Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302 – 315

www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Slope stability evaluation using Back Propagation Neural Networks

H.B. Wang a,b,*, W.Y. Xu a, R.C. Xu c
a
Geotechnical Institute, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
b
Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
c
Survey Institute of Three Gorges, the Yangtze Water Conservancy Committee, Yichang, 443003, PR China
Received 26 August 2004; received in revised form 1 June 2005; accepted 16 June 2005
Available online 25 July 2005

Abstract

The Yudonghe landslide, located in western Hubei Province of China, consists of eastern and western subunits as well as a
main landslide mass with upper and lower slip surfaces. As an important landslide close to Shuibuya Dam on the Qing River, its
stability is crucial, as the slide might reactivate because of a change in ground-water level caused by filling of the Shuibuya
Reservoir. Existing weakness zones, growth of ruptures, the downslope attitude of geologic strata, and water infiltration, which
reduced the strength of rocks and soils, have been found to be the most important factors contributing to the Yudonghe
landslide. With regard to the landslide processes, it can be noted that the original large-scale slide activity was due to erosion by
the Qing River, the second sliding resulted from the fall of blocks from the head scarp, and the final activity was the growth of
the eastern and western secondary slides. A base failure was the main type of slope movement, however, it was obvious that
more than one sliding event occurred, as inferred from striations and fractures detected by microstructure analysis of soils along
the failure surfaces. Slope instability was evaluated by the method of Back Propagation Neural Networks (BPNN), in which a
four-layer BPNN model with five input nodes, two hidden layers, and two output nodes was constructed using a training data
set of landslide samples throughout the Qing River area. The predicted results of this analysis showed that the factor of safety
was 1.10, which indicates that the Yudonghe landslide is currently in a marginally stable condition.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Yudonghe landslide; Deformation mechanism; Back Propagation Neural Networks; Slope stability

1. Introduction

Slope failures are complex natural phenomena that

* Corresponding author. Disaster Prevention Research Institute,
Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan. Tel.: +81
774 38 4107; fax: +81 774 38 4300.
E-mail address: huabin-w@landslide.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
(H.B. Wang).
0013-7952/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.005
constitute a serious natural hazard in many countries.
They are responsible for hundreds of millions of
dollars of damage to public and private property
every year. To prevent or mitigate the landslide dam-
age, slope-stability analyses and stabilization require
an understanding and evaluation of the processes that
 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315
govern the behavior of the slopes. The factor of safety
(FS) based on an appropriate geotechnical model as an
index of stability, is required in order to evaluate slope
stability. Many variables are involved in slope stabil-
ity evaluation and the calculation of the FS requires
geometrical data, physical data on the geologic mate-
rials and their shear-strength parameters (cohesion and
angle of internal friction), information on pore-water
pressures, etc. Traditionally, the methods available to
solve the FS of a given slope are classified into the
following categories (Nash, 1987; Duncan, 1996):
! Limit-equilibrium methods
! Circular failure surface methods and non-circular
failure surface methods
! Energy methods
! Finite-element or finite-difference methods (based
on stress–strain history of the slope)
It is recognized that landslides, often follow a
power-law frequency–magnitude relation, and this
scale-invariance thus can be associated with self-or-
ganized criticality (Pelletier et al., 1997; Turcotte,
1999; Stark and Hovius, 2001; Guzzetti et al., 2002;
Turcotte and Malamud, 2004). By definition, self-
organized criticality characterizes those systems that
maintain themselves by rearranging their configura-
tion through internal feedback to a state in which a
system parameter fluctuates with power-law-distribut-
ed adjustments around a marginally stable (metasta-
ble) critical value (Turcotte et al., 1999). Power-law
scaling for landslide magnitude–frequency has impli-
cations and useful applications in hazard assessment
(Hungr et al., 1999; Guzzetti et al., 2002). This be-
havior has been observed despite large differences in
landslide types, sizes, distributions, patterns, and trig-
gering mechanisms. Therefore, it is natural to associ-
ate the sandpile model with naturally occurring
landslides, which can be explained that if you drop
grains of sand on a pile, you get small landslides once
in a while, larger landslides less often, even larger
ones even less often, etc. Since this model has large
numbers of degrees of freedom and its behavior is
sensitive to its initial conditions, these conditions are
termed bcomplex.Q To evaluate slope instability, the
complexity of the slope system requires employment
of new methods that are efficient in predicting this
non-linear characteristic of natural landslides.
303
Black-box models, based on the Artificial Neural
Networks (ANNs), currently attract many researchers
studying slope instability, owing to their successful
performance in modeling non-linear multivariate pro-
blems (Ni et al., 1995; Neaupane and Achet, 2004;
Ermini et al., in press). The main characteristics of
ANNs in dealing with quantitative and qualitative
indexes include large-scale parallel-distributed proces-
sing, continuously nonlinear dynamics, collective
computation, high fault tolerance, self organization,
self learning, and real-time treatment (Rumelhart and
McClelland, 1986). It is important to point out that a
neural network system is a processing device, imple-
mented as an algorithm or in hardware, which has
been motivated by the design and the function of
mammalian brains. ANNs react to training-data
input in such a way as to alter their initial state,
something no conventional algorithm does, i.e.,
they can learn (Lees, 1996). In this paper, a widely
used artificial neural network method, Back Propa-
gation Neural Networks (BPNN), is employed to
assess slope instability based on analysis of its
mechanisms and processes of slope failure.
2. Geologic setting
The Shuibuya Hydropower Project, including the
world’s largest rockfill dam, is the largest one of
three projects in the Qing River. To investigate
engineering geological conditions at the dam site,
a geological survey and field reconnaissance were
conducted prior to dam construction. It was found
that geoenvironmental conditions near and around
the planned dam site were very complicated; 18
landslides and other slopes have the potential to
reactivate or fail. The Yudonghe landslide is one
of the largest of these prehistoric landslides, with a
volume of about 0.0235 km3. Possible damage
from the Yudonghe landslide, mainly due to its po-
tential reactivation to destroy roads and other facil-
ities during dam construction, will be taken into
account during the construction process. As one of
the most important landslides, located only 2.3 km
from the dam (Fig. 1), the analysis of its potential
failure mechanism and stability evaluation are cru-
cial in assessing the geological conditions of dam
construction.
304 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315

Fig. 1. Location of Yudonghe landslide.

Rocks belonging to the Silurian Shaomao forma- areas are covered by slope and alluvial deposits, and
tion outcrop in steep cliffs near the bank of the Qing the study area is structurally affected by a major set of
River; these rocks consist of sandy shale and sand- faults and folds that trends NS and a lesser set that
stone with small cracks in the pattern of nets. Large trends NNE (Fig. 2). The north–south folded struc-

Fig. 2. Geological sketch map showing landslides in the vicinity of Shuibuya Dam (after the Qingjiang Geological Survey, 1997).
 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315
tures are dominant; they include both the Sanyouping
syncline and the Yudonghe anticline. Major faults,
such as the Yancihe fault, the Longwangchong fault
and the Yangliuci fault, also trend N–S in this region.
Historical and seismological records note that 55
earthquake events with magnitude greater than Ms
4.75 have occurred in this region. The epicenters of
these earthquakes have been located along NW,
NNW, and NE–NNE trending faults at a range of
about 100 km from the proposed dam. Only smaller
earthquakes were recorded closer to the dam.
3. Yudonghe landslide
3.1. Description of the landslide
The Yudonghe landslide, with an area of about
0.67 km2, is 2.3 km from the Shuibuya dam site.
This landslide consists of a main landslide mass and
subsidiary smaller masses, namely eastern and west-
ern subunits (Fig. 3). The toe of the landslide is
located at an elevation of 195 to 210 m above sea
level. The toe of the eastern subunit is higher than that
of the western subunit. Deep-cut gullies have devel-
oped that bound the western landslide subunit, the
deepest of which reaches a depth of 20 m. The main
scarps are covered by dense forest, and the displaced
mass has been utilized for irrigation and an orange
orchard, as well as for residences.
The main landslide mass is composed of upper
and lower slides (Fig. 4). In the area of the upper
slide, the bedrock in this area dips downslope at an
angle of as much as 88, which is less than the slope
gradient of 128–178. Bedrock includes zone of weak-
ness consisting of shale of the Xiejingsi formation.
The upper slide consists of limestone blocks and soil
with a few sandstone blocks dispersed along its
edges. The sliding surface of the upper slide dips
toward the Qing River at an angle of 158. Based on
geophysical reconnaissance, the average thickness of
the upper slide is 20–35 m, with a maximum thick-
ness of up to 50 m.
The lower slide, on the other hand, moved twice,
forming two sliding surfaces. The materials of the
lower slide were displaced along a curved surface,
forming based siding. One explanation for this slump
is river erosion at the base of the slope. The lower
305
slide is fan-shaped with a volume of 0.0127 km3,
54% of the total volume of the landslide. It can be
shown that the dip angles of bedrock in the lower
slide is almost horizontal and the slope angle varies
from 48 to 458 with the upper slope being steep and
the lower slopes gentle. It was found that three
different weak layers crop out in the lower slide at
elevations of 219.7–226.2 m, 253.1–254.8 m and
286.0–289.6 m above sea level. Within three weak
layers, fractions of iron-rich sandstone in Xiejingsi
formation can be found in the highest layer. The
lower slide is mainly composed of poorly cemented
limestone masses and crushed rocks. The loose lime-
stone masses with dimensions ranging from 1–1.5 m
were derived from limestone of the Permian Qixia
formation.
The lower slide includes eastern and western sec-
ondary subunits. The eastern slide is shaped like fan
with a volume of up to 0.004 km3 and the western
subunit has a volume of 0.0017 km3. The eastern slide
developed a base failure shear zone that was exposed
in vertical shaft SJ1 and drilling pole ZK8. The shear
zone was mainly composed of clays and a few small
crushed stones, which were circular with diameters of
2–5 cm. The vertical shaft SJ1 showed that the eastern
slide stopped its movement on a terrace consisting of
sandstone and limestone. This movement resulted in a
discontinuity between undistorted sandy conglomer-
ate and bedrock.
3.2. Factors contributing to landsliding
As previously described, various zones of weak-
ness are distributed throughout the geologic materials
that comprise the Yudonghe landslide area. At the
base of the slopes, soft bedrock with lower shear
strength effectively provides naturally sliding sur-
faces, which contributed to the occurrence of the
Yudonghe landslide. Moreover, fissured limestone of
the Qixia formation crops out on the steep slopes,
whereas poorly cemented rock masses and low-shear
strength strata of the Ma’an and Xiejingshi formations
cover the gentle slopes. The limestone mass on the
steep slopes, especially above the crest of the land-
slide, included joints and tension cracks. In case of
saturation during heavy rainfall, these cracks could
result in toppling, thus imposing a surcharge onto the
upper slope, causing landsliding.
306 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315

Fig. 3. Engineering-geologic map of the Yudonghe landslide (after the Qingjiang Geological Survey, 1997).

Growth of ruptures without lateral displacement of tension fractures have developed in bedrock NE
and the downslope attitude of rock strata also of the Yudonghe landslide. With the increase of
played a role in the slope failure. Large numbers natural loads due to rock toppling, sets of disconti-
 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315
Fig. 4. Geological cross section through the Yudonghe landslide (after the Qingjiang Geological Survey, 1997).
nuities, including tension fractures and bedding
surfaces, penetrated the bedrock; these rupture sur-
faces contributed to the initiation of the Yudonghe
landslide.
In addition, a significant contribution to the land-
slide occurrence resulted from infiltration of ground-
water and surface water thus reducing the strength of
rocks and soils in the landslide-affected area. It has
been noted that groundwater has drained through
several springs in the study area. This groundwater,
which exited the slope through springs, resulted in
increased erosion at the sliding surface and reduced
shear strength of dilatant soils. Undoubtedly, heavy
rain during the May–June rainy season is one of the
main triggering factors for slope failures in western
Hubei Province. Abundance of underground water
and surface water accelerates the tendency of the
bedrock terraces to become weaker, which probably
induced landsliding. To summarise, the Yudonghe
landslide was caused by existing zones of weakness,
growth of ruptures, downslope-dipping bedrock, and
infiltration that resulted in decrease of rock and soil
strengths.
3.3. Landslide processes
To understand the development of the Yudonghe
landslide and to analyze its mechanisms, the landslide
process was discussed in detail by Wang and Xu
(2002). Generally, the sequences of movement of
this landslide can be divided into three different states:
307
(1) sliding activity at large scale due to the erosion of
the Qing River, (2) sliding activity resulting from fall
of head-scarp blocks, and (3) the final growth of the
eastern and western secondary subunits.
Gentle slopes were composed mainly of rocks with
low-shear strengths from the Permian Ma’an forma-
tion, Carboniferous units and the Devonian Xiejingshi
formation. With increasing accumulation of poorly
cemented limestone masses of the Qixia formation
toppling from the head scarp, some rock masses
were deposited at a lower elevation. Springs in the
landslide area softened the soils along the sliding
surfaces, which also contributed to gradual failure of
the slope.
After this preliminary motion, a steep slope was
formed at the base of the previous head scarp. Be-
cause there were rocks that were fragile and prone to
failure by extension, fracture systems developed in the
steep slope. Rock masses from the head scarp fell to
accumulate on the gentler downslope, which was
composed of marl, shale, and iron ore. Increasing
accumulation resulted in sliding along the bottom of
weak zones in the iron ore interlayer. Slope deposits
were carried to an elevation of 320 m, and then the
sliding stopped due to obstacles from existing down-
slope blocks.
It should be noted here that the Yudonghe landslide
failed 555.0 F 59.5 thousand years ago, based on
dating soil samples from the sliding surface by
means of the Electron Spin Resonance method
(Wang and Xu, 2002).
308 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315
Plate 1. Micro fractures of soils along the sliding surface of the
Yudonghe landslide.
3.4. Microstructural analysis of soils along the sliding
surface
The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) has
been frequently employed to analyze the microstruc-
ture of soils in an attempt to assess their environmen-
tal and mechanical behavior (Mitchell, 1993). As an
effective method to analyze landslide mechanisms,
especially to know the movement of sliding soils at
microscale, SEM has been used to obtain insight into
how often sliding has occurred and how the sliding
surface evolved from observation of soil samples from
the sliding surface (Yan, 2000). This insight can pro-
vide evidence of aid in assessing slope stability. To
understand the main activity of the Yudonghe land-
slide at microscale, field samples were collected with-
Plate 2. Micro slickensides in the sliding surface of the Yudonghe
landslide.
Plate 3. Linear striations of soils along the sliding surface in the
Yudonghe landslide.
in the upper slip zones; the microstructures of these
soils along the sliding surface were analyzed by SEM.
The collected samples were kept in their original state
and sealed in dry conditions to enable analysis of
microorganisms and soil-surface structures. This anal-
ysis was helpful in deciding what type of movement
occurred in the main sliding event. After the samples
were prepared, soil microstructures were observed
under SEM. In the sliding zones of the Yudonghe
landslide, linear striations and fractures of the soils
were clearly developed (Plates 1–3), clay minerals
were oriented in the same direction (Plates 4 and 5),
microorganism growths were present (Plate 6), and
many minerals were subject to erosion (Plates 7 and
8). Based on the distribution of striations and frac-
tures, it can be inferred that more than one sliding
Plate 4. Directional array of clay minerals in soils along the sliding
surface of the Yudonghe landslide.
 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315 309

Plate 5. Directional array of clay minerals in soils along the sliding Plate 7. Erosion structure of feldspar in soils along the sliding
surface of the Yudonghe landslide. surface of the Yudonghe landslide.

The neurons are arranged in layers and are combined

event occurred, and that a base failure represented the
through excess connectivity. The predictive ability of
main type of slope failure.
the trained neural networks can be tested by adding
observations not included previously (Fig. 5).
There are many kinds of ANN models, among
4. Methods of study using Back Propagation
which the BPNN model is the most widely used
Neural Networks
(Rumelhart et al., 1986; Xia et al., 1997). The
most common configuration of BPNN is composed
ANNs are a powerful tool for prediction of non-
of three layers. In a feed-forward network, the layers
linearities. They can learn some target values (desired
are completely connected to one another; the config-
output) from a set of chosen input data that has been
uration is shown in Fig. 6. The model adjusts con-
introduced by means of input nodes, called b neu-
nection weights between nodes by learning to
ronsQ, into a computing network system under both
memorise every network learning and training pat-
supervised and self-adjusted or unsupervised learning
tern, each of which is composed of one input and
algorithms (Wasserman, 1989). Each processing unit
output pair.
adds weighted inputs and then applies a linear or
In the BPNN model, highly nonlinear correspon-
nonlinear function to the sum to determine the output.
dent relations of input and output can be generated by

Plate 6. Silky microorganisms distributed in soils along the sliding Plate 8. Different minerals overlapped in soils along the sliding
surface of the Yudonghe landslide. surface of the Yudonghe landslide.
310 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315
Origina l data Desired output
Data processing
Other controlled
training parameters
New input data
Fig. 5. Flow-chart methodology for Artificial Neural Networks.
self-adaptive learning of a large number of training
patterns (Chen and Zhou, 2000). The procedure
begins with attributing weights to connections in a
casual manner and of choosing input parameters. A
calculated output is compared to what is expected and
an error is determined. The procedure progresses in an
iterative manner until it reaches convergence of the
calculated and expected output. This is a learning
phase, in which a function of a neural network is
created. Fig. 7 presents a three-layer model to intro-
duce the learning algorithm; this method can be ex-
tended to multi-layer models.
The numbers of input nodes, mid-layer nodes and
output nodes are m, l, and p , respectively. The input
at the input layer is X = (x 1, x 2, . . . , x m ); the mid-layer
output is A = (a 1, a 2, a 3 . . . a l). The output layer output
is ŷ = (ŷ 1, ŷ 2, . . . , ŷ p ); the prospective output target is
Fig. 6. Structure of Back Propagation Neural Networks.
Changing
ANNs parameters
ANNs Not valid
model
ANNs output
correlated with
original data
Trained ANNs
Valid
ANNs predicted
output
Y = ( y 1, y 2, . . . , y p ). Wij is the connection weight from
the node i of the input layer to node j of the mid-layer;
W jk is the connection weight from node j of the
hidden layer (also called the mid-layer) to node k of
the output layer; h j is the bias of node j of the mid-
layer; and h k is the bias of node k of the output layer.
The steps in the BPNN algorithm can be briefly
described as follows:
(1) Initialize the network state. Initialize the net-
work weights {Wij } and {W jk } and the biases
{h j }and {h k } with small random values.
(2) Input the first learning pattern. Every learning
pattern is composed of {X} and { Y}.
(3) Regard the {X} values of the learning pattern as
the output of input nodes {x i }, and compute S j
and the related output a j of the hidden node (a j
 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315 311

(6) Adjust weight W jk and bias h k of output node k

with error d k , related output a j , as well as the
weights Wij , the bias h j , and the input x i ,
according to the error-transmitted model.
(7) Input the next learning set of data, and repeat
the learning process with any new patterns from
step (3). If the error value E (E = A(ŷ k  Y k )2 / 2)
still exceeds a given small constant e, return to
step (2) to do the next learning cycle until the
expected minimum error is achieved.

The BPNN is trained by repeatedly presenting a

Fig. 7. Configuration of the three-layer BPNN. series of input/output pattern sets to networks. The
networks gradually learn the input/output relation-
is the same as the values of the mid-layer in a ship of interest by adjusting weights to minimise
three-layer network) with the weights {Wij }, the error between the actual and predicted output
biases {h j }, and inputs {x i }: patterns of the training sets. After the learning pro-
cess is completed, network weight coefficients can-
X
m
not be changed. In this model, use of networks with
Sj ¼ Wij xi  hj ð1Þ
only forward calculation is needed in pattern recog-
i¼1
nition and prediction, and the calculation can be
  executed very quickly.
aj ¼ f Sj ð2Þ

where f is the Sigmoid function, generally f(x) =

a / (1 + exp( bx)). Here, f(x) = 1 / (1 + exp( x)). 5. Results
(4) Compute input U j and the related output Y k of
the output node k with mid-layer outputs {a j }, 5.1. Data preprocess
connection weights {W jk }, and bias h k of output
node k: Input variables in a BPNN model are the factors
influencing an evaluation target. Therefore, the issue
X
l
of preparing training samples arises. First, the prob-
Uk ¼ Wjk aj  hk ð3Þ
lem in determining influencing factors is that differ-
j¼1
ent factors are influenced by different types of
Y k ¼ f ðUk Þ ð4Þ evaluation targets. The factors that influence slope
stability may be divided into internal and external
(5) Compute the error signal d k of the output node k causes. The internal causes are mainly the geomor-
from the expected outputs (target outputs) ŷ k of phic characteristics and properties of geologic mate-
the learning pattern and the actual output of the rials, such as friction, cohesion, density, and loading
network, according to the following equation: conditions. The external causes (triggers) are earth-
quakes, rainfall and groundwater, human activities,
d k ¼ ðŷy k  Yk Þŷy k ðŷy k  1Þ ð5Þ and erosion. The most relevant factors for rainfall-
Similarly, the error signal d j of the mid-layer induced landslides are rainfall intensity and long-
node j with d k , weights {W jk }, and a can be term volume of rain as the external causes, and
expressed as follows: friction and cohesion of soils as internal causes in
soil slides.
 X
l In BPNN modeling, all of the training landslides
d j ¼ aj 1  aj Wjk dk ð6Þ and slopes that have the potential to fail were caused
j¼1 by the same environmental factors, and were then
312 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315

described with qualitative and quantitative indices
within these factors. The FS values of the training
samples have been computed employing limit-equi-
librium analysis and other geotechnical evaluation
methods. As for the qualitative indices, it is better
to describe the state of a slope by means of values of
1 and 0, which express stable and unstable condi-
tions, respectively. The quantitative indices can be
processed by means of different normalization meth-
ods. For example, a treatment can be accomplished
for every index item, x i , of the samples, which are
divided by the maximum item of x i , i.e., x i / (x i )max
or (x i  (x i )min) / ((x i )max  (x i )min). The latter normal-
ization method is selected to preprocess input indices
in estimating training samples of the slope-stability
analysis.
5.2. Output of BPNN model
In the BPNN model of this study, slope height and
angle, bulk density, cohesion and angle of internal
friction are input variables chosen as the main factors
that influence slope stability. These factors are based
on exploration of typical, large-scale slopes that have
the potential to fail and on statistical analyses through-
out the Qing River basin (Table 1). In this study, all of
these data had to be processed using standard adjust-
ment as input variables in the BPNN model. In terms
of the FS and slope stability, two methods, limit-
equilibrium analysis and engineering geology evalua-
tion were employed to evaluate the stability of
training samples. After determination of the fac-
tors affecting slope stability, a four-layer BPNN

Table 1
Training samples for the BPNN model
Slope no. Slope Slope average u (8) c (KN/m3) c (KPa) Stabilitya Safety
elevation (m) angle (8) factor
01 400 18 15 22 29 0 1.04
02 380 23 19.8 23 24 0 1.15
03 196 30 30 22 40 1 1.11
04 210 24 20 22.54 29.4 1 1.06
05 257 30 23 22 21 0 1.1
06 190 26 27 23.5 10 0 1.02
07 290 20 20 22.5 18 1 1.05
08 220 25 16 22.5 20 1 1.36
09 8.23 35 15 18.68 26.34 0 1.11
10 3.66 30 0 16.05 11.49 0 1.00
11 30.50 20 25 18.84 14.36 1 1.875
12 100 35 35 28.44 29.42 1 1.78
13 100 35 38 28.44 39.23 1 1.99
14 40 30 26.5 20.60 16.28 0 1.25
15 50 20 17 14.80 0 0 1.13
16 88 30 26 14 11.97 0 1.02
17 120 53 45 25 12 1 1.30
18 200 50 45 26 15 1 1.20
19 115 40 20 16 7 0 1.11
20 10.67 22 13 20.41 24.9 1 1.4
21 12.19 22 20 19.63 11.98 0 1.35
22 12.80 28 32 21.83 8.62 0 1.03
23 45.72 16 11 20.41 33.52 0 1.28
24 10.67 25 30 18.84 15.32 1 1.63
25 7.62 20 20 18.84 0 0 1.05
26 61.00 20 20 21.43 0 0 1.03
27b 565 21 24 21 20 To be To be
predicted predicted
u represents angle of internal friction; c represents density; c represents cohesion.
a
0 represents unstable and 1 stable.
b
Sample no. 27 represents theYudonghe landslide; to be predicted.
 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315
Fig. 8. A practical four-layer BPNN model.
with five input nodes and two output nodes was
constructed (Fig. 8).
Hidden nodes and the number of hidden layers
have been decided by reasonable errors from repeat-
ed trainings. Consequently, two hidden layers were
chosen and four and twelve hidden nodes were
placed in the hidden layers. With the learning algo-
rithm presented above, repeated trainings were fin-
ished and convergence was obtained until e was
expected to be a reasonable error. In the training
model, the learning ratio was 0.9, the learning step
was 0.7, the individual error was 0.01, and a col-
lective error was 0.0001. Learning results correlated
with the expected after 12,589 iterations and a
trained BPNN model was generated. Using this
training model, new data as original inputs were
processed with standard changes. Slope stability
and the FS of the Yudonghe landslide were variables
to be predicted as outputs. Predicted results showed
that the Yudonghe landslide is marginally stable with
a FS of 1.10, smaller than the calculated value of
1.26, which was obtained by employing limit-equi-
librium method (Xu, 1998).
6. Discussion and concluding remarks
Although a variety of methods are used in slope-
instability assessment, it is worth recognising that the
BPNN, as an effective approach of evaluation meth-
ods for slope stability, represents a method with huge
313
potential for application in engineering geology. In
terms of stability evaluation employing the BPNN, all
indices must be chosen based on mechanisms and
processes of the landslide or slope failure.
This paper attempts to evaluate slope instability
using the BPNN model combined with a detailed
field survey and microstructure observation of soils
along the sliding surface by means of SEM, although
the FS calculation can be determined by limit equi-
librium, finite element, and many models that are
traditionally used.
As a useful tool, which deals with a nonlinear
system and is capable of response to inputs and
adaptation to the environment, the most widely used
BPNN are capable of evaluating landslide hazard at
both regional and site-specific scales (Lee et al., 2003;
Neaupane and Achet, 2004). The BPNN application
can be applied better over a wide area using non-
parametric variables with large extension. It should
be noted, however, that the application of BPNN to
slope-stability analysis is based on the assumption
that the training data sets have the similar mechan-
isms and are based on similar geological conditions.
The small landslide areas near Shuibuya Dam to
some extent limit practical applications of the
BPNN; therefore, the results should be compared
with FS calculations using different methods based
on deterministic analysis, in order to assess the
landslide hazard with reliability and accuracy.
Based on the method of slices, numerous traditional
simplified deterministic methods for FS calculation
314 H.B. Wang et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 302–315
suffer from limitations, such as the inability to
consider variability in input parameters. However,
other methods cannot be substituted for the deter-
ministic approach to slope engineering.
In conclusion, existing zones of weakness, growth
of ruptures, the downslope attitude of strata and infil-
tration of water to reduce the strengths of rocks and
soils become the most important factors contributing
to the occurrence of the Yudonghe landslide. With
regard to the landslide processes, it can be noted that
the first large-scale landslide activity was caused by
river erosion; the second sliding activity resulted from
fall of rock blocks from the head scarp; and the final
activity appears to have been the development of the
eastern and western landslide subunits. A single base
failure was the main type of slope movement and more
than one sliding activity obviously occurred as in-
ferred from striations and fractures detected through
the microstructure analysis (SEM) of soil along
the failure surface. Finally, a four-layer BPNN model
with five input nodes, two hidden layers, and two
output nodes was constructed and was subsequently
used to evaluate the stability of the slope. Predicted
results show that the FS of the Yudonghe landslide is
1.10, which means that it is marginally stable.
Acknowledgements
Support from the Yangtze River Water Resources
Commission, particularly the assistance and contribu-
tion from Professor Shutian Suo from China Univer-
sity of Geosciences, is gratefully acknowledged.
Special thanks go to Professor Chunjie Yan from
China University of Geosciences, for his assistance
in microstructural photos of soil samples. The authors
would like to express their sincere appreciation to Dr.
R. L. Schuster for his valuable suggestions. The help-
ful comments and reviews from Dr. Marino Sorriso-
Valvo and another anonymous reviewer are greatly
acknowledged.
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