC demands

For all4:power + 2P TC that are higher than step n, but lower than step n+1, the running units are equally loaded.
Step 5: P=P
Further + 3P TC
considerations
KC have to be made to decide which options should be pursued for steps 2 and 3. One con
maintenance cost: It could well be that the larger unit accrues lower maintenance cost per fired hour than two o
For all power
Similarly, demands
if the thatisare
larger unit higher
more than step
efficient than n,
thebut lower
small thanone
units, step n+1, opt
would the for
running
starting the larger unit in steps 2
units are equally loaded.
Another option would be to analyze typical load cycle for the station: If the load typically rises beyond step 3 relati
advantageous to start the large unit in step 2. If, however, the load often just stays between steps 1,2,and 3 (as is
that have seasonally lower loads), then these steps may be better covered by the smaller units.
230 | Chapter
Lubomirsky et al. 9:
[14] pointed out
Optimizing in their study
Compressor on pipeline availability, and fuel optimization that in particular in
Stations
significant variation in ambient conditions this simple control schematic is rather powerful, both in terms
Further considerations have to be made to decide which options should be pursued for
steps 2 and 3. One consideration could be maintenance cost. It could well be that the larger
unit accrues lower maintenance cost per fired hour than two of the smaller units. Similarly,
if the larger unit is more efficient than the small units, one would opt for starting the larger
unit in steps 2 and 3.
Another option would be to analyze the typical load cycle for the station. If the load typically
rises beyond step 3 relatively fast, it might be advantageous to start the large unit in step 2.
If, however, the load often just stays between steps 1, 2 and 3 (as is the case for stations
that have seasonally lower loads), then these steps may be better covered by the smaller
units.
Lubomirsky et. al. [12] pointed out in a study on pipeline availability and fuel optimization
that in situations that show, in particular, significant variation in ambient conditions, this
simple control schematic is rather powerful, both in terms of minimizing fuel consumption,
but also in minimizing the running hours, and thus the maintenance cost of the units.
As mentioned earlier, units at the station level can be controlled by load equalization or by
turndown equalization [11]. All simulations in this section assume compressor operating
points at constant head. Figure 9-12 shows the simulation results for different control
methods at a compressor station with two compressor sets of different size (Unit 1 with 1.5
times the power of Unit 2). Compared are the cases where the units are equally loaded (with
either the small or the large unit leading) or where they are controlled for equal turndown.
Equal load is usually accomplished by controlling the gas producer speed of the gas turbine.
As can be seen, the fuel consumption for a certain station flow demand is about the same
Total Fuel Flow, mmBtu/hr
Station Flow, mmscfd
Figure 9-12. Load equalization. Equal load, with either the 15MW (20,000 hp) or the 22.5MW
(30,000 hp) engine leading versus equal turndown for the compressor.

for either control method. There is a significant advantage for the equal turndown method
at low and high flows, where the equal load method is limited either by surge line on one
unit or by maximum speed on the other. Turndown equalization has a wider allowable flow
range, since it is more tied to compressor maps and initially the compressor selection had
been done based on turndown evaluation, not engine load. It is probable to find compressor
selections, which will provide the same operating range, if at station design and if there is a
particular request to find an optimized solution based on sharing the load equally. However,
using turndown equalization just might be easier.
100 Polytropic Head, ft-lbF/lbm
80
60
(%)
Hs (%)
40
Hs
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
-20
QQ (%)
(%) Inlet Volume Flow, cfm
Figure 9-13. Steady-state pipeline compressor head flow relationship, and relationship plotted
into a centrifugal compressor map.
BEYOND THE STATION
Optimizations that involve multiple, but connected compressor stations require modeling
of the connecting pipes. In other words, pipeline hydraulics have to be considered [11]. This
leads to a number of constraints for the individual compressor station that are not obvious
on the station level. A key feature is that for a pipeline, pipeline flow and station pressures
are not independent. In other words, if the flow through the pipeline is increased, the
pressure ratio for the compressor station has to increase too (Figure 9-13).
Generally, variable-speed centrifugal compressors are uniquely suited for this type
of operating characteristic, because all steady-state points can be placed near the
compressor’s best efficiency point, while the wide range allows for suitable deviations
imposed by non-steady-state operation [5]. Even with massive load changes (bringing the
driver from 50% to 100% load within less than a minute for example), the compressor will
not operate at constant head and varying flow for more than a few seconds [6].
Figure 9-14 shows the layout of such a pipeline of a given length (Ltot), five compressor
stations (1 through 5) at roughly equal distance, and a side stream entering the main pipe
just upstream of station 3. The simulation considers the fuel consumption of each of the

stations, as well as the line pack (i.e. the gas stored in the pipeline system itself). The
pipeline geometry (diameter, roughness), maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP),
site elevations, and local ambient temperatures are known.
SIDE STREAM
INLET Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 EXIT
Figure 9-14. Pipeline Schematic
The compressor stations use a variety of different centrifugal compressors, all of them
driven by two-shaft gas turbines. Recycle as well as shut down of individual units are
possible, and have to be considered as part of the simulation. Also, an entire station can be
bypassed. A summary of the installed units is shown in Table 9-1 [11].
In the study, the actual operating conditions for all units were used as a starting point.
In this situation, all but two units in station 5 were running, and all of them at relatively
low load (Table 9-2). The optimized scenario consumed 74% of the fuel compared to
the original situation. The two major contributing factors are the smaller number of units
running at higher load, and the generally lower gas velocity in the pipe (Figure 9-15), which
significantly reduced the pressure losses. This was accomplished by running station two
with more units at a higher load. The higher load on Station 2 was achieved by running at
higher head despite being in recycling mode.
Station Number of Units Power Class of Units (MW) Total Installed Power (MW)
1 0 0 0
2 2 14.5 29
3 2 15.3 30.6
4 2 15.3 30.6
3 ea 6
5 5 1 ea 7.8 37
1 ea 11.2
Table 9-1. Installed Power

Relative Flow Velocity
Relative Distance along Pipeline
Figure 9-15. Optimizing fuel consumption involves shifting the load between stations, thereby
reducing both the flow velocities and ultimately the pressure drop in the pipeline. The flow
velocities in the pipeline at various stations are shown. Optimization allows for lower flow
velocities in parts of the pipeline, thus reducing power consumption at the compressor stations.
It can also be seen that, apart from the optimization of the pipeline hydraulics, the recipe given
in the previous section seems to be approximately replicated by the numerical optimization.
Number of Average Load of Number of Units Average Load of Running

Station
Units Running Running Units Running (optimized) Units (optimized)
1 0 N/A 0 N/a
2 2 56% 2 70%
3 2 57% 1 94%
4 2 63% 1 83%
5 3 96.6% 1 97%
Table 9-2. Station Load
Understanding the behavior of turbomachinery equipment and the overall system allows
appropriate methods for fuel and operational optimization on the station level and for entire
pipelines. Optimization can and should happen both during system planning, as well as
during system operation.
In the planning phase, key influence factors include the number of stations and the number
of units, based on assessments of the variability of the operating conditions. Variability will
occur on various time scales.

During operation, relatively simple rules can be derived based on the conceptual
understanding, or from evaluation of more complex studies. The concepts described herein
work even if units are not identical and can be entirely based on measurable parameters.
The challenge is to control the units, such that certain operational parameters—fuel
consumption for example—are optimized. The control system must rely on measurable
parameters, even if parameters that are not directly measured (such as the gas composition
for the compressor) change during operation. The methods to control all compressors for
the same turndown provides good results regarding both efficiency and operating range,
compared to controlling all gas turbines for the same load. Modelling the entire pipeline
facilitates further optimization that cannot be achieved if the optimization is only performed
at the station level.
[1] Kurz,R., Gunn,B., Brun,K., 2020, Oil and Gas Applications for Centrifugal Compressors,
Proc. Asia Turbomachinery and Pump Symposium 2020.
[2] Brun,K., Kurz,R.,2019, Compression Machinery for Oil and Gas, Elsevier Gulf
Professional Publishing.
[3] Kurz,R., Brun,K., 2012, Upstream and Midstream Applications, ASME GT2012-68005.
[4] Kurz,R., Ohanian,S., Brun,K., 2010, Compressors in High Pressure Pipeline Applications,
ASME GT2010-22018.
[5] Kurz,R., Ohanian,S., Lubomirsky,M., 2003, On Compressor Station Layout, ASME

GT2003-38019.
[6] Kurz,R., Brun,K., 2018, Process Control for Compression Systems, ASME JEngGTP,
Vol.140 No.2.
[7] Kurz,R., Sheya,C.,2005, Gas Turbines or Electric Drives in Offshore Applications, ASME
GT2005-68003.
[8] Pinelli,M.,Mazzi,A., Russo,G., 2005, Arrangement and Optimization in an Off-shore

Natural Gas Extraction Station, ASME GT2005-68031.
[9] Nostebo,V.S.,Bakken,L.E.,Dahl,H.J., 2007, ASME GT2007-27367.
[10] Kurz,R., 2006, Turbomachines and Pipeline Simulations,PSIG Seminar, Aachen,

Germany.
[11] Zamotorin,R., Kurz,R., Lubomirsky,M., Zhang,D., Brun, K.,2018, Control Optimization

for Multiple Gas Turbine Driven Compressors, ASME GT2018-75002.
[12] Lubomirsky,M., Kurz,R., Klimov,P., Mokhatab,S., 2009, Station Configuration Impacts

Availability, Fuel Consumption and Pipeline Capacity, Pipeline and Gas Journal, Feb.2010.

CHAPTER 10
IMPORTANCE OF TESTING
The importance of testing that develops information useful for decision making cannot be
overstated. Testing of gas compressors requires conditions that facilitate the gathering of
conclusive compressor performance data utilizing well-defined conditions. While using
concepts developed in earlier chapters, this section discusses different test methods,
the task of defining representative test conditions, and the reduction of test data to yield
meaningful information about compressor performance.
Industry-wide accepted test codes such as ASME PTC-10 [1], ISO 5389-1992 [2] typically
define factory tests, and must be adapted if used for site performance testing. The Gas
Machinery Research Council (GMRC) [3] provides guidance for site performance tests. This
text will not address specific requirements of these codes, but attempts to outline general
concepts. The requirements for obtaining valid test data and the concepts of uncertainty
analysis are highlighted. Particular attention is given to at-site tests, which require gathering
data based on a particular compressor installation, and therefore, usually won’t comply
completely with the requirements of test codes.
Also, parameters such as power consumption, efficiency and/or operating range need to
be defined as part of test results. Figure 10-1 shows a factory test facility, while Figure 10-2
shows the situation during a site performance test.
Figure 10-1. Titan 130 driven C41D closed-loop validation testing, San Diego.
Chapter 10: Importance of Testing | 237

Figure 10-2. Typical setup for a site test.
For development purposes, tests on scaled components are an integral part of the
compressor development process and can be used to research systematic-design
parameter variations (e.g. blade count, impeller back-sweep angles and/or exit width.
Test rigs enable use of more detailed instrumentation, especially for locations that are
difficult to access in the actual compressor (Figure 10-3). This also enables the use of
validation and calibration CFD tools (Figure 10-4).
Station 5 Station 6
Station 4 Station 7
Station 2 Station 8
Station 1
IGV
Impeller Return Vane
Figure 10-3. Compressor rig traverse locations and custom rake for rig insertion.
238 | Chapter 10: Importance of Testing

CFD Test Data
80
70
60
50
Alpha
40
30
20
10
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Immersion from Shroud
Figure 10-4. Flow angle Alpha 4 along the diffusor; comparison of ATF test data to CFD
calculations.
Examples for the evaluation of design variations are given in Figures 10-5 and 10-6.
Aero Test Rig: C2 Impeller: Volute, Z = 13, Z = 15

Isentropic Head Coefficient and Work Factor (Psi, q)
Flow Coefficient: Phi
Figure 10-5. Stage performance effects with changes in impeller blade count.

Aero Test Rig: C2_50A and C2_50B Impellers
Flow Coefficient: Phi
Figure 10-6. Stage performance effects with changes in blade exit width.
TEST METHODS
If a compressor or one of its sections is designed to work under specified conditions in

terms of (p1, p2, T1, Flow, gas), the best test is obviously a test that exactly reflects these
conditions. In general, this is not possible, because even when the compressor is installed
at site, the conditions are usually different from the conditions originally specified [4, 5].
Methods that enable correcting data from tests with different gases or different inlet
pressures and temperatures to the datum conditions are available, as long as certain
parameters relate to aerodynamic similarity are met. In other words, if these parameters
are met, the flow through the compressor preserves the velocity polygons, as well as
the Mach number and the Reynolds number. Such a test will verify the aerodynamic
performance of the compressor (i.e. its efficiency or operating range). Other tests—for
example, testing at design speed, design power or design discharge pressure—verify
the compressor’s mechanical performance and integrity. The latter type of test is not
addressed here.
For most compressors in oil and gas industry applications, only tests in pressurized, closed
loops or at site, can provide operating conditions to verify compressor efficiency. However,
even tests using ambient air, provided the Mach number is preserved, provide meaningful
information about the operating range of the machine.
Usually, the operating points for the test are determined by the facility, and the test may
not be conducted at the desired condition. Also, when test data are taken over time for
condition-monitoring purposes, the data are taken for different operating conditions.
Therefore, comparison of data taken or predicted at different conditions is needed. Note
that the gas compressor test may serve several purposes, for example:

need tomay compare servedata several
taken purposes,
or predicted for example:
at different condition. Note that the gas compressor t
may serve 2. several
To loadpurposes,
the gas turbine to full load to determine the gas turbine output and full-load
for example:
heat1.rate. To determine the compressor performance.
3.
1. To To verify
2. Tothe
determine load performance
thecompressor
the gas turbine of the to entire
full load
performance. train to determine the gas turbine output and f
heat rate.
For tests2.it isToalways
load the gas turbine toto full load totest
determine the gas turbine output and full-loa
1. To determine compressor performance.
3. Toofverify
advantagethe compare
performance the
of the data with
entire trainother, redundant measurements. F
example,2. To heat
theload rate.
gas the
turbine drivertofull
gas turbine full load
load, performance,
thereby determining or the theelectric motor
gas turbine dive
output and power
full- output m
be known 3. load Toheat
from verify
other the performance of the entire train
For tests it rate. is always of advantage to compare the test data with other, redundantatmeasure
tests. If the compressor can be operated with the engine running full load
the compressor shaft power equals the fullengine full load output.orThis the engine performance can then
For testsexample,
corrected ittoisverify
3. To always
factory
the gas
of
thetest turbine
advantage
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reasonably close to
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ou
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be
example,If the known
gas from
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driver tests. If
full can the compressor
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the electric with
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output at
m
results. the the gas
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power equals measured,
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with theThis engine performance c
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be flow
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whether
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test results. If the gas turbine
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results is improved. Otherwise, reasons for the discrepancy
flow can be measured, a similar comparison can be made for the heat rate. should beIf determined.
the
The goal of a test should be to create conditions that are as close as possible to the original d
To compare
resultstest
fromdata
conditions for test
the site
regardlessa centrifugal compressor,
is a site test itorisa very
and the factory
whether this useful
test are reasonably close,
factory test. to use non-dimensional
confidence in the site
The goal of a test should be to create conditions that are as
parameters for head and flow. Efficiency is already a non-dimensional
test results is improved. Otherwise, reasons for the close
discrepancy as possible
should to the original design
value.
be determined.
conditions regardless whether this is a site test or a factory test.
To
Thecompare
goal of a test testshould
data befortoacreate
centrifugal compressor,
conditions it is as
that are as close very useful
possible to to
theuse non-dimensio
original
Using the conditions,
design Flowfor
parameters Coefficient:
head and
whether flow.
for a site Efficiency is
test or a factory already
test. a non-dimensional value.
To compare test data for a centrifugal compressor, it is very useful to use non-dimensional
parameters for Q
head
To compare testand
dataflow. Efficiency
forQa centrifugal is already
compressor, a non-dimensional
using value. for
non-dimensional parameters
ϕ = Using s the Flow Coefficient:
= s
headπand flow is very2 useful. Efficiency is already a non-dimensional value.
π
Using the D Flow
2
1, tip uCoefficient:
D 1, tip N
3
Using4the Flow Coefficient:

Q4s Qs
ϕ= = 2
Q s π D21, tip uQ s π D31, tip N
and the volume
ϕ= flow4ratio, = 2in other words the ratios between the flow into the compressor and out o
π
the compressor is2 preserved π :3 4
D 1, tip u D 1, tip N
4 4
and the volume flow ratio, in other words the ratios between the flow into the compressor an
(and /Q
Qsthe and )
the the=volume
(flow
d compressor
volume
t
/flow
Qs ratio,Q ) in other
ratio,
is dpreserved : words, the ratios between the flow into the compressor
inaother words the ratios between the flow into the compressor and out o
and out of the compressor are preserved:
the compressor is preserved :
( Qs / Qd )t = ( Qs / Qd )a
while meeting the Head Coefficient (isentropic or polytropic):
( Qs / Q ) = ( Q / Qd )a Coefficient (isentropic or polytropic):
while
d t meetings the Head
p
while
*
H = the
*
2 HHead Coefficient
p
2 H or polytropic):
H (isentropic
ψ = meeting ψ = 2 =
* p
2
u Head
while meeting the (π DCoefficient
1,tip
N)
2
u
(isentropic(πor Dpolytropic):
1,tip
N)
2
2 * 2 p
p
H
*
2 H
*
H
p
2H
ψ = 2 = ψ = 2 =p
the velocity
H
* polygons (π preserved.
u2 H * are D1,tip Np ) H p
2
u2 H (π D1,tip N )
2
ψ = 2 = 2 ψ = 2 = 2
*
we preserve theu be
It should (π Dthat
velocity
noted N) and  at theu beginning
2
1polygons.
,tip
(π D1,oftip Nthe)2 test are unknown, because the
2 of the compressor required
exact speed 2 to meet head and flow are also determined during
the test.
we preserve the velocity polygons.
we preserve the velocity polygons.

Caterpillar: Confidential Green Chapter 10: Importance of Testing | 241
It should be noted that ψ and ϕ at the beginning of the test are unknown, because the exact speed of
the compressor required to meet head and flow are also determined during the test.
Using the non-dimensional values eliminates the requirement to test the compressor
precisely at the same speed as predicted, or precisely the same gas composition as
Using the non dimensional values eliminates the requirement to test the compressor precisely at the
specified. Figure 10-7 shows a typical, non-dimensional compressor map.
same speed as predicted, or precisely the same gas composition as specified.
Figure 3 shows a typical, non-dimensional compressor map.
C75 SE-DEL, s/n G7530102, C753 (705) F1F-E6M-D4R
Closed-Loop Performance, 7000 RPM
Polytropic Efficiency (poly)

Isentropic Head Coefficient (poly)
Figure 3: Non-Dimensional Compressor Map and Test results from a ASME PTC 10 type 2 test
compared with initial predictions. Test dataFlow
Volumetric likeCoefficient
this can be()used to improve the prediction
models for future projects.
Figure 10-7. Non-dimensional compressor map and test results from a ASME PTC 10 type 2
The other
testparameters
compared with that need
initial to be maintained
predictions. Test data liketo
thisaccomplish
can be used tosimilarity
improve the(although
prediction with some
possiblemodels
deviations)
for futureare:
projects.
The other parameters that need to be maintained to accomplish similarity (although with
some possible deviations) are:
MachineMachine
Mach Number:
Mach Number:
u π Dtip N (16)
Mau = =
ks Z s RT s ks Z s RT s

Machine Reynolds Number:
Machine Reynolds Number:
π Dtip N btip
Reu = (
νs
Typically, only some of the similarity parameters can be brought exactly into accordance
with the desired acceptance criteria, especially when the gas composition during the
test is different from the design gas. The most important parameters are head and flow
coefficients, the volume ratio and the machine Mach number.
Typically, only some of the similarity parameters can be brought exactly into accordance with
the desired
When acceptance
keeping the criteria, especially
flow coefficient when
the same thedesign
as the gas composition during
case, the velocity the test is differen
triangles
from theatdesign
the inletgas. The
into the most
first stageimportant
remain the parameters
same. Together arewith
head
theandheadflow coefficients,
coefficient, this the volum
ratio anddefines
the machine
a singularMach
operatingnumber.
point of the compressor, as long as the fan law remains
When keeping
applicable. thevolume
If the flow coefficient the same
flow ratios between inletasand
foroutlet
the design
are keptcase, the as
the same velocity
the triangles a
the inlet into the first stage remain the same. Together with the head coefficient, this defines a
design case, the velocity triangle at the outlet of the compressor also will be the same.
singularGenerally,
operating thispoint of the involves
requirement compressor,
keepingasthe
long
same asmachine
the fan Mach
law remains
number over applicable.
the If the
volume flow ratios between inlet and outlet are kept the same as for the design case, the veloc
machine (at least approximately).
triangleFor
at the outlet of the compressor also will be the same. Generally, this requirement
most applications, the Reynolds number similarity is of lesser importance because the
involvesReynolds
keepingnumbers
the same machinehigh
are relatively Machand number over
clearly in the the machine
turbulent (at least
flow regime. approximately).
Additionally,
the loss generation in centrifugal compressors is only partially due to skin friction effects;
For i.e.,
most dueapplications,
to effects that the Reynolds
are primarily number
governed by similarity is of lesser importance because the
Reynolds numbers.
Reynolds numbers are relatively high and clearly in the turbulent flow regime. Additionally, t
loss generation in centrifugal
Certain deviations between compressors
design and test is case
onlyforpartially due to skin
these parameters friction effects;
are acceptable and i.e., due
unavoidable. In general, as long as the
effects that are primarily governed by Reynolds numbers. deviations between test and design stay within
limits as described in ASME PTC-10 [1], or in ISO5389 [2] a simple correction based on
Certain deviations between design and test case for these parameters are acceptable and
the fan law can be used. Namely, the test point must be at the same combination of  and
unavoidable. In general, as long as the deviations between test and design stay within limits a
 (Eq. 14 and 15) as the design point. The limitations of the fan law are also discussed by
described in ASME PTC 10 (1997), or in VDI 2045(1993), a simple correction based on the f
Brown (1991). Pipeline compressors, with usually only one or two impellers per body, are
law cantypically
be used. Namely, the test point must be at the same combination of ϕ and ψ (Eq. 14 a
less sensitive to deviations from the above parameters (Figure 10-8). Multistage
15) as the design point.
machines show more The limitations of the fan law are also discussed by Brown (1991).
sensitivity.
Pipeline compressors, with usually only one or two impellers per body, are typically less
sensitiveDuring
to deviations from the
site performance testsabove
(Figures parameters (Figure
10-2 and 10-8), 7).conditions
the test Multistage may machines
be show more
sensitivity.
considerably different from the design conditions, and could be outside of the limits
During site performance
established in ASME PTC-10 tests,[1].the test general
In more conditions
terms, may be law
the fan considerably
is no longer different
applicable, from the
and easy corrections
design conditions, and couldfor Mach numbersofand
be outside thevolume/flow ratios are not
limits established available.PTC
in ASME In this
10 (1997). In
more general terms, the fan law is no longer applicable, and easy corrections for the
case, the design programs of the compressor manufacturer can be used to recalculate Mach numbe
compressor performance for the changed design conditions, that is new curves for head
and volume/flow ratios are not available. In this case the design programs of the compressor
coefficient versus flow coefficient and efficiency vs. flow coefficient are generated for the
manufacturer can be used to recalculate the compressor performance for the changed design
new conditions.
conditions, that is new curves for head coefficient versus flow coefficient and efficiency vs.
flow coefficient
ASME PTC-10 are assumes
generated for for
a Typethe1new conditions..
test where the test gas is almost identical to the
ASME PTC10
gas for assumes
the specified for a Type
acceptance 1 test that
conditions. the test,
In a field test the
gasgas
is almost identical
composition cannotto the gas for t
specified
beacceptance
controlled by conditions.
the equipmentIn a field test,and
manufacturer, thethegas
testcomposition
gas might deviatecannot
frombe controlled by th
equipment manufacturer
the specified and the
gas. In case test gas
the actual testmight deviate
gas deviates from thethe
significantly, specified
compressorgas. In case the actu
test gas deviates significantly, the compressor performance can be recalculated for the actual t
performance can be recalculated for the actual test gas.
gas.
Deviations also occur if the gas was specified incompletely, for example, by only defining
Deviations also occur if the gas was specified incompletely, for example, by only defining
the specific gravity rather than a full gas composition.
the specific gravity rather than a full gas composition.

INSTALLATION OF TEST EQUIPMENT
Appropriate test instrumentation, together with the location of the test instruments
are specified in the aforementioned power test codes. The properties to be measured
are pressures, temperatures, flows (which may also require pressure and temperature
measurements) and speed.
Site Performance Test Instrumentation

RTD (resistive temperature device)
Pressure
Discharge transducer
Suction
Pressure transducer
electrical signals
Rosemount delta
Pressure transmitter
Compressor under test RTD electrical 24 Vdc from NetDAQ

Barometer
signals
Temperature data collector "NetDAQ"
110 AC power
"brick" power
supply
RJ-45 Network
Pressure data collector / cable (2x)
transmitter "PSI brick" 110 AC power Wireless transmitter
Converter
110 / 220 AC to 24 Vdc
110 AC power
Wireless Data
Communication
Wi Fi receiver (can use wireless
feature in laptop
Laptop (aka FPU "field
performance unit"
Figure 10-8. Field Test Installation

Provisions must be made during the construction phase of the gas compressor station to
accommodate the installation of the necessary instrumentation, such as thermowells and
pressure taps. If those instruments are not part of the permanent installation, block and
bleed valves should be installed ahead of the pressure sensing device to facilitate change
out during engine and/or compressor operation.
Sufficient lengths of straight pipe between measuring positions on the pipe and elements
like elbows, valves, reducers and/or diffusers must be provided. The distance between
gas compressor flanges and elbows (or
a reducing transition upstream of the
Compressor
compressor) should be at least three
pipe-inside diameters. If an expanding
transition is located upstream of the gas Discharge
Pressure (P2) Speed (N)
compressor, there should be at least six
diameters. The distance between the Inlet
orifice plate and upstream elbows and Discharge Pressure (P1)
valves should be at least ten inside pipe Temp (T2)
diameters of straight pipe. Downstream
of the orifice should be at least five Inlet Temp (T1)
diameters Inlet and discharge pressures
and temperatures shall be measured at
designated points. Figure 10-9 shows a
typical arrangement.
Orifice or
Equivalent (Q)
Instruments must be calibrated to a
reference, and calibration certificates
for all test instrumentation used for the Figure 10-9. Typical test instrumentation
performance test should be available. arrangement.
FACTORY PERFORMANCE TEST DATA
If performance data from the factory test (or another, previously conducted site test)
of the compressor is available, it is actually data from an independent test, using a
different measurement chain. Deviations between this data and the data from the site
test provides valuable insight into the test accuracy of both the factory test and the site
performance test.
SITE TEST CONDITIONS
It is recommended that three complete speed lines be tested in order to fully validate
the compressor performance, however, process conditions do not always allow for the
realization of three complete speed lines. If conditions do not permit testing of three speed
lines, then the test should concentrate on the design point.
For each test point, data shall be taken during a 10-minute interval. At least three sets of data
shall be taken. All data readings for one test point shall be scanned at the same instant.

For each individual acceptance point, a number of points, embracing the specified point,
shall be taken and averaged.
Before readings are taken for any individual test point, steady-state operating conditions
must be achieved. Steady-state is achieved if all of the following apply during the 10-minute
interval:
• Operating speed constant within 5 rpm
• Fluctuations of the efficiency reading no larger than +/- 0.5 points from average,
while head and actual flow remain within +/- 0.5% from average, respectively. This is
significantly lower than the limits in other specifications [4, 5, 6], but it is achievable in
practice.
• The driving gas turbine (where applicable) must be heat soaked for at least several
hours (depending on the size and design of the gas turbine), if the compressor test point
requires full load to avoid drift. In case of a drift, adjustments to maintain the allowable
deviations can be made.
MEASUREMENT PHILOSOPHY
Where several independent instruments are used to measure a pressure or a temperature

value, the value of that pressure or temperature used for the evaluation will be the
arithmetic average of the individual instrument’s readings scanned at the same instant.
Where four independent instruments are used to measure a temperature or pressure value,
and one recorded observation is inconsistent due to measurement error, its value will be
discarded, and the value of the measurement determined from the average of the other
three. Where fewer than four independent measurement devices are used, all values shall
be used and averaged to determine the measurement value.
An attempt shall be made (depending on the actual conditions) to test at five or more
operating points on the same speed line ranging from choke to as close to surge as
conditions allow. The acceptance point shall be bracketed by two nearby test data points.
Site tests sometimes have to be performed without the steady-state operating conditions
that are always achieved in factory tests. While steady-state conditions are desired, the
following table gives an approximate increase of test uncertainties for absorbed power
(ISO 5389-1992, [2]). Practical experience shows that deviations due to unsteady operation
are underestimated by the data given in [2]. Any fluctuation in power higher than about
0.5% will add to the uncertainty of the results.

points on the same speed the line ranging from choke to as close to surge as the conditions allow. The
acceptance point shall be bracketed by two nearby test data points.
Site Tests sometimes have to be performed without the steady state operating conditions that are
always achieved in factory tests. While steady state conditions are desired, the following table gives an
approximate increase of test uncertainties for absorbed power (ISO 5389-1992,[14]). Practical experien
shows that Fluctuation in absorbed
deviations due to power aboutoperation
unsteady the are underestimated by the (%)
data given in [14]. Any
Added Uncertainty
fluctuationmean value (%)
in power higher than about 0.5% will add to the uncertainty of the results.
2 0
3
Fluctuation in absorbed power 0.5
about the4 mean value (%) Added1 Uncertainty (%)
2 0
3 5 0.5 2
4 1
5 of unsteady test conditions per ISO5389-1992.
Table 10-1. Impact 2
Table 2: Impact of Unsteady Test Conditions per ISO5389-1992 [14]
Data Reduction: How to get power, flow and efficiency from all these pressures and
temperatures (Adapted from [5]).
DATA REDUCTION: HOW TO GET POWER, FLOW AND EFFICIENCY
FROM ALL THESE PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES (Adapted form Texam 2005)
SINGLE GAS COMPRESSOR
Single Gas Compressor
The flowThethrough the compressor
flow through the compressor(as(aswell
wellas
as the gasturbine
the gas turbine fuel
fuel flow)
flow) have has
beenbeen measured usin
one of several
measured possible
using oneflow measuring
of several possibledevices. If the devices.
flow measuring device Ifisthe
a flow orifice,
device is a flowthe relationship
betweenorifice,
the flow and the measured
the relationship temperatures
between the and pressures
flow and the measured is as follows:
temperatures and pressures is
as follows:
π
W =C⋅E⋅ ⋅ d 2 2 ⋅ ∆p ⋅ ρ1
4
C and E are discharge coefficients and the velocity approach factor, respectively, and d
is the orifice throat diameter. The coefficients can be determined either from the orifice
C and E are discharge
manufacturer's coefficients
data sheets andcodes
or from such the velocity
as ASMEapproach factor,
PTC-19.5 [6] or ISOrespectively,
5167 [7]. and d is t
orifice throat diameter. The coefficients can be determined either from the orifice manufactur
Other devices (venturi, pitot-type probes, etc.) have formally similar relationships between
data sheets or from such codes as ASME PTC 19.5 (1971) or ISO 5167 (1980).
the flow and the measured pressures and temperatures. Devices that do not use the
Other devices (venturi, pitot-type probes, etc.) have formally similar relationships between
pressure differentials (such as turbine flow meters, ultrasonic flow meters and Coriolis
the flowflow
andmeters)
the measured pressures and temperatures. Devices that do not use the pressure
will be supplied by their respective manufacturers with appropriate methods
differentials, suchactual
to calculate as turbine
flow andflow meters,
standard flowultrasonic flow
or mass flow. meters
It must and that,
be noted coriolis
whileflow
the meters will
suppliedstandard
by their flow through the flow measuring device and the compressor are identical (as actual flow a
respective manufacturers with appropriate methods to calculate
standardlong
present), flow or leaks
theasactual
no mass orflow.
flow It
bemust
willdivisions
flow bepresent),
different
are noted that,
because while
the thewill
pressure
the actual flow standard
and flow through
temperature
be different because atthe
thethecompres
flow
measuring device and the compressor are identical (as long as no
nozzle will be different from the actual flow through the flow measuring device. For now,
pressure and temperature at the compressor nozzle will be different leaks
from theor flow
actual divisions
flow arewe
can statethrough
that any flowmeasuring
the flow measuring device
device. will you
For now, provide us with
can state either
that any flowthe standard
measuring flow (SQ) 1 or
device
the masswillflow (W).
provide you with either the standard flow (SQ) or the mass flow (W).
1
TheTheknowledge of pressure and temperature at the compressor inlet nozzle enables us to

knowledge of pressure and temperature at the compressor inlet nozzle enables
Caterpillar: Confidential
calculate Green
the actual flow (Q flow
s) with:
calculation of the actual (Q ) with:
s
W SQ ⋅ ρ std
Qs = or Qs =
ρs ρs
Standard conditions can be 60°F and 14.70 psia, 60°F and 14.73 psia, or 15°C (59°F) and 760 mm Hg
1
The(14.7
density in the above equations has to be determined using an equation of state. The
psia). Many countries use "normal" conditions, such as 0°C (273.15 K, 32°F) and 1013.25 mbar
general (1relationship
atm, 14.7 psia).is:
p Chapter 10: Importance of Testing | 247

ρ=
Z ( p, T ) ⋅ R ⋅ T
W SQ ⋅ ρ stdstd (2)
Qss = or Qss =
ρ
The densityss in the above equations ρ ss has to be determined using an equation of state. The
general relationship is:
The density in the above equations has to be determined using an equation of state. The
general relationship ptheis:above equations has to be determined using an equation of state. The (3)
TheThe
ρdensity
=densityinin the above equations must be determined using an equation of state. The
general relationship
Z ( p, Tp) ⋅ is:
R ⋅ Tis:
general relationship (3)
ρ=
Z ( p, Tp) ⋅ R ⋅ T
ρ= (3)
Z ( p, T ) ⋅ head
The compressor R ⋅ T (H) can be determined from the measurement of suction and discharge

pressure and temperature. The relationship between the pressure, temperature and the enthalpy
The compressor head (H) can be determined from the measurement of suction and discharge
(h) are defined by the head
The compressor equations
(H) can of
be state described
determined below.
from the measurement of suction and
pressure and temperature. The relationship between the pressure, temperature and the enthalpy
By using
The thepressure
compressor
discharge equations
head and of
(H) state,
can be
temperature. the relevant
determined
The enthalpies
from
relationship forthethe
the measurement
between suction,
pressure, of the discharge
suction
temperature and the
and discharge
(h) are defined
pressure and by the (h)
thetemperature.
equations
The ofby state described below.
isentropic
and discharge
enthalpystate arecan berelationship
defined computed. between
The of
the equations thedescribed
pressure,
isentropic
state temperature
head below.
(H*) is: and the enthalpy
By defined
(h) are using thebyequations
the equationsof state, the relevant
of state describedenthalpies
below. for the suction, the discharge and the
isentropic
By *using the equations of state, the relevant enthalpies for the head
discharge state can be computed. The isentropic suction,(H*)
the is:
discharge and
By using
H = hthe
( pequations
d , ∆s = 0) -of h (state, ) relevant enthalpies for the suction, the discharge and the(4)
p s , T sthe
the isentropic discharge state can be computed. The isentropic head (H*) is:
isentropic*discharge state can be computed. The isentropic head (H*) is:
H = h ( p d , ∆s = 0) - h ( p s , T s ) (4)
H =
The actual
* h ( pH
head
*
, ∆2s = 0) - h ( pss ,T ss ) (4)
dd is :
The actual head H is 2:

H =actual
The h ( p dhead
, T d )H- is
h 2(: p s , T s ) (5)
The actual head H is22:
H = h ( pd ,T d ) - h ( ps ,T s ) (5)
H
TheThe=isentropic
h ( pdd ,Tand
isentropic ) - hpolytropic
( pss ,T ss )efficiencies
ddand polytropic efficiencies
thenthen become:
become:
(5)
The isentropic * and polytropic

p efficiencies then become:
η = * H η =p H (6)
The isentropic H* and polytropic
Hp efficiencies then become:
η* = H ηp = H (6)
It shouldH **
H be noted H p
H the polytropic
that
p efficiency is defined similarly to the isentropic
polytropic
η **
=or isentropicorpp isentropic
η =theprocess. process. However, the isentropic head is unambiguously defined (6)by the
polytropic efficiency,
It should H be using
noted that
H
polytropic
the However,
process
polytropic the of
instead isentropic
efficiency head
theisisentropic
defined is unambiguously
process
similarlyfor comparison.
to the defined by the
isentropic
users process data (i.e., gas composition, suction pressure and temperature, discharge pressure),
users process
efficiency,The actual
usingdata (i.e.,
head,
the gas determines
which
polytropic composition,
process suctionofpower,
the absorbed
instead pressure
the and
is not
isentropic temperature,
affected
fordischarge
by the selection
process comparison. pressure),
The
It while
should the
be polytropic
noted that head
the for
polytropicfull definition
efficiency additionally
is defined requires
similarly tothe
thecompressor
isentropic efficiency or
while the
of the
actual head, polytropic
polytropichead
which determines for
or isentropicfull
the definition
process.
absorbed additionally
However,
power, requires
the isentropic
is not head is
affected the compressor
unambiguously
by the selection efficiency
of the or
efficiency,the discharge
using temperature.
theusers
polytropic process
data (i.e.,instead of the
the discharge
defined
It should temperature.
beby the
noted thatprocess
the polytropic gas composition,
efficiency is isentropic process
suction pressure
defined similarly andfor comparison.
isentropic The
totemperature,
the
actual head,
dischargewhich determines
pressure), while the thepolytropic
absorbed power,
head for fullis not affected
definition by the
additionally selection
requires the of the
efficiency,
1
Standard using the
conditions
compressor can polytropic
be 60°F and
efficiency
process
14.70
or the
instead
psia, 60°F
discharge
of psia,
and 14.73
temperature.
the orisentropic
15°C (59°F) process
and 760 mm forHgcomparison.
(14.7 psia). ManyThe
countries
actual head,
use "normal"With which the
conditions, determines
flow
such asfrom the
above,
0°C (273.15 absorbed
K, the power,
32°F)aerodynamic is
and 1013.25 mbar notor affected
(1gas
atm,power by the
of
14.7 psia). the selection of thethen, is
compressor,
1 With
2 Standard
In US thethe
units, flow
conditions
the from
can
enthalpy above,
be 60°Fdifference theaerodynamic
and 14.70 aerodynamic
psia, 60°F and
(BTU/lb) toorbe
or14.73
has gas
psia, orpower
15°C
multiplied of
by the
(59°F) and compressor,
the760 mm Hg (14.7
‘mechanical then, is countries
psia). Many
is equivalent of
determined
With flow to
from be:above, the gas power of the compressor, then,
determined
use
heat’
1 "normal"
(778.3 to
ft
determined be:
conditions,
lb/BTU) to such
be:to as
get 0°C
the (273.15
head K,
(ft 32°F) and
lb/lb). 1013.25 mbar (1 atm, 14.7 psia).
Standard conditions
conditions can
can be
be 60°F
60°F and
and 14.70
14.70 psia,
psia, 60°F
60°F and
and 14.73
has14.73 psia, or
or 15°C
15°C (59°F)
(59°F) and
by and 760 mmmm Hg
Hg (14.7
(14.7 psia).
psia). Many
Many countries
countries
1
2 Standard
In US units, the enthalpy difference (BTU/lb) psia,
to be multiplied the760
‘mechanical equivalent of
use "normal" conditions, such as 0°C p
(273.15
use "normal" conditions, such as 0°C (273.15
heat’ (778.3 ft lb/BTU) to get the head (ft
K, 32°F) and 1013.25 mbar (1 atm, 14.7 psia).
K, 32°F) and 1013.25 mbar (1 atm, 14.7 psia). (7
g = ρ 1 Q1 p
22 In US units, thePenthalpy H1 = 1
Q1lb/lb).
H has to be multiplied by the ‘mechanical equivalent of (7)
P g = ρ 1 Q1 H = difference R T(BTU/lb)
Z1 H
Q
1 RT
1
heat’ (778.3 ft lb/BTU) toZ get the
1 head (ft lb/lb).
: Confidential
TheGreen
absorbed power (‘brake power’) P is calculated by dividing the internal Power (Gas Power) by the
The absorbed
The absorbed power power
(‘brake(‘brake power’)
power’) P is calculated
P is calculated by by dividing
dividing theinternal
the internal Power
Power (Gas
(Gas Power) by the
mechanical
: Confidential Green
Power) by theefficiency
mechanical :
ηmefficiency m:
mechanical efficiency ηm:
:: Confidential
Confidential Green
Green W W H*
P = PG W
P = PG / η m =
/ηm = [ Tt1 )]H
h( pt 2,Tt 2 ) − h( pt1 ,W =* ⋅ *
[h( pηt 2m,Tt 2 ) − h( pt1 , Tt1 )] = ⋅ *η m η (8)
(8)
η m η η m
After considering the mechanical efficiency (η ) (typically around 98 to 99%), which

bymthe ‘mechanical equivalent of
AfterIn considering the mechanical
US units, the enthalpy efficiency
difference (BTU/lb) has to be (η
m) (typically around 98 to 99%), which
multiplied
2
accounts
heat’ (778.3 for bearing,
ft lb/BTU) to get seal and(ft windage
the head lb/lb). losses, the absorbed (or "brake") power (P) of the
accounts for bearing, seal and windage losses, the absorbed (or "brake") power (P) of the
compressor becomes:
compressor
248
becomes:
| Chapter 10: Importance of Testing
Pg (9
P = PG / η m = [h( p t 2, Tt 2 ) − h( pt1 , Tt1 )] = ⋅ (8)
ηm ηm η *
After considering the mechanical efficiency (ηm) (typically around 98 to 99%), which
After considering the mechanical efficiency (m) (typically around 98 to 99%), which
accounts for bearing, seal and windage losses, the absorbed (or "brake") power (P) of the
accounts for minor bearing, seal and windage losses, the absorbed (or "brake") power (P) of
compressor becomes:
the compressor becomes:
Pg
P=
ηm
The determination of the surge point or the surge line is also related to measurements of
Related
head to
andmeasurements of head lies
flow. The main challenge andinflow is also
the fact the determination
that steady-state conditionsofare
therequired
surge point or th
for any of the measurements discussed herein. By definition, surge is a non-steady
surge line. The main challenge lies in the fact that we require steady-state conditions for any o
condition. Even
the measurements close to surge,
discussed herein.most
Byreadings start to
definition, fluctuate.
surge is a The determination
non-steady of flow Even clos
condition.
at surge is, thus, much more inaccurate than measurements further away from surge.
to surge, most readings start to fluctuate. The determination of flow at surge is, thus, much mo
inaccurate
Thethan
methodmeasurements further
to use increased away
vibration from
levels as ansurge.
indication of surge, or incipient surge,
The ismethod to use increased vibration levels
even more inaccurate because the increased vibrationas an indication
levels mightof
besurge, or incipient
generated by the surge, i
even more
onsetinaccurate
of rotating because the
stall (which increased
is by no meansvibration levels
identical with mightofbe
the onset generated
surge) or other by the onset o
rotatingconditions.
stall (which is by no means identical with the onset of surge) or other conditions.
Equations of State
The aero-thermodynamic
EQUATIONS OF STATE performance of a gas compressor is defined by enthalpy and entropy
differences, so an additional problem arises: enthalpies and entropies cannot be measured
directly,The
butaero-thermodynamic
have to be calculated performance
by the of a gas
use compressor
of an Equation is defined
of Stateby(EOS).
enthalpy The
and state of any
entropy differences, so an additional problem arises: enthalpies and entropies cannot be
fluid consisting of known components can be described by any given pair of its pressure, speci
volume measured directly, but have to be calculated by the use of an Equation of State (EOS). The
and temperature. Equations of state (EOS) approximate these relationships. The
state of any fluid consisting of known components can be described by any given pair of
equations can also be used to calculate enthalpy and entropy from the condition of a gas given
its pressure, specific volume and temperature. EOS approximate these relationships. The
a pressure and a can
equations
temperature
also
(Baehr, 1981).
be used to calculate enthalpy and entropy from the condition of a gas
The given p v
simplest = p/ ρ = RT
equation of state is the equation for a perfect gas:
by a pressure and a temperature (Baehr, [8]). (
The simplest equation of state is the equation for a perfect gas:
H =p =ρ
ph2v-=h1p/
v = p/
= RT
p(T
ρc = RT2 -T1 )
p v = p/ρ = RT (
(
k -1 (10)
Caterpillar: Confidential Green p k
H= * h 2 - h1 = c p (2 T 2 - T 1 )
[ (c p ( T) 2 --T1]1 )
HH ==h c2 p-Th11 =
H = h2 - h1 = c p ( T 2p-1 T 1 )

k -1
p2 kk-1
H* = c p T 1p[[ (( kkp-1 2 )) -- 1]
* k
* H
= cp T 1 2 p 1]
H = c p T 1 [ ( ) p11- 1]
p1
Real gases and in particular gas mixtures, however, display complex relationships between
pressure,
Realvolume
gases and andintemperature
particular gas (p-v-T). EOS usedisplay
mixtures, however, semi-empirical equations
complex relationships to describe thes
between
relationships, in particular the deviations from perfect gas behavior:
pressure, volume and temperature (p-v-T). EOS use semi-empirical equations to describe
Realthese
Real gases
gases and in in particular
relationships,
and particular gasthe
in particular
gas mixtures,
deviationshowever,
mixtures,
from perfectdisplay
however, display complex relationships
gas behavior:
complex relationships between
between
pressure,p volume
Real gases
pressure, and in and
volume temperature
particular (p-v-T).however,
gas mixtures, EOS useusedisplay
semi-empirical equations
complex equations to describe
relationships describe thes(1
betweenthes
= Z ( p, t ) ⋅ Rand
⋅ T temperature
(p-v-T). EOS semi-empirical to
relationships,
pressure, volume
ρ in
and particular
temperature the deviations
(p-v-T). from
EOS perfect
use
relationships, in particular the deviations from perfect gas behavior: gas behavior:
semi-empirical equations to describe these
relationships,
They inalso particular
allow forthethe deviations
calculation offrom perfect
properties thatgas
are behavior:
derived from the p-v-T
p
relationships,
p = Z ( p, t ) ⋅ R ⋅ Tsuch as enthalpy (h) and entropy (s). Because EOS are semi-empirical, they (1
(1
ρ = Z ( p, t ) ⋅ R ⋅ T
p
They ρ( also
might
=Z Rallow
p, t ) ⋅be ⋅optimized
T for the calculation
for certain ofgas
facets of properties
behavior,that
suchare derived from
as liquid-vapor the p-v-T
equilibriums and (11)
ρ
relationships, such as enthalpy (h) and entropy (s). Because EOS are semi-empirical, they mig
be optimized for certain facets of the gas behavior, such as liquid-vapor equilibriums and not
They also
necessarily
They also allow
forallow for the
the typical
for therange
calculation of properties
of temperatures
calculation of
Chapter
properties that
andthat
10:are
Importance
pressures derived of
from
in various
are derived from the| p-v-T
Testing p-v-T249
compression
the
relationships,
They also allow suchforasthe enthalpy
calculation(h) and entropy (s).
of properties thatBecause
are derived EOSfrom
are semi-empirical,
the p-v-T they mig
not necessarily for the typical range of temperatures and pressures in various compression
applications. Because different EOS will yield different values for density, enthalpies and
entropies, the EOS has to be agreed upon before the test.
Usually, it is not possible to select a “most accurate” EOS to predict enthalpy differences,
since there usually is no “calibration normal” to test against. All the frequently used EOS
(RK, BWR, BWRS, LKP, RKS, PR) show reasonably correct enthalpies [9]. It is just not
possible to decide which of them is more accurate for a given application (Kumar et al,
1999). Therefore, it is recommended to use the EOS for test data reduction that was also
used for the performance prediction. This procedure is also recommended in VDI 2045
(1993) to avoid additional test uncertainties.
Figure 10-10 shows the effect of different EOS on the results for a given set of typical test
data. The isentropic efficiency was calculated based on four equations of state, using the
Redlich-Kwong equation as a reference. Depending on the pressure ratio, the four different
EOS deliver four different results for the same measured conditions. For the calculations
in the example, the following conditions were used. Suction condition was always at T1 =
20°C (68°F) and p1 = 50 bar (725 psia). The gas was compressed to varying end pressures
(p2) with T2 chosen such that the reference EOS (RK) yields 80% efficiency. The results are
shown in Figure 10-11. Differences as high as 2% exist among the EOS models. Clearly, it
cannot be concluded that a certain EOS will always lead to higher efficiency than another
EOS.
SG=0.615, P1/pcp=1.067, T1/pct=1.46

100(eta-eta(rk)/eta(rk)
Pressure ratio
Figure 10-10. Isentropic efficiency differences among EOS for a natural gas mixture (when p1 =
50 bar (725 psia), T1= 20°C (68oF) and varying p2, T2 chosen to give  = 80% for RK EOS).

Figure 10-11. Comparison of results based on test with nitrogen and field test with natural gas.
An example shows the results of an actual compressor test (Figure 10-11). Identical
configurations were tested with nitrogen and during a field performance test with a natural
gas mixture containing about 95% methane (Kurz and Brun, 1998). The RK EOS was used
to reduce the data. The close correlation between both sets of data is an indicator for the
general validity and accuracy of the approach using EOS.
or trains with multiple compressors
Considerations for trains with multiple compressors
ultiple compressors,Ineach compressor is treated individually, both as far as
trains with multiple compressors, each compressor is treated individually, both as far
ature, flow measurements and gas compositions are concerned, but also with
as pressure, temperature, flow measurements and gas compositions are concerned,
sign points. The latter requirement
but also with regards is to
duethetodesign
the fact thatThe
points. sitelatter
conditions rarely
requirement is due to the fact that
l three ) compressors to operate at their respective design points at the same
site conditions rarely allow both (or all three) compressors to operate at their respective
their power consumption has toatbe
design points thedetermined individually,
same time. Therefore, and later
their power added up.
consumption has to be determined
rs are completely instrumented,
individually, andthe power
later addedrequirement of the train
up. If all compressors ( and thus
are completely the
instrumented, the power
by the driver) can be determined.
requirement of the train (and thus the power generated by the driver) can be determined.
or compressors withConsiderations for compressors with multiple sections

multiple sections
llenge for compressors Thewith
particular challenge
multiple for compressors
sections with
is to correctly multiplethe
separate sections is to correctly separate the
absorbed
vidual sections. The difficulty arises from the fact that there can be significant massthe fact that there
absorbed power for the individual sections. The difficulty arises from
can be significant mass transfer (due to leakage across the division wall) and possibly heat
akage across the division wall) and possibly heat transfer (again, across the division
to section. It should transfer
be noted (again, across the division wall) from section to section. It should be noted that the
that the measurement of the overall power
measurement of the overall power consumption of the compressor is not affected by these
he compressor is not affected by these internal transfers. However, they can lead to
internal transfers. However, they can lead to observed efficiencies that are too high for the
cies that are too high for the first section, and too low for the second section, or vice
first section, and too low for the second section, or vice versa. For compressors with n
essors with n multiple sections, the absorbed power is
multiple sections, the absorbed power is:
1 n
P= ⋅ ∑ PG , Section _ i (12)
ηm i =1
s valid, as long as all flows in and out of the system are considered. Internal leakage
y in the determination of the performance of individual sections lies in10:

Chapter fact that of Testing |
theImportance 251
kage has an impact on the observed section performance. The interstage leakage
This relationship is valid, as long as all flows in and out of the system are considered.
Internal leakage does not affect it.
The main difficulty in the determination of the performance of individual sections lies in the
fact that the interstage leakage has an impact on the observed section performance. The
interstage leakage can be determined by either:
1. Measuring the flow into the first section inlet, the first section discharge and the second
section inlet.
2. Measuring the flow into the first section inlet, measuring the flow into the second
section inlet, and estimating the leakage flow based on theoretical considerations or
factory test data.
Either method will yield the inlet flow used in the calculations above.
TEST CONDITIONS VERSUS REFERENCE CONDITIONS: COMPARING TEST DATA
Test Uncertainties
Test uncertainties are an expression of the uncertainty of the measuring and testing
process. For example, a machine tested with 84% efficiency may have an actual efficiency
somewhere between 82% and 86%, assuming 2% test uncertainties.
The test uncertainty is basically a measurement of the quality of the test. An increased test
uncertainty increases the risk of failing the test if the turbomachinery is actually performing
better than the acceptance level, but it reduces the risk of failing if the turbomachinery
performance is lower than the acceptance level. Because it is normal practice to use a
lower performance than predicted as an acceptance criteria, it is in the interest of the
manufacturer, as well as the user to test as accurately as possible (Figure 10-12).
Test uncertainties are caused by the following factors:
• Instrument accuracy and calibration
• Instrument location and installation
• Number of instruments
• Reading errors
• Unstable process
When considering instrumentation tolerances, the whole measuring chain needs to be

considered. The instrument, such as the RTD, thermocouple or pressure transducer, has
a certain accuracy and a certain quality of calibration. However, the overall error is also
influenced by the location of the instrument (flow measurements with insufficient straight
runs), the way the instrument is installed (thermocouples in thermowells without heat
conductive paste or insufficient immersion depth), potential reading errors (especially if
gauges are used), or the accuracy of the digital voltmeter, and the calibration quality.

Test uncertainties need to be clearly distinguished from building tolerances. They cover the
inevitable manufacturing tolerances and the uncertainties of the performance predictions.
The actual machine that is installed on the test stand will differ in its actual performance
from the predicted performance by the building tolerances, which are entirely the
manufacturer’s responsibility.
Measurement uncertainty is a function of the specific measurement process used to

obtain a measurement result, whether it is a simple or complex process. Measurement
uncertainty analysis provides an estimate of the largest error that may reasonably be
expected for the specific measurement process. If the measurement process is changed,
then the uncertainty analysis must be reexamined and changed as appropriate. Errors larger
than the stated uncertainty should rarely occur in actual laboratory or field measurements,
if the uncertainty analysis has been performed correctly. [10]
Frequency
Mean value Individual value True value
Random error
Systematic error
Figure 10-12. Simultaneously occurring systematic and random errors. [11]
Prior to any discussion about uncertainty, one should briefly clarify and differentiate the
definitions of measurement accuracy, error, precision, linearity, bias, and hysteresis.
Error is defined as the difference between measured and true value and, thus, includes all
sources that contribute to any variation between a measurement chain’s input and output
(Figure 10-12).
Accuracy is simply the lack of error, and it allows one to bound the range of output a
measurement chain provides for a given input.
3
We use measurement chain instead of instrument, since errors occur not just at the device, but due to
the measurement location, data conversion etc.

Pressure Error
Deviation psig
Deviation (EU)
Applied Pressure
Figure 10-13. Hysteresis of a pressure transmitter.
Precision, linearity, hysteresis, and bias are somewhat less abstract in their definitions.
Namely, precision defines the quality of reproducible measurements from an output
reading. In other words, it is the number of significant digits a measurement chain
provides with perfect accuracy. Linearity is a statistical term that compares the deviation
of a system’s output to a straight-line assumption. Clearly, few physical systems behave
linearly over a wide range and, thus, linearity must always be stated with an upper and
lower limit. Linearity is usually determined from a statistical linear co-relation analysis
with the result expressed as a “k-value”, where k=1.0 presents perfect linearity.
Hysteresis (Figure 10-13) has nothing to do with an instrument’s accuracy degradation
over time, but rather refers to the instrument’s (or system’s) output dependency
on directionality of the input. In most cases, hysteresis is defined as the maximum
difference in instrument reading for a given input value when the value is approached first
with increasing, and then with decreasing input signals. Hysteresis is often caused by
energy absorption in the elements of the measuring instrument or system.
Two fundamental types of errors must be distinguished (Figure 10-12):
Random Error (Precision Error) – Repeated measurements of a given performance

parameter do not and are not expected to agree exactly. There are always numerous
small effects which cause random scatter of the measured data. There is inaccuracy of
the measurement of the control parameter (i.e. Trit) due to its random error. There is also
the variation with time in either the performance parameter or the control parameter (also
called the “set point”).
Bias Error (Fixed Error) – Occurs when there’s a systematic deviation of a measurement
chain’s output from a fixed input. It results from several individual bias errors. The bias
errors have to be estimated and included in the uncertainty analysis. Bias can be a
complex functional form over the chain’s operational range, but in many cases, it’s just the
consistent over or under reading of input data. A constant offset is the simplest example of
bias. Unlike precision, bias can and should be eliminated during the instrument calibration
process, but that is not always possible for the entire measurement chain. Since the bias
has to be estimated, the estimate itself has an uncertainty. Thus, you can also treat the bias
error as a normally distributed uncertainty. An example would be pressure measurements

in a pipe with non-uniform pressure distribution, where the non-uniformity is not known.
Using an average value, with an estimated uncertainty is a possible approach.
Test uncertainty calculations distinguish between random and systematic errors. It is

worthwhile to estimate the level of random errors present for typical site performance
tests. For this purpose, a set of test data is evaluated. The calculated test uncertainty for
systematic errors in isentropic head, actual flow and absorbed power was on average
2.3%, 2.5% and 2.6% respectively. The data was taken as follows: After steady state
for a given operating point was established, one data point per second was taken for
ten seconds. This was repeated five times. Then, the compressor was moved to a new
operating point, and the process was repeated. The set of data contains 86 of the ten-
second data sets. Within each of these 10-second data sets, the standard deviation for
isentropic head, actual flow and absorbed power were calculated. While the standard
deviation for isentropic head was always below 0.02%, the standard deviation for flow and
power could be as high as 0.3%. In other words, in all cases, the impact was at least one
order of magnitude smaller than the impact of the expected systematic test uncertainty.
This leads to the observation that for a well-conducted site performance test, random
uncertainties are much smaller than systematic uncertainties. Based on observations on a
large number of different site tests, this seems to be generally true.
All of the above are factors that contribute to, but are fundamentally different from the
definition of measurement uncertainty. Uncertainty does not refer to a single instrument’s
accuracy, but evaluates the complete range of possible test results for a particular test
condition. As previously stated, no test can be performed with all variables fixed, such that
each input into the test system is a range rather than a point. Consequently, the measured
output from the system must also be a range rather than a point, and must account for all
possible input combinations of all input variables.
It is important to understand that if the input ranges to the system are defined as
statistical bounds, such as 95% confidence intervals, then the output from the uncertainty
analysis will also present the same 95% confidence interval statistical bounds. Similarly,
if the inputs are absolute measurement errors, then the uncertainty analysis will also
yield absolute errors. Therefore, whatever the type of uncertainty range is for the input
variables, will also be the type of uncertainty range for the result. Consistent application
and definitions of the input variable’s uncertainty ranges is thus critically important in any
uncertainty analysis.
Furthermore, prior to determining a test uncertainty, it is important to know whether the

measured variables in the test are independent or dependent, as this determines the
method of uncertainty calculation that must be employed.
The following are typical measurement uncertainties for the entire measurement chain:
• Pressure 0.5 - 2.0% • Gas Composition 1.0 - 5.0%
• Temperature 0.5 - 4ºF • Torque 1.0 - 1.5%
• Flow 0.5 - 2.0% • Equation of State 0.2 - 2.5%

Further, if the process shows fluctuations, it will influence the accuracy of the test results.
This assumes well calibrated instrumentation.
The use of package instrumentation leads to a considerably lower accuracy compared to

tests conducted with dedicated test instrumentation, especially due to higher calibration
standards for the test instrumentation. Package instrumentation is normally selected to
allow for sufficient accuracy for trending. For trending purposes, the absolute accuracy of
a measurement is not important, but rather the difference from certain baselines. Package
displays usually do not take changes in gas composition into account. Furthermore,
It is goodtest
dedicated practice to perform
instrumentation an uncertainty
is calibrated calculation
on a regularly scheduledtobasis
determine what possible
and maintained
conclusions can be drawn from the test data.
continuously.
It is good practice to perform an uncertainty calculation to determine what possible
conclusionsFor the
canuncertainty
Performing an uncertainty
be drawn from analysis,
calculation
the testit istodata.
assumed
determinethat whatall measurement
possible conclusions parameters
can be can be considered
drawn from the test data is a good practice.
to be independent and that parameters have associated statistical bounds, such as a 95%
confidence
For For thethe interval (Δu),
uncertainty
uncertaintyanalysis,
rather it isthan
analysis [11,12,13,14], assumedabsolute thatlimits
it is assumed
of errors. All
all measurement
that all measurement
parameters
parameters
parameters canalso are assumed
be considered
toindependent
to be have
can be Gaussian andnormal
considered that distributions
to beparameters
independent, andaround
have associated
that their statistical
parameters respective meanstatistical
bounds,
have associated values,
such as such
a 95% that the
uncertainties
confidence bounds,interval can
such as be
(Δu),
a 95%properly
rather combined
than absolute
confidence using
interval (Δu), limits the
rather root-square
ofthan
errors.
absolute sum
Allerror method.
parameters The total
limits. All also are assumed uncertainty
(ΔF)parameters
to have for a given
Gaussian normal
are function, F =tofhave
distributions
also assumed (u1,around
u2, …utheir
Gaussian ) is,respective
nnormal thus, determined
distributions meanaround from:
values, such that the
their respective
uncertainties can be properly combined using the root-square sum method.
mean values, such that the uncertainties can be properly combined using the The total uncertainty
root-square
(ΔF) for a given function,
sum method.

The
∂F
total
f = f (u
uncertainty
2
 1, u2, ∂…u
(ΔF)
f n) is, thus,
for determined 1 from:
2a given function, F 2= f (u , u , …u ) is, thus,
 ∂f  2 n
∆F = from:
determined  ∆ u1  +  ∆ u 2  + ... ∆ u n  (20)
 ∂ u1   ∂ u2   ∂ un 
2 2 2
 ∂f   ∂f   ∂f 
∆F =  ∆ u1  +  ∆ u2  + ... ∆ u n  (20)
 ∂ u1   ∂ u 2   ∂ u n 
For this method, the overall uncertainty (ΔF) has the same statistical meaning as the
For this method,
individual uncertaintiesthe overall (Δu). uncertainty
Namely, (ΔF) ifhasΔuthe same statistical
represents a 95%meaning
confidence, as the then the result for the
individual uncertainties (Δu). Namely, if Δu represents a 95% confidence, then the result for
total
For the uncertainty
this method, (ΔF) is alsouncertainty
the overall a 95% confidence (ΔF) has interval.
the same statistical meaning as the
total uncertainty (ΔF) is also a 95% confidence interval.
While many test procedures
individual uncertainties (Δu). Namely, if Δu represents use the rigorous application of Eq.20 tothen
a 95% confidence, determine
the resultthe for the
totaluncertainty
uncertainty
While many of(ΔF)
testprocedures
test results,
is also athe usemethod
95% confidence
the has application
rigorous itsinterval.
limitations:
of Eq. 20 Fortocomplex
determine relationships
the (e.g., when
Equations
While of
many test
uncertainty State
of test have
procedures to be
results, theuse considered,
the rigorous
method or if , for
application
has its limitations: a polytropic
of Eq.20
for complex work and
to determine
relationships efficiency,
(e.g., the a multi-step
iterative
uncertaintywhenof approach
test results,
Equations ofisState
used,
thehave such
method as considered,
to be the Huntington
has or if, for20
its limitations: step method
For complex
a polytropic work in ASME
relationships
and PTC(e.g.,
efficiency, 10) the
when
equation
a above
multistep is
iterativerather difficult
approach is to
used), use
the because
equation the
above
Equations of State have to be considered, or if , for a polytropic work and efficiency, a multi-step partial
is ratherderivatives
difficult to of
use all variables
because are not
easy to
iterative the obtain. is used, such as the Huntington 20 step method in ASME PTC 10) the
partial
approach derivatives of all variables are not easy to obtain.
An
equationAnabove elegant way out is the to following (Moffat, 1988).derivatives
If a data reduction program areexists
not (e.g.,
elegantiswayratherout is difficult
the following use because
(Moffat, [12]).theIf apartial
data reduction program ofexists
all variables
(e.g.,
easya toprogram
aobtain.
that calculates compressor shaft power from flow, pressure and temperature
program that calculates compressor shaft power from flow, pressure and temperature
measurements),
An elegant way then
measurements), outthen isthe
thesame
the following
same
program
program
can be1988).
(Moffat,
can be used
used toIfestimate
to estimate a data the uncertainty
the reduction
uncertainty programof the
in exists
the result.
(e.g., This
is accomplished
a program that
result. calculates
This
by sequentially
is accomplished compressor perturbing
shaft power
by sequentially
thefrom
perturbing
input values
theflow,
by their
pressure
input values and
by their
respective
temperature
respective
uncertainties and
recording
measurements), their
uncertainties then effects.
andthe Any
same program
recording term in
their effects. Eq.
can Any 20
betermcan
usedin tobe approximated
Eq.estimate
20 can bethe uncertainty in thethe
(assuming
approximated that error This
result. is
relatively
is accomplished small)
(assuming that by:
by sequentially
the error is relativelyperturbingsmall) by: the input values by their respective uncertainties and
recording their effects. Any term in Eq. 20 can be approximated (assuming that the error is
relatively  small) ∂f by:
 ∆ u1  ≅ f( u1 + ∆ u1 ) - f( u1 ) (21)
 ∂ u1 
 ∂f 
 ∆ uThat  ≅ the
means f( ucontribution
1 + ∆ u 1 ) - of f(the
u1 )variable u1 to the uncertainty in f can be found by (21)
∂ u1  f twice: once with the observed value of u1 and once for u + Δ u , and then
1
 calculating
That means,
subtracting the that the contribution
two values of f. When several of thevariables
variable areuinvolved,
1 to the the uncertainty
1 1
in f can be found by
overall uncertainty
calculating f twice: once with the observed value of u1 and once for u1 + Δ u1 and then
subtracting
That256means, the
that two values
the10: of f. When
contribution theseveral variables
u1 to theare involved, in thef overall uncertainty
by can
| Chapter Importance of of Testing variable uncertainty can be found
be foundf twice:
calculating by sequentially
once with perturbing
the observed the individual
value of u1variables and once(ufor 1) and
u1 +then Δ u1finding
and then the square root
can be found by sequentially perturbing the individual variables (u1) and then finding the
square root sum of the squares of the individual terms. This can be accomplished using a
spreadsheet.
TEST UNCERTAINTY SAMPLE CALCULATION
The test uncertainty calculation in this example follows the ASME PTC 19.1 Taylor Series
Method (TSM) [13], for error propagation. Because the PTC 10 code uses an iterative
method for the calculation of polytropic work and polytropic efficiency, the partial
differentials in the Taylor series have to be replaced by finite differences.
It is assumed that the uncertainties for the temperature and pressure measurements are
known, and the process gas is 100% methane, so the gas composition is not subject to
uncertainties.
This example does not consider the uncertainty associated to the equation of state (EOS)
that is used to predict the thermodynamic properties of the gas. As shown in the work of
Sandberg, the ability to accurately determine the thermodynamic properties of the gas, and
hence the performance of the compressor, can be influenced by the EOS that is selected
for the evaluation. Special care is required during the test planning phase when selecting
the appropriate EOS.
The relevant uncertainties that were used for pressures and temperatures include the
systematic uncertainties of the entire measurement chain, and are determined according to
ASME PTC-19.1 with a 95% confidence interval. It is further assumed for this example that
the systematic errors in temperature and pressure are not correlated. ASME PTC-19.1 also
provides guidance for correlated systematic errors.
The sample case uses the following conditions:
Sample Case
P1 psia 1000
P2 psia 1891.1
T1 degF 100
T2 degF 209.4
Gas Composition (Mol %)

Methane 100
The calculations for polytropic efficiency and polytropic work use REFPROP 9.1 [15, 16] for
the thermodynamic calculations.
The systematic uncertainties of the measurement chains for temperatures and pressures
with a 95% confidence interval used for the example are:
T1: 0.2°F
T2: 0.25°F
P1: 5 psi
P2: 9.45 psi

The sensitivity of the polytropic efficiency and polytropic work have been calculated
using a perturbation analysis in which the expressions for these performance parameters
are evaluated using the nominal values for the measured variables (inlet and discharge
pressures and temperatures), and subsequently evaluated by implementing a perturbation
(perturbation = nominal value + systematic uncertainty) in each one of the measured
variables, while keeping the other variables at their nominal values (see tables 10-2 and
10-3 below).
The total systematic uncertainty is calculated as:
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴. 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = ��(∆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )2
he difference between the value of the performance parameter (polytropic

Where Δi corresponds to the difference between the value of the performance parameter
k) evaluated under nominal
(polytropic efficiencyconditions andwork)
or polytropic the value for that
evaluated underparameter
nominal conditions and the value
bed condition for variable
for that parameter i. evaluated
Here, variable i represents
under the P1, P2, T1forand
perturbed condition T2. i. Here, variable i
variable
represents P1, P2, T1 and T2.
Tables 10-2 and 10-3 show the sample calculations for polytropic efficiency and polytropic
he sample calculations for polytropic efficiency and polytropic work,
work, respectively.
nominal Perameter
P1 P2
Uncertainty T1 Nominal Value
T2 P1 P2 T1 T2
value
1000 P1 (psia)
1005 10005 1000 1000 1000 1005 1000 1000 1000
1891.1 P2 (psia)
1891.1 1900.55
9.45 1891.11891.11891.1 1891.1 1900.55 1891.1 1891.1
100 100
T1 (deg F) 100 0.2 100.2 100 100 100 100 100.2 100
209.4 209.4 209.4 209.4 209.65
T2 (deg F) 0.25 209.4 209.4 209.4 209.4 209.65
0.821 0.8123 0.8296 0.8231 0.8186
Poly Effy - 0.821 0.8123 0.8296 0.8231 0.8186
7.569E- 7.4E-05 4.41E- 5.76E-
Delta05
squared (i)2 - 06 - 06 7.569E-05 7.4E-05 4.41E-06 5.76E-06
Abs. Uncert - 0.012642 - - - -

0.012642
Table 10-2. Sample calculation of the systematic uncertainty for polytropic efficiency.
on of the systematic uncertainty for polytropic efficiency
nominal P1 P2 T1 T2
value
1000 1005 1000 1000 1000
1891.1 258 1891.1
| Chapter 1900.55 1891.1
10: Importance of Testing1891.1
100 100 100 100.2 100
Perameter Uncertainty Nominal Value P1 P2 T1 T2
P1 (psia) 5 1000 1005 1000 1000 1000
P2 (psia) 9.45 1891.1 1891.1 1900.55 1891.1 1891.1
T1 (deg F) 0.2 100 100 100 100.2 100
T2 (deg F) 0.25 209.4 209.4 209.4 209.4 209.65
Poly Head - 34791.2 34512.5 35060.6 34782.8 34800.8
Delta squared (i)2 - - 77673.69 72576.36 70.56 92.16
Abs. Uncert - 387.8309 - - - -
Rel. Uncert - 0.011147 - - - -
Table 10-3. Sample calculation of systematic uncertainty for polytropic work.

Table xx-2: Sample calculation of systematic uncertainty for polytropic work
xx-2: Sample calculation of systematic uncertainty for polytropic work
The results give a systematic uncertainty for polytropic efficiency bx = 0.012642 and for
The results give a systematic uncertainty for polytropic efficiency bx = 0.012642 and for polytropic work
esults give a systematic uncertainty
polytropic work bfor polytropicft efficiency
= 387.8309 bx = 0.012642 and for polytropic work
lbf/lbm (or 1.1147%).
bx = 387.8309 ft lbf/lbm (or 1.1147%).
x
87.8309 ft lbf/lbm (or 1.1147%).

ASME PTC-19.1 requires systematic and random uncertainties be treated separately.
ASME PTC 19.1 For
requires to treat
the purpose systematic
of this example,and random
assume uncertainties
a random separately.
uncertainty Forefficiency,
for head and the purpose of
E PTC 19.1 requires to treat systematic and random uncertainties separately. For the purpose of
this example, we will
that assume
would a random
be found uncertainty
for a test for data
with multiple headpoints
and efficiency,
for each testthat would
point, basedbeonfound
the for a
xample, we will assume a random uncertainty for head and efficiency, that would be found for a
test with multiple data points for each test point, based on the analysis of the scatter of the test results,
analysis of the scatter of the test results, per ASME PTC-19.1 to be sx= 0.003 for polytropic
with multiple data points for each test point, based on the analysis of the scatter of the test results,
per ASME PTC 19.1 to beand
efficiency sx=s0.003
= 40.1for polytropic
ft lb efficiency
/lbm for polytropic and sx = 40.1 ft lbf/lbm for polytropic work.
work.
SME PTC 19.1 to be sx= 0.003 for polytropic
x
efficiency
f
and sx = 40.1 ft lbf/lbm for polytropic work.
The expanded uncertainty U then becomes (ASME PTC-19.1, Sect.5) for the polytropic
The expanded uncertainty Ux then becomes
x
(ASME PTC 19.1, Sect.5) for the polytropic efficiency
xpanded uncertaintyefficiency:
Ux then becomes (ASME PTC 19.1, Sect.5) for the polytropic efficiency
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = �0.012642 2 + (2 ∗ 0.003)2 ) = 0.013994

2 + (2 ∗ 0.003)2
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = �0.012642 ) = 0.013994
and for the polytropic work

or the polytropic work
and for the polytropic work:
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = �(387.8309 ) +𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈
(2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴∗𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓40.1
2
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
) = 396.0364
�(387.8309
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = ) + (2 ∗
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 40.1 ) = 396.0364
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
with a confidence of 95%.
a confidence of 95%. with a confidence level of 95%.
The results would
Thethen bewould
results reported
then as
be follows:
reported as follows:
esults would then be reported as follows:
Polytropic
Polytropic efficiency ηp =efficiency p = 0.821+/-0.014
0.821+/-0.014
ropic efficiency ηp = 0.821+/-0.014
Polytropic work: Wp=34791.2 ft lbf/lbm +/- 396.0 ft lbf/lbm
Polytropic work:InW p=34791.2

the ft lbf/lb
example above, +/- 396.0
it mbecomes ft lbf/lbm obvious that the major contribution to the
immediately
ropic work: Wp=34791.2 ft lbf/lbm +/- 396.0 ft lbf/lbm
uncertainty comes from the pressure data. In other words, in order to improve the accuracy
of the results, the effort should be focused on improving the pressure measurements.
In the example above, it becomes immediately obvious that the major contribution to the
e example above, it becomes immediately obvious that the major contribution to the
uncertainty comes from the pressure data. In other words, in order to improve the accuracy of the
rtainty comes from the pressure data. In other words, in order to improve the accuracy of the
results, the effort should be focused on improving the pressure measurements.
ts, the effort should be focused on improving the pressure measurements.
The example, very realistic, also shows the small impact of random uncertainty, which can well be
xample, very realistic, also shows the small impact of random uncertainty, which can well be
neglected in its influence on the test results.
The example, very realistic, also shows the small impact of random uncertainty, which can
well be neglected in its influence on the test results.
The beauty of this scheme lies in the fact that:
• It does not matter whether the uncertainty is given as an absolute or relative number.
• The procedure can be implemented using any of the commercial spreadsheet programs.
• Any value in the table can be the result of a complex, even iterative calculation.
More details about test uncertainty calculation can be found in [4,13,14,15]. It must be
stressed that bias and random errors have to be treated separately. It also should be noted
the method described is a valid adaption of ASME PTC-19.1 [13]. For performance curves,
the influence of uncertainties on the values of both axis can be expressed by an uncertainty
ellipse (Figure 10-14).
INTERPRETATION OF TEST DATA
If the test data deviate from the predictions or from other test data by more than the level
of test uncertainty, the reasons must be explored (Figure 10-14). Assuming the test data are
reduced correctly, it must be determined whether the test conditions were close enough to
the conditions for the prediction.
Using redundant data for comparison is usually desirable. Examples follow:
Determine the shape of the head-flow and flow efficiency curves, and compare them
with predictions. If the curves are just shifted to the left or right, the flow measurement
is suspect. Another necessary step is comparing the whole measured -- curve with
the predicted curve. For compressors, it might be found that the head-versus-flow curves
have just shifted horizontally, which points to an incorrect flow measurement. If some
points of the curve match the predictions and others do not match, variations of the gas
composition during the test could be the cause. Data from a site test for a compressor
station close to several wells may serve as an example. The solid line represents the
prediction for head and efficiency, the symbols indicate test data taken during two
tests. Test 1 experienced significant fluctuations in gas composition, while test 2 was
somewhat more stable.
Additional evidence may come from a comparison between compressor absorbed power
and expected driver available power: Determine the absorbed power and compare it
with the expected power from the driver. For a gas turbine, full load factory test data is
usually available. The compressor should be operated at a point that requires the gas
turbine to operate at full load. The absorbed compressor power should be close to the
factory-tested gas turbine power (corrected to the site test conditions regarding ambient
conditions and power turbine speed), assuming the gas turbine is in new and clean
condition. For compressors driven by an electric motor, the motor, gearbox and VFD
efficiencies can be used to compare the measured electric power consumption to the
absorbed compressor power.

Head and Efficiency Low: A comparison to available other test data should be made.
If the head was already low in a factory test, then the results from the site test may just
confirm the factory test findings. A wrong flow measurement can make the compressor
look like it’s not producing the correct head and efficiency (see above). Other reasons
include damaged impellers, or damaged seals. Both issues can be eliminated by visual
inspection, if possible. Damaged balance piston seals can also be detected by monitoring
the pressure (or flow) in the balance piston return line. Ingested inlet strainers that are
caught in the inlet (or other obstructions) can cause significant pressure drop between
the measurement location and the actual compressor inlet, thus generating the false
impression that the compressor is low in head and efficiency.
Acceptance Point
Test points
and respective
uncertainty ellipse
Figure 10-14. Uncertainty
Any data taken must be corrected to the same datum conditions. For gas compressors,
the non-dimensional curves are a good tool. However, large deviations in Mach number
especially in multistage machines, need to be avoided (Figure 10-15). The effects of
Single Stage Multi Stage

psi/psiref, eta/etaref
psi/psiref, eta/etaref
phi/phiref phi/phiref
Figure 10-15. Impact of machine Mach number deviations for single-stage and multi-stage
machines.

different Mach numbers or different volume/flow ratios (Qs/Qd) may be responsible for the
deviations. In such cases, it is always helpful to repeat the prediction procedure for the
actual test conditions.
In many instances, redundant measurement can increase the confidence in the results.
The compressor gas power can be checked by comparing the results with the gas turbine
power and heat rate from the factory test, corrected to site test conditions (Kurz, 1999).
In this case, it is also recommended to thoroughly clean the gas turbine air compressor
prior to the test: 3% and more engine power has been recovered after cleaning the air
compressor. Electric motors allow a convenient measurement of the electric power
input. Corrected by the motor efficiency, the gearbox efficiency, the losses in the variable
frequency drive (if applicable), and the motor shaft power can be calculated and compared
to the measured compressor power.
INSTALLATION OF TEST EQUIPMENT
During construction of a gas compressor station, provisions must be made to

accommodate the installation of necessary instrumentation, such as thermowells and
pressure taps, if not part of the permanent installation. Block and bleed valves should be
installed ahead of the pressure-sensing device to facilitate change out during engine and/or
compressor operation.
Sufficient runs of straight pipe between measuring positions and components such as
elbows, valves, reducers and/or diffusers must be planned. The distance between gas
compressor flanges and elbows (or a reducing transition upstream of the compressor)
should be at least three times the pipe’s inside diameter. If an expanding transition is
located upstream of the gas compressor, there should be at least six inside pipe diameters.
The distance between the orifice plate and upstream elbows and valves should be at least
ten inside pipe diameters of straight pipe. Downstream of the orifice, pipe should be at
least five diameters.
Inlet and discharge pressures and temperatures shall be measured at agreed-upon points.
Figure 10-9 shows a typical arrangement. Instruments must be calibrated to reference, and
calibration certificates for all test instrumentation used during the performance test should
be available.
FACTORY PERFORMANCE TEST DATA
If compressor performance data from the factory test (or another, previously conducted site
test) is available, it is actually data from an independent test, using a different measurement
chain. Deviations between this data and the data from the site test provides valuable
insights into the accuracy of both the factory test and the site performance test.

SITE TEST CONDITIONS
Three complete speed line tests are recommended in order to fully validate compressor
performance, however, process conditions don’t always enable completion of three
complete speed line tests. If that’s the case, then testing should concentrate on the design
point. For each test point, data should be taken during a 10-minute interval. At least three
sets of data should be taken. All data readings for one test point shall be scanned at the
same instant. For each individual acceptance point, a number of points, embracing the
specified point, shall be taken and averaged.
OPERATING SPEED CONSTANT WITHIN 5 RPM
Before readings are taken for any individual test point, steady-state operating conditions
must be achieved. Steady state is achieved if all of the following apply during the 10-minute
interval.
• Operating speed remains constant within 5 rpm
• Fluctuations of the efficiency reading no larger than +/- 0.5 points from average,
while head and actual flow remain within +/- 0.5% from average, respectively. This is
significantly lower than the limits in other specifications [14], [16], but is achievable in
practice.
• The driving gas turbine (where applicable) must be heat soaked for at least several
hours (depending on the size and design of the gas turbine), if the compressor test point
requires full load to avoid drift. In case of a drift, adjustments to maintain the allowable
deviations can be made.
MEASUREMENT PHILOSOPHY
Where several independent instruments are used to measure a pressure or a temperature

value, the value of that pressure or temperature used for the evaluation will be the
arithmetic average of the individual instrument’s readings scanned at the same instant.
It is good practice to perform a test uncertainty calculation as part of data gathering and
evaluation process. Obviously, data with an uncertainty of 3% cannot yield conclusions
that require an accuracy of 1%. If the test point does not match the prediction or other test
results, a test uncertainty ellipse (can be drawn). The two axes of the ellipse represent
the test uncertainties for the parameters on the x and y axis, respectively. If it still covers
the prediction, the test results might be correct. The uncertainty ellipse in Figure 10-14
expresses the fact that not only is the measured power subject to test uncertainties, but
also the ambient temperature. When comparing field test results with factory tests, the
influence of test uncertainties in both tests must be considered. Whatever factory test
results are available can be used for comparison and verification purposes. Whatever the
deviation might be, it is best if it can be detected, discussed and possibly corrected during
the test. A good relationship with a trusted manufacturer can help in finding causes for
discrepancies.

Another reason for test data discrepancies can be found in the way the test is conducted. If
the test data wasn’t gathered while the equipment operated under steady-state conditions,
they may not be useful. The requirements for steady-state operation are mentioned above.
The time requirement to achieve heat soaking should be provided by the gas turbine
manufacturer. As a rule of thumb, one hour is required for smaller engines (below 8000 hp),
while larger engines may require two or more hours. A well conducted test will yield
repeatable and reliable results. In Figure 10-16, the results of several tests at two different
stations, including data for four identical compressors, tested consecutively, can serve as
proof for this statement.
Isentropic Efficiency: t-t

Non-Dimensional Head Coefficient: Psi
Original Prediction
Site 1 Unit 1 Site 1 Unit 2
Site 2 Unit 3 Site 2 Unit 4
Non-Dimensional Flow Coefficient: Phi
Figure 10-16. Repeatability of field tests.

[1] ASME Performance Test Code, PTC 10 -1997, Performance Test Code on Compressors
and Exhausters’, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York 1997.
[2] ISO 5389-1992, 1992, “Turbocompressors – Performance Test Code,” International

Standards Organization.
[3] Brun, K., Nored, M., 2006, Guideline for Field Testing of Gas Turbine and Centrifugal
Compressor Performance, Release 2.0, Gas Machinery Research Council.
[4] Kurz, R., Brun, K., Legrand, D.D., 1999, “Field Performance Testing of Gas Turbine
Driven Compressor Sets,” 28 th Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, TX.
[5] Kurz, R., Brun, K., 2005, Site Performance Test Evaluation for Gas Turbine and Electric
Motor Driven Compressors, Proc. 34th Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, TX.
[6] ASME PTC 19.5, 2004, Flow Measurement.
[7] ISO 5167, 1980, Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices
inserted in circular cross-section conduits running full.
[8] Baehr,HD, 1981, Thermodynamik, Springer, Berlin.
[9] Kumar, S.K., Kurz, R., and O’Connell, J.P., 1999, “Equations of State for Gas
Compressor Design and Testing,” ASME Paper 99-GT-12.
[10] Wells, C.,1992, Measurement Uncertainties Analysis Techniques Applied to PV

Performance Measurements, NREL TP 411-4125.
[11] Haesselbarth, W., 2006, Guide to the Evaluation of Measurement Uncertainty for
Quantitative Test Results, Eurolab Technical Report 1/2006.
[12] Moffat, Robert J. "Identifying the True Value-The First Step in Uncertainty Analysis."
Proceedings of the 34th International Instrumentation Symposium. Instrument Society of
America, May 1988.
[13] ANSI/ASME, Measurement Uncertainty. Supplement to ASME Performance Test

Codes, PTC 19.1-1985. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York 1985.
[14] Brun, K., Kurz, R., 2001, Measurement Uncertainties Encountered during Gas Turbine
Driven Compressor Field Testing, TransASME JEGTP, Vol. 123, pp.62-69.
[15] American Gas Association (AGA) Report No. 8, 1994, “Compressibility Factors of
Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Gases.”
[16] Kunz, O., Wagner, W., 2012, “The GERG-2008 Wide Range Equation of State for
Natural Gases and Other Mixtures: An Expansion of GERG-2004,” J. Chem. Eng. Data,
2012, 57(11), pp 3032-3091.

CHAPTER 11
RESTAGE: CENTRIFUGAL
GAS COMPRESSORS
Avneet Singh, Rainer Kurz
Compressor installations in the gas transmission and production industry are subject to
changing operating conditions. Many pipelines typically experience seasonal variations
in conditions, as well as different daytime and nighttime operations. Many industry
production operations are faced with continuously changing well conditions or declining
well production. A wide-range, well-designed compressor can provide operational flexibility
to handle these changing conditions.
Even though centrifugal gas compressors driven by gas turbines provide tremendous
operational flexibility, the economics of restaging make them a great option to optimize
operations when facing new circumstances or conditions. While primarily driven by
compressor efficiency gains, flow capabilities and/or improvements in fuel efficiency,
important restaging considerations also include downtime costs and the ease of restaging.
Most turbomachinery OEMs use similar design tools such as CFD, FEA and CAD,
manufacturing technologies and developmental testing in their design processes. Gas
compressor products, however, are distinctly different due to different design philosophies.
For example, some OEMs design compressors with high efficiencies within a narrow range
by using low-solidity airfoil (LSA) vaned diffusers, while other OEMs design compressors
that can be operated across a wide flow range with acceptable efficiencies.
While it’s important to offer high-efficiency gas compressor solutions to meet the initial
conditions: pressure, temperature, gas composition, flow, etc., changes in operating
conditions such as gas field depletion and natural gas demand increases are the primary
considerations in production- and pipeline-compressor applications. Of equal importance
is the ability to easily restage gas compressors to reduce life-cycle costs and minimize
downtime costs.
GAS COMPRESSOR DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Aerodynamics, rotordynamics and mechanical design are the three primary technical
focuses of gas-compressor design. Serviceability must also be part of the design criteria,
as gas compressors can be in service for many years or even decades. The operating
conditions are different for every compression project. Depending on the specific
requirements, compressors have to handle different operating parameters such as flows,
suction and discharge pressures, suction temperatures, gas compositions, power levels
and train configurations, as well as specific customer requirements. To cover all different
applications in the oil and gas industry, manufacturers either employ pre-engineered,
standardized compressors, or some level of design customization.
The difference between these two approaches is not in the sophistication of the design,
nor in the capability to show better performance under project-specific operating
Chapter 11: Restage: Centrifugal Gas Compressors | 267

conditions. The main difference is that customized designs are engineered to perform
on a specific project, while most—if not all engineering for pre-engineered designs—are
completed long before an order is placed. This also includes the testing required for design
verification.
Standardized designs utilize pre-engineered components and pretested designs. For a

specific application, aero components are selected from a family of impellers and stators,
which have already been tested individually or inside a compressor. This approach to pre-
engineered design provides a shorter response time, as well as proven performance and
durability. Compressor aero performance characteristics are predicted and continuously
refined through test data. Since a particular family of aero components can cover a
large flow range as shown in Figure 11-1, different staging combinations can replace the
existing staging to optimize the operation based on a new set of conditions. This is called
compressor restage. The rotordynamic stability envelope also has to be verified by testing
as shown in Figure 11-2. This standard design method reduces the risk to a minimal level,
for both users and OEMs.
Shroud
Back
Hub
Vane
Low Flow
High Flow
1A 3E
Stage Stage
Head
Surge Maximum
Limit Speed
Volumetric Flow
Figure 11-1. A typical impeller family and performance curves.
268 | Chapter 11: Restage: Centrifugal Gas Compressors

P2, psia
Speed, RPM
Figure 11-2. A typical stability envelope as related to compressor speed.
After new equipment is installed, the maintenance requirements for centrifugal

compressors are minimal. Two major events must be considered during the machine’s
operation:
• Damage due to foreign object debris (FOD)
• Large change in operating conditions to the extent that the economics favor a restage of
the compressor (or, in extreme cases, the addition or removal of a compressor body).
Although rare, damage due to FOD creates the need for an immediate response to restore
the capability to operate the station, especially if there is limited or non-existent stand-by
capacity. If only stationary components (like inlet vanes) are damaged, the operation may
continue. If impellers are damaged, they must be replaced. Often in situations like this, only
the first stage is damaged. Designs that facilitate quick replacements provide a significant
advantage in operational downtime. The latter event is usually planned. Frequently,
operating conditions change gradually, and the point where a compressor restage makes
economic sense is predictable.
In pipeline applications, the economics of restage are most likely dictated by the potential
improvement in throughput capacity, or the opportunity to reduce fuel consumption and
corresponding emissions. Avoiding recycle, as well as avoiding operation in choke, while
neither damaging nor disruptive, can fall in either category. For oil production applications,
the ability to lower suction pressure drives compressor restages. These questions
supported by case studies will be addressed later in this chapter.
Economics also raise questions involving cost and downtime. While many OEMs
recommend the replacement of the entire rotor and stator components if a restage is
required, opportunities to make use of existing hardware exist, if the compressor design is
conducive to component reuse.

MODULAR DESIGN
The modular rotor design was recognized by API [1]. As shown in Figure 11-3, stub shafts,
impellers, and spacers (if needed) are bolted together to form a modular shaft. The tie-bolt
is stretched to a level that the torque can be transmitted through the interface between
components.
In the standard design method, one of the key concepts is that all the aerodynamic
components from one compressor family must be mechanically interchangeable. Modular
design is a way to take full advantage of interchangeable aerodynamic components. With
modular rotor design and interchangeability of aero components, the compressor can have
thousands of combinations within a common mechanical design.
Stub Shaft
Center Tie
Bolt
Centerstud
Impellers
Centerstud
Nut
Stub Shaft
Tie Bolt Nut
Figure 11-3. A typical modular rotor design.
Traditionally, the industry has used solid-shaft rotor construction methods. The impellers
are shrink-fitted onto a solid shaft. The rotor is centered by two halves of stationary
components, which is called a split-case design. When the compressors run as designed
under clean gas and at design conditions, the difference between solid shaft and modular
shaft designs is negligible (Figures 11-4 and 11-5). But when the compressor requires
overhaul or restage, there is a significant difference in terms of cost, lead time, and
sustainability between both designs. Modular rotor design is easier to disassemble since it
doesn’t require the expensive and difficult shrink-fit process. Thus, it is more restage and
overhaul friendly. The impellers that can be reused are easily salvaged to reduce the cost
and minimize downtime. The impellers that are displaced by the compressor restage can
be stored for use in future restages.

Figure 11-4. A typical modular rotor on the balance machine.
Figure 11-5. Comparison of modular rotor (left) to solid-shaft rotor (right).
The main concern with the modular rotor is rotor stiffness. In 2009, J. Moore and A. Lerche
[2] evaluated an industrial tie-bolt rotor against an equivalent solid rotor and concluded that
modular rotor design met the required API separation margin criteria. Not only that, the
solid rotor has a higher amplification factor and unbalance response. The solid rotor has
about 10% lower log decrement value and lower stability threshold than the modular rotor
(Figure 11-5). Comparison of modular rotor (left) to solid-shaft rotor (right).
ENGINE MATCHING
The centrifugal compressor and its driver have to be matched regarding speed and power
consumption. When using electric drives, the match between compressor and driver is
done via a gearbox, which also adds torsional damping to the system. When matched with
a two-shaft gas turbine, good practice is matching the compressor speed at the design
point or the rated point with the power turbine operating in the vicinity of its optimum
speed. In general, the more powerful the gas turbine, the slower its power turbine wants
to run. For example, while a gas turbine in the 6000 hp class has a maximum power turbine
speed of 16500 rpm, a 20000 hp class gas turbine may have a maximum power turbine
speed roughly half that number.

Output Power (%)
Output Speed (%)
Figure 11-6. Speed-power characteristics of compressor drivers.
Performance vs Power and Heat vs

Ambient Temperature Elevation
Heat Rate
Heat Rate
Power, Heat Rate
Power, Heat Rate
Power Power
Ambient Temperature Elevation
Efficiency at Part-Load Operation Power Turbine Speed

Relative Thermal Efficiency, %
Optimum
Speed
100
Power
Increasing
Ambient
Temperature
50 100 40 100
Load, % Npt
Figure 11-7. Four gas turbine performance characteristics.

Understanding the speed-power characteristics of different drivers is also important. While
a power turbine actually produces more torque at low speeds than at high speeds, a VFD
driven electric motor produces constant torque at best (Figure 11-6). If the driver is a gas
turbine, other factors must be considered (Figure 11-7). Gas turbine uprates at engine
overhauls may provide more power than originally installed. One manufacturer over the
years brought an engine that was originally introduced at 10,000 hp in several steps to a
power level of 16,000 hp today. The gas turbine provides far more power on cold days.
Operating the gas turbine fully loaded is also advantageous.
PRINCIPLES OF GAS COMPRESSOR RESTAGE
Gas Compressor Performance
In reality, gas conditions always change in either pipeline or production compressors.

If conditions oscillate around the design point for a typical wide-range compressor, no
restaging is needed. However, when conditions change in one direction away from the
design point, compressor restaging should be considered.
Head or Pressure Ratio
Inlet Volumetric Flow

Figure 8 A Typical Multistage Compressor Flow-Head Map
Figure 11-8. A typical multistage compressor flow-head map.
Essentially,
Essentially, six6key
key parameters
parameters define
define the gas compressor
gas compressor performance:performance:
Inlet/discharge Inlet/discharge
temperature/pressure,
temperature/pressure, flow, flow, and speed
and speed for agas
for a given given gas composition.
composition. Gas
Gas properties properties
such as such
specific gravity,
specific gravity, specific
specific heat specific
heat ratio, ratio, specific
heat and heat and compressibility
compressibility also affect the com
also affect compressor
performance. Changes
performance. Changes ofabove
of the abovementioned
mentioned parameters
parameters may require
may require speed andspeed
powerand power ch
changes.
 k −1

29.27 k  P 2  k

H isen = × × Z × T1×   −1 (1)
SG k −1  P1  
 
H actual = Cp × (T 2 − T 1) (2)
H Chapter 11: Restage: Centrifugal Gas Compressors | 273
η isen = isen (3)
H
performance. Changes of above mentioned parameters may require speed and power change.
 k −1

29.27 k  P 2  kk−k1 
H isen = 29.27 × k × Z × T 1 ×  P 2  − 1 (1)
H isen = SG × k − 1 × Z × T 1 ×  P1  − 1 (1)
SG k −1  P1  
 
H actual = Cp × (T 2 − T 1) (2)
H actual = Cp × (T 2 − T 1) (2)
H isen
η isen = H isen (3)
η isen = H actual (3)
H
Where, actual
Where, -Cp is specific heat ratio at constant pressure
Where: -Cp is specific heat ratio at constant pressure
-Hisen is isentropic head
-H
-Hisen
• Cp is specific
isisisentropic
actual heat actual head
ratio athead
constant pressure
-H
-k actual is actual
is specific head
heat ratio
• Hisen is-k is specific
isentropic headheat ratio
-P1/P2 is inlet/discharge pressure
-P1/P2
-T1/T2 isis inlet/discharge
inlet/discharge pressure
temperature
• Hactual is actual head
-T1/T2 is inlet/discharge temperature
• k is specific heat ratio
• P1/P2 is inlet/discharge pressure

aterpillar: Confidential
• T1/T2 is Green
inlet/discharge temperature
• SG is specific gravity
• Z is compressibility factor
• isen in the above equations is isentropic efficiency

The temperature, pressure and gas properties are combined into two terms: isentropic
head and isentropic efficiency as shown in the three equations above. The two combined
parameters plus flow and speed are the four key parameters applicable to evaluating
compressor performance, which is typically shown in a Head-Flow map (Figure 11-8).
The effects of temperature, pressure and gas composition mainly move the operating point
in the T (speed Topping) or D (speed Decreasing) direction as these parameters mainly
affect head as shown in the second equation.
When suction temperature is increased from the original design point, more head will
be created for the same pressure ratio, and higher speed will be required to move the
new flow point in the T direction. The temperature also changes the map slightly. Higher
temperature tends to tilt the map in the counter-clockwise direction.
Suction pressure also moves the point in the T or D direction. For a typical declining gas
field, the suction pressure reduces over time. To reach the same discharge pressure,
a higher pressure ratio requires increased speed and more flow passing through the
compressor as gas density declines. The point moves in the T direction. In cases where
the suction pressure increases, the point moves in the D direction, as the required head
reduces. The same principle applies to discharge pressure: when it increases, the pressure
ratio increases with the same suction pressure. More head is needed, and the point moves
in the T direction. If the pressure ratio decreases, the point moves in the D direction.
Gas composition typically changes over time, especially in production applications.

Heavier gas (larger Specific Gravity) requires less power to reach the same pressure ratio,
thus decreasing speed requirements. Since the flow does not change much, the flow

point moves down vertically. Heavier gases also tilt the map in the clockwise direction.
Therefore, the flow point moves in the D direction. Lighter gas behaves oppositely, so the
flow point moves in the T direction.
The flow change effect is easier to explain. If more flow is needed, the flow point moves
in the C direction to the Choke side of the map. If more flow is needed at constant power
consumption, the flow point moves downward to the Choke side in the C and D direction. If
more flow is required at constant head, the flow point moves horizontally to the Choke side.
Compressor efficiency is mainly a function of flow. When more flow is needed, the flow
point moves in the C direction, and efficiency drops fast from the best efficiency point. At
lower isentropic efficiencies, the discharge temperature increases quickly at the same level
of head. More power is lost due to a less-efficient compressor. If less flow is needed, the
flow point moves in the R direction to the surge side of the map, where decay in efficiency
is less rapid. As typical in production applications, insufficient flow may move the operating
point to the left of the surge line, requiring the anti-surge valve to open in order to protect
the compressor from surge. In this situation, power is wasted by recycling the gas through
the compressor.
Gas Compressor Restage Principles and Value Proposition

Gas Compressor Restage Principles & Value Proposition
The energy balance of the whole power train from engine (or other drivers) to the comp
can
The be expressed
energy balance in Equation
of the 4. The
whole power isentropic
train head
from engine and efficiency
(or other as well as the flow o
drivers) to the
compressor were discussed in above session. The standard flow is a function of actual f
compressor can be expressed in the equation 4 below. The isentropic head and efficiency,
standard
as well as conditions.
the flow of the gas compressor were discussed in the above explanation. The
standard flow is a function of actual flow under standard conditions.
The power needed to produce the head is also affected by the engine efficiency and mec
The power needed to produce the head is also affected by the engine efficiency and
efficiency. Mechanical efficiency is relatively constant and engine efficiency is mainly
mechanical efficiency. Mechanical efficiency is relatively constant and engine efficiency is
function of the speed.
mainly a function of speed.
SQ
Power = C × H isen = FuelEnergyη engine (4)
η isenη mech
Where,
Where: Power is driver (engine) output power
•
C is a constant
Power is driver (engine) output power
SQ is standard flow
• mech is mechanical efficiency
C is aηconstant
ηengine is engine efficiency
• SQ is standard flow
At• the
mechdesign point, efficiency
is mechanical the efficiency terms are optimized so that the compressor can produ
required flow and head with minimum power. When the flow point stays away from de
• engine is engine efficiency
for an extended time, the compressor or engine are running less efficient, which require
power. The purpose
At the design point, the of a gas compressor
efficiency restage
terms are optimized sois tothe
that re-optimize
compressorthe
cancompressor
produce stagin
tothemaximize efficiency at the new conditions to minimize the power
required flow and head with minimum power. When the flow point stays away from consumption or ma
flow, head,point
the design or both.
for an extended time, the compressor or engine is running less efficiently,
which requires more power. The purpose of a gas compressor restage is to reoptimize
Increasing discharge pressure for gas injection and gas gathering for a declining field (l
suction pressure) are two typical scenarios in which the flow point moves in275the T direc
Chapter 11: Restage: Centrifugal Gas Compressors |
compressor has to be rotated faster to keep the same pressure ratio until eventually pow
the compressor staging in order to maximize efficiency at the new conditions, thereby
minimizing the power consumption or maximizing flow, head, or both.
Increasing discharge pressure for gas injection and gas gathering for a declining field (lower
suction pressure) are two typical scenarios in which the flow point moves in the T direction.
The compressor has to be rotated faster to maintain the same pressure ratio until eventually
the power turbine or compressor itself reaches maximum speed. This is a typical speed
topping case. By adding additional stages to the compressor, the required speeds can be
reduced to generate the required pressure ratio, or the speed can remain the same in order
to generate a higher pressure ratio (Figure 11-9). For gas gathering in a declining field, that
results in extending field life. For gas injection, higher pressure means more oil production.
These are two cases where the investment for restaging can be quickly recovered. For
example, if there is 8% extra power remaining due to speed topping by restaging the
compressor, the site can produce 8% extra flow or 8% higher head. For a typical 12000
hp engine driven pipeline compressor, an 8% flow increase is approximately 30 mmscfd
of natural gas. The incremental revenue due to restaging correlates to about $90,000/day
based on a gas price of $3/mmbtu.
Current Staging
Restage Staging
Volumetric Flow (ACFM)
Figure 11-9. Gas Compressor Restage Principles – Speed Topping
When the operating point moves in the D direction, the compressor is running at much
slower speeds. Normally, the compressor speed is designed to require the power turbine
to run over 90% of max speed, in order to reach the highest efficiency levels. The engine
efficiency drops as speed declines. When the operating point consistently requires engine
speeds lower than optimum levels, removing one or two stages will increase the required
compressor speed, thereby improving engine efficiency. This type of restaging reduces
engine fuel consumption. By restaging the compressor, fuel savings up to 10% can be

achieved. For a 3.5MW turbine, 10% fuel saving is about $80,000 a year by assuming a gas
price of $3/mmbtu.
During seasonal, high-flow demands, requiring maximum flow from a compressor is

normal. In this scenario, the running point moves in the C direction, where efficiency drops
quickly. Although the compressor may not be physically choked, the available power can
limit the capacity throughput, and in some instances, a package may not be able to deliver
the required flow. In this case, smaller flow stages are typically replaced by larger flow
stages. Figure 11-10 shows how restaging to larger flow stages changes the performance
map (Green for restaged compressor performance map) to better match the conditions.
Both compressor efficiency and flow capacity are improved. For example, if the restaging
can improve the efficiency from 80% to 86% (6% improvement), the flow can be increased
by 8%. This restaging is just like the speed topping case above that can increase the
revenue by $90,000 a day for a 12000 hp engine-driven compressor.
Current Staging
Restage Staging
Figure 11-10. Gas Compressor Restage Principles – Increase Capacity
Opposite to a choke situation, when there isn’t enough gas, the point moves in the R
direction. When the compressor cannot produce enough flow, the anti-surge valve opens
to avoid surge, and the compressor runs in recycle mode. A portion of compressed gas will
be cooled to feed back to the compressor. This is the only way to keep the compressor
out of surge. Surge can cause violent vibrations and catastrophic compressor damage. The
energy consumed by recycling gas is wasted, and extra energy is needed at site to pump
cooling water or drive fans for gas cooling. This is the equivalent of dropping compressor
efficiency. Restaging can solve this problem by replacing higher flow stages with smaller
stages to accommodate the lower volumetric flows (Figure 11-11). For a 3.5MW industrial
gas turbine driving a compressor with 20% recycle flow, given a gas price of $3.00/
mmbtu and 300 days of annual operation, the potential savings can be up to $130,000
per year. If this application involves oil production, the 20% power savings can be used to

increase head about 20%. The resulting oil-production increase could pay back the restage
investment within months or even weeks.
Current Staging
Restage Staging
Recycle valve open
Figure 11-11. Gas Compressor Restage Principles – Eliminate Recycle
Besides economic reasons, running in recycle mode could cause high discharge
temperatures, if insufficient cooling is supplied in deep recycle mode. Dry gas seals,
balance piston babbitt and anti-surge valves can be damaged in periods of extended
recycling.
In summary, the primary restaging benefits are: increased oil/gas production, lower fuel
consumption and better equipment health.
Restage Criteria
A restage is generally recommended at the time of the next overhaul, if the investment can
be recovered within five years. If the restage investment can be recovered in less than one
year, restage should be considered immediately.
The economic analysis of the payback period requires interaction between the user and
the OEMs. A study based on 379 recently sold compressor restages by Solar Turbines is
described below. Four parameters stood out as good indicators of beneficial restaging:
1. Inlet flow coefficient ()
2. Isentropic head coefficient (),
3. Inlet pressure (P1)
4. Required power

The changes between the conditions before restaging and the original design were
calculated. The detailed criteria for each parameter are shown in Table 11-1 below. The
<25%, 25%-50% and >50% ranges identify the percentages of the 379 compressors
restaged.
and headFor example, less
coefficient, thethan 25% of
trigger compressors
point for restagewereconsideration
restaged when (Yellow
Suction warning) for n
and head
Pressure
overhaul coefficient,
and head iscoefficient,
changed by lessthe
than
when the parameter trigger
5%, point
the triggerdrifted
but more for
point for
than restage
5%restage
50% of
to 15%. consideration
consideration
the compressors
If they drifted(Yellow
(Yellow
were warning)
restaged
more than 15%,for
warning) thatnn
for
overhaul
when
overhaul
trigger is
suction
(Redis when
pressure
when the
warning)the parameter
changed
parameter by 15%
for immediate drifted
or 5%
5% to
more.
drifted These
restage 15%.
15%. If If they
variation
toconsideration. they drifted
change more
regions
drifted
The flow thus
more than
than 15%,
coefficient 15%, that
that
trigge
established
trigger (Red thewarning)
“trigger points”
for for restage recommendations.
immediate restage RoughlyThe
consideration. speaking,
flow for
coefficient trigge
trigger (Red warning) for immediate restage consideration.
are 25% for next overhaul and 50% for immediate consideration. If any of the Red Wa The flow coefficient trigge
power, suction pressure, and head
are
are 25%
25%
triggered, for
forthenext
next overhaul
overhaul
compressor andcoefficient,
and
should 50%
50% forthe
be for
trigger point
immediate
immediate
restaged.
for restage consideration
If allconsideration.
consideration.
four Yellow WarningIf
If any
any of the
ofare Red
Red Wa
thetriggered,
Wa
(Yellow Warning) for next overhaul is when the parameter drifted 5% to 15%. If they drifted
triggered,
triggered, the
the compressor
compressor
compressor should also be restaged. should
should be
be restaged.
restaged. If
If all
all four
four Yellow
Yellow Warning
Warning are
are triggered,
triggered
more than 15%, that is the trigger (Red Warning) for immediate restage consideration.
compressor
compressor shouldshould alsoalso be be restaged.
restaged.
The flow coefficient trigger points are 25% for next overhaul and 50% for immediate
The other general
consideration. ruleWarning
If any Red is thatisa triggered,
compressor restage is should
the compressor recommended when
be restaged. If all the efficienc
The
The
than other
other
6% of general
general
peak rule
rule is
efficiencyis that
thatanda
a compressor
compressor
power is a restage
restage
limiting
four Yellow Warnings are triggered, the compressor should also be restaged.
is
is recommended
recommended
factor. Regaining when
when
this the
6% efficienc
theefficiency
efficienc
than
than 6%
restage of
of peak
peak efficiency
6%typically efficiency
results and
andorpower
in 8% moreis
power is aa limiting
flow gain. factor.
limiting factor. Regaining
Regaining this
this 6%
6% efficiency
efficienc
restage typically
other general results
rule in
indicates 8%
that or
a more flow
restage typically results in 8% or more flow gain.
The compressor gain.
restage is recommended when
efficiency is less than 6% of peak efficiency and power is a limiting factor. Regaining this
6% efficiency with a restage typically results in 8% or more flow gain.
Percent Change <25% 25% - 50% >50%
1 >15% 15% - 31% >31%
1 >5% 5% - 19% >19%
P1 >5% 5% - 15% >15%
HP >3% 3% - 13% >13%
Table 11-1. Trigger points for restage parameters.

Table 1 Trigger Points for Restage Parameters
Q1 Table
Table 11 Trigger
Trigger Points
Points for
for Restage
Restage Parameters
Parameters
Φ1 = Q Q13 is isthe inlet flow coefficient, for compressors, using the first compressor
ΦΦ11 == (D2 )133 N is is thetheinlet
the inlet flow
inlet flow coefficient
flow coefficient,
coefficient,for compressors
for using the
for compressors,
compressors, first inlet
using
using the flow
the first
first compressor
compressor
((DD22)) NN coefficient
coefficient.
coefficient
coefficient
H isen
Ψisen = H Hisen isisthethe isentropic
isentropic head head coefficient
coefficient for a for single
single body body compressor,
compressor.
ΨΨisen =
= ( D isen)2
N is
is the
the isentropic
isentropic head
head coefficient
coefficient for
for single
single body
body compressor,
compressor,
((DD22NN))22
isen 2
 k −1

T 1  P2  kkk−−11 
Ψisen = Cp TT11 2  PP  kk − 1 for for compressors
compressors using usingthethe total
total pressure
pressure ratio ratio and the
ΨΨisen =
= Cp
Cp ( D N )  P212  −−11 for for
andcompressors
compressors
the first using
using
compressor the
the
speed total
total
and pressure
pressure
impeller tipratio
ratio and
and the
the

N)) 2  PP11 
2
isen
((DD22N
2 
diameter.
compressor speed and  impeller tip  diameter
compressor
compressor speed speed and and impeller
impeller tip tip diameter
diameter

CASE STUDY 11-1: EXTRA CAPACITY FOR A PIPELINE APPLICATION
This package was originally sold in 1998 for a U.S. pipeline application. The original design
points are listed in the first column of Table 11-2 below and are marked as Point 1 on the
compressor maps in Figure 11-12. The customer wanted to relocate this package from
its existing site due to increased demand. The new site conditions had lower suction and
discharge pressure requirements (2.7 and 17.12% respectively), but the flow demand at the
new site was 67.85% higher than current design conditions.
Column 2 shows the max flow capability of the current staging for the new site conditions
at max power. The current staging could only provide 959.16 MMSCFD of flow at max
power, 31.47% less than the requirement. All four key parameters were in the red zone,
indicating a restage would be required to perform at the new duty point. The last column
shows the delta between the Original Design Point and New Design Requirement for
Original Staging. Besides all four key parameters being in the red and current staging not
being able to achieve the required flow duty, the efficiency with max power and original
staging would have been 46.91% lower than the original.
Original Staging Restaged Delta Max Power to

Design for Original
Design Point Max Power Staging
Point on Map 1 2 3
Phi 0.045 0.081 0.114 44.88%
Psi 2.043 0.747 0.644 -173.53%
P1 (PSIA) 885.00 861.77 861.77 -2.70%
HP Total (HP) 6225.00 11025.00 11080.00 43.54%
Efficiency (%) 85.50 58.20 84.50 -46.91%
P2 (PSIA) 1185.00 1011.77 1011.77 -17.12%
SQ (MMSCFD) 450.03 959.16 1399.57 53.08%
Flow (ACFM) 4490.41 10298.01 15026.39 56.40%
P2/P1 1.34 1.17 1.17 -14.05%
Table 11-2. Changes in operating parameters.
In 2013, the compressor was restaged to higher flow staging and the number of stages
was reduced from 2 to 1 to increase speed, efficiency and flow capabilities. The new
staging was 26.3% more efficient than the original staging at max power and provided
a flow increase from 959.16 MMSCFD to 1399.57 MMSCFD at max power conditions.
Figure 11-12 shows the new performance map in green and the old performance map in red
along with all three points from Table 11-2. As shown, the restage enabled the relocated
compressor to have increased flow throughput, while maintaining operation in peak
efficiency zones.
This is a typical pipeline application restage where increased flow demand along with
maximum power consumption and efficiency gain, a compressor restage can be paid back
in weeks, if not days, if the customer owns even a percentage of the gas.

Figure 11-12. Existing and Restage Staging Performance Map for Case Study 11-1.
CASE STURDY 11-2. PACKAGE RELOCATION TO INCREASE STATION CAPACITY AND

DISCHARGE PRESSURE.
In today’s evolving marketplace, the need for additional gas compression has increased.
Although the purchase of new turbomachinery equipment is preferred in some instances,
the reallocation of unused or standby turbomachinery packages provides opportunities
to reduce capital investment, delivery schedules and sourcing activity. From an inventory
management perspective, package relocation increases unit asset value, drives down
operational costs and helps maintain optimum inventory levels. It also facilitates
performance improvements and increased operational flexibility for either current or future
conditions. In both gas gathering and transmission applications, reallocation of existing
turbomachinery packages can be a very convenient and economical method to meet new
site conditions, particularly increasing station discharge pressure and gas throughput.
Similar to the sourcing of new equipment, close collaboration with the OEM is pivotal in
ensuring that the relocated package is properly sized, upgraded accordingly, and most
importantly, makes sound financial sense. This case study illustrates the significant benefits
of package relocation.
In gas-gathering applications, multiple sources of gas volumes that change over time are
typically involved. The addition of new wells or gas streams may sometimes be prohibited,
if the available power at site is not sufficient. This particular station was designed with
three stages of compression, with two primary sources of gas (Figure 11-13). Original
design conditions can be seen in Table 11-3. New process conditions at site required
an additional 19 MMSCFD of side stream gas flow, and an increase in station discharge

pressure to 730 PSIA. Although the existing gas compression equipment had a very wide
range of operating efficiency, the combination of increased gas flow and discharge pressure
was not achievable, primarily due to the available power at site. The maximum achievable
flows and pressure with the existing packages can also be seen in Table 11-3.
Existing Site Configuration
Incoming LP Unit IP Unit HP Unit Export
Side Stream
Figure 11-13. Existing site configuration.
Existing Equipment
Design Site Goal Max P2 Max Flow

P1 36.6 PSIA 45 PSIA 45 PSIA 45 PSIA
P2 606.6 PSIA 730 PSIA 730 PSIA 490 PSIA
SQ 61 MMSCFD 80 MMSCFD 50 MMSCFD 67 MMSCFD
Table 11-3. Original design conditions and existing station maximum capacity.
Close coordination with the aftermarket applications team identified an existing package
that could be reallocated as the 4th compression stage to increase both discharge pressure
and gas flow at site, as shown in Figure 11-14. The addition of a 4th compression stage
decreased the head requirements across the existing units, which facilitated increased gas
throughput with the same available horsepower. The 4th stage would serve as a booster to
meet the required station discharge pressure.
New Site Configuration
4th
Incoming LP Unit IP Unit HP Unit Export
Stage
Side Stream
Figure 11-14. New site configuration.

Goal With 4th Stage
P1 45 PSIA 45 PSIA
P2 730 PSIA 730 PSIA
SQ 80 MMSCFD 71 MMSCFD
Table 11-4. New station maximum capacity.
The gas compressor in the 4th stage package was originally designed for very different
process conditions as shown in Table 11-5. The new site conditions required a much
higher suction pressure, which decreased the inlet flow coefficient by 58.4%. Analysis
of the existing staging showed that the 4th stage package would need to recycle 81%
of the flow to maintain positive surge margin. The new design point plotted on the
original performance curve can be seen far to the left of the surge line. The amount of
recycling needed would increase fuel consumption and site emissions. At higher ambient
temperatures, the required amount of recycling through the 4th stage package would not be
possible due to limited power.
Parameter Original New Parameter % Change
P1 (PSIA) 267 400 P1 49.8%
P2 (PSIA) 432 731.6 Power 41.7%
Power (HP) 3348 2454 Φ1 58.4%
SQ (MMSCFD) 67.86 71 Ψ1 23.2%
Inlet Flow (ACFM) 4212 1680
Head (FT-LBF/LBM) 20204 22838
Table 11-5. Stage package conditions.
A gas compressor restage of the 4th stage package optimized utilization of the new site
conditions ascan be seen in the green performance curve below in Figure 11-15. The
selected staging increased package performance at the new conditions, and also provided
enough turndown and speed margin to increase gas volumes beyond 71 MMSCFD.
Additional upgrades to the IP and HP compressors enabled the customer to reach the 80
MMSCFD target. Keeping in mind the large increase in gas flow and discharge pressure at
site, the limited number of package upgrades needed to meet the new conditions was very
minimal. The reallocation significantly reduced the capital investment required to meet the
new conditions and significantly improved the project timeline.

4th Stage
ACFM
Existing Staging Original Design New Staging New Design
Figure 11-15. 4th stage package original vs new staging.
CASE STUDY 11-3. LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT FOR DECLINING FIELD
This is another typical field-depletion case. The Indonesian offshore compressor was
commissioned in 1996. After initial commissioning, the field pressure continued to
decrease as shown in Table 11-6. The compressor was restaged twice, adapting to
changing conditions in 2002 and 2006. Each time, the restage criteria applied well to
customer requirements.
After several successful years of operation following the 2006 restage, the pressure
and standard flow decreased rapidly, and the compressor could not perform with the
low pressure of the well. As a result, the Anti-Surge Valve opened to increase suction
pressure. To improve the conditions for the compressor, some high-pressure-side stream
gas was injected to increase the suction pressure to 124.7 psi. Yet by the start of 2013,
the compressor was running with the ASV approximately 80% open, resulting in 17.9
MMSCFD out of 25.9 MMSCFD throughput being recycled. The net though flow was
8 MMSCFD, or only 31% of the total flow.
Staging 1996 2002 2006 2006 2012 2002 2006 2012

Before or
after restage Design After After Before After
 0.0319 0.0488 0.0521 0.0532 0.0211 53.0% 6.8% -60.3%
 6.93 5.8064 6.0450 4.729 7.768 -16.2% 4.1% 64.3%

P1 (psia) 350.0 285.0 84.7 124.7 124.7 -18.6% -70.3% 0.0%
HP total (hp) 3471.5 3651.0 1836.8 2079.2 616.2 5.2% -49.7% -70.4%
Efficiency (%) 70.7 75.5 67.3 60.1 64.1
P2 (psia) 1115 800 304.7 323.7 323.7 -28.3% -61.9% 0.0%
SQ (mmscfd) 40.0 49.9 17.0 25.9 8.0 24.8% -65.9% -69.1%
Flow (acfm) 1218.3 1912.8 2252.4 2144.8 663.7 57.0% 17.8% -69.1%
P2/P1 3.19 2.81 3.60 2.60 2.60 -11.9% 28.1% 0.0%
Table 11-6. Well condition variation for Case 11-3.

Isentropic Head
Volumetric Flow
Figure 11-17. Restage map for Case 11-3.
The compressor was restaged in 2013 with the performance map at the new condition
shown in Figure 11-17. The restage saved about 12.9 MMBTU/HR fuel by eliminating
recycling. With the price of natural gas significantly higher in this region of the world, the
payback period including fuel cost savings was nine months.
[1] API, 2002, "Axial and Centrifugal Compressors and Expander-compressors for Petroleum, Chemical
and Gas Industry Services", STD 617 7th Edition, American Petroleum Institute.
[2] Moore, J. J., Lerche, A. H., 2009, “Rotordynamic Comparison of Built-up Versus Solid Rotor
Construction”, GT2009-59392, Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power of Land, Sea and Air,
Orlando, Florida.

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Introduction to Centrifugal Compressors for Oil and Gas Applications

SOLAR LOGO USAGE MINIMUM SIZE PRIMARY COLOR PALETTE

SECONDARY COLOR PALETTE SECONDARY C

TYPOGRAPHY TYPOGRAPHY TRADEMARK USAGE

Solar Turbines Short S

SOLAR LOGO USAGE

Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression 18

Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors 30

Chapter 3: Aerodynamics of Centrifugal Compressors 42

Chapter 5: Mechanical Design 112

Chapter 6: Controls of Centrifugal Compressors 132

Chapter 7: Compressor Drivers 180

Chapter 8: Centrifugal Compressors in

Chapter 10: Importance of Testing 236

Chapter 11: Restage: Centrifugal Gas Compressors 266

I also want to express my special appreciation to the contributors of several chapters:

The book is intended to provide a basic understanding of the thermodynamics,

Figure 0-1. Centrifugal Gas Compressor

A discussion of compressor would be incomplete without introducing the different types

Related to the chapter on applications, the concepts of optimizing the operation of

THE HISTORY OF GAS COMPRESSORS

Early turbomachines were

Early centrifugal compressors were superior to axial compressors, as blade aerodynamics

The treatment of the rotordynamics

In the 1950s and 1960s centrifugal

Figure 0-6. Solar compressor driven by a variable speed electric motor.

This general description of gas-compression thermodynamics applies to any type of

GAS BEHAVIOR AND EQUATIONS OF STATE

As used in reciprocating compressors, the simplest compression process utilizes positive-

Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression 19

to discuss this behavior of gases,

ram for Methane. We can Thesee, Mollierthat diagram for low

ility factor Z itself is aUnfortunately, the compressibility

Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression 23

Figure 1-4. Calculation path for equations of state.

24 | Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression

clk, gases cc(where

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ = ℎ(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 )1𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ

ntial Green 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚̇ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

ergy conservation on a different level in turbomachines: The aerodynamic function of a

For designers of compressors, the polytropic efficiency has an important advantage. If a

Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression 27

Static Temperature is the temperature that would be shown by a measuring instrument

Stagnation (Total) Temperature is that temperature which would be measured at the

28 | Chapter 1: Thermodynamics of Gas Compression

Inlet Stator Spacer Crossover Volute

Rotor Spacer 90° Bend Diaphragm

Figure 2-1a. Compressor cross section showing the aerodynamic components.

Figure 2-1b. Compressor components cutaway view.

Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors | 31

Casing and Endcaps

Figure 2-2. Major compressor components.

Figure 2-3. Overhung- and Beam-Style designs.

32 | Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors

Figure 2-4a. Horizontally split casing

Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors | 33

Figure 2-4b. Barrel-type casing.

Figure 2-5. Centrifugal compressors with two compartments.

34 | Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors

A centrifugal compressor is essentially a series of one or more impellers rotating on a shaft

Chapter 2: Components of Gas Compressors | 35

Figure 2-7. Flow path.

Figure 2-8. Discharge volute.