Foc All Unit

Unit 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
GENRATION OF COMPUTERS
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an
entire computer system.
There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate
dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers.
S.No Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.
The development of computer systems is normally discussed as the development over

different generations.
With the succession of different generations, came the advancement in computer technology.
Computer Generations
Let us now discuss the development in Computer Technology over the different generations.
First Generation
• The first generation computers were developed by using vacuum tube or thermionic
valve machine.
• The input of this system was based on punched cards and paper tape; however, the
output was displayed on printouts.
• The first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of 0-

1). Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.
Second Generation
• The second generation computers were developed by using transistor technology.
• In comparison to the first generation, the size of second generation was smaller.
• In comparison to computers of the first generation, the computing time taken by the
computers of the second generation was lesser.
Third Generation
• The third generation computers were developed by using the Integrated Circuit (IC)
technology.
• In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the size of the computers of
the third generation was smaller.
• In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the computing time taken
by the computers of the third generation was lesser.
• The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated less heat.
• The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low.
• The computer system of the computers of the third generation was easier for
commercial use.
Fourth Generation
• The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor

technology.
• By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it became

portable.
• The machine of fourth generation started generating very low amount of heat.
• It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.
• The production cost reduced to very low in comparison to the previous generation.
• It became available for the common people as well.
Fifth Generation
• By the time, the computer generation was being categorized on the basis of hardware
only, but the fifth generation technology also included software.
• The computers of the fifth generation had high capability and large memory capacity.
• Working with computers of this generation was fast and multiple tasks could be
performed simultaneously.
• Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth generation include Artificial
intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing, etc.
Block Diagram of Computer
Block Diagram of Computer System :: The Computer system consists of mainly three types
that are central processing unit (CPU),Input Devices, and Output Devices .The Central
processing unit (CPU) again consists of ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and Control Unit. The
set of instruction is presented to the computer in the form of raw data which is entered
through input devices such as keyboard or mouse.
Later this set of instruction is processed with the help of CPU, and the computer system
Produce an Output with the help of Output Devices mainly Printers and monitors. Large
amount of data is stored in the computer memory with the help of primary and secondary
storage devices temporarily and permanently.This are called as storage devices
The CPU is the heart | Brian of a computer because without the necessary action taken by the
CPU the user cannot get the desired output. The central Processing unit [CPU] is responsible
for processing all the Instruction which is given to computer system or PC. Below Block
Diagram of Computer and Its Components are mentioned For Better Understanding
Dia:-Block Diagram of Computer
The Basic components & parts of computer system are given below :
• Input Devices
• Output Devices
• CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• Storage Unit
• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Control Unit
Input Devices of Computer System
The set of instruction or information is provided to the computer system or PC with the help of input
devices such as (keyboard, mouse, scanners etc). The Instruction or data presented to computer
system is converted into binary form then it is supplied to computer system for furtherprocessing .
The Input Unit perform transferring the data from outside the world into the system and later
this data is processed and system produces instruction through output unit such as Printer,
monitors etc.
The Input devices enter's the data from outside the world into the primary storage
devices.The input devices are a means of communication with outside world and our
computer system.
• Input Devices accepts or receives the data or instruction from outside the world such
as input devices like keyboard and mouse
• It converts the data or instruction or information into machine readable form for
further processing.
• Later it supplies the decipherable information to PC for additionally handling
• They act like a connection between outside the world and our own computer system
• Keyboard and mouse are the prime examples of input devices.
• When the procedure is finished we get or receive desire result using output devices
such as printer's and monitor's.
Output Devices of Computer Systems

Output devices of computer produce or generate results with the help of devices or gadgets
such as printer,monitor etc primarily these instruction or data provided to computer system is
in binary code so to produce or generate the desired output the system has to convert this data
into human-readable form, to do so it has to first present the data or instruction to computer
system for further processing or handling.With the help and assistance of output devices, the
system is linked or connected with outside world.
For Example, The data or instruction such as Graphics, images or text is inserted in the
computer system with the help of input devices as the data received from the input devices is
in binary code, therefore, the data has to be primarily converted into human readable form
after processing user get the required or desired data or set of information.
The prime examples of Output devices are Printer, Monitor,Projectors etc
• The output devices receives all the data or instruction in binary code.
• The output devices converts the binary codes into human readable or intelligible form
for better understanding and better functionality.
• They produces the changed or converted result to the user .which is effectively
comprehensible by humans for proper and accurate understanding.
• They acts as a connection or link between outside world and computer system or our
own PC framework.
• Printers, monitors and projector's are the prime examples of output devices
Central Processing Unit (CPU) of Computer System
The Central Processing unit is also called as brain or heart of a computer.The CPU is nothing
but an electronic hardware device which carries or performs out all the operation such as
arithmetic and logic operation. Below we have discussed briefly on arithmetic and logical
operation..
The CPU in another term is also called as "PROCESSOR".Every instruction given through
the input devices such as keyboard or mouse is carried further for processing and we user get
our desired results through are output devices such as printers and monitors.
The CPU is also responsible for controlling all the operations of the other units of the
computer system.When we talk or discuss CPU we tend to speak about its speed as speed
these days matters most due to high number of large software which requires fast processor
for execution.
The different component of CPU is Arithmetic logical unit And Control Unit.
Control Unit
The control Unit or CU Controls or coordinates all activities performed in a computer system.
It receives information or instruction or directions from the main memory of computer.It tells
the logic unit, memory as well as the input and output devices how to handle the program or
instruction in proper order.When the control unit receives any set of information or
instruction it converts them to control signals then this signals are sent to the central
processor for further processing and finally, it understands which operation to execute,
exactly or precisely and in which order.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
• Arithmetic Unit (AU)
• Logic Unit (LU)
There are some processors now that has more than single AU [Arithmetic Unit]. ALU
performs arithmetic and logical operation.When a set of instruction or program is conveyed
out. Control unit generally characterized which sort of operation to Execute.Arithmetic
operation comprises of (Addition, subtraction, division, multiplication) and the logical unit
carries out the operation such (AND, OR, Equal, less than, greater then), and later the control
is changed to ALU and the result generated in ALU later stored or puts away in transitory
memory.
Storage Unit of Computer

The information or set of guidelines can be stored in PC storage unit when information or
direction is exhibited to the PC system utilizing Input devices.To begin the procedure on
information, Instructions given by input devices the information must be put away in
memory, and later when the preparing is done the outcome produced is likewise put away in
computer system for additionally handling .
This type of work and action is done by storage unit In another word, we can also describe
the storage unit as the unit which gives space to store data or instruction of processed data,
processed result.
• It stores information or instruction
• It stores Results
• It stores consequence of prepared data
Storage Devices :: The term storage is defined as the devices which stores data given by the
input devices or output devices after processing,the data is stored in computer system i.e
Primary storage or secondary storage depends entirely on the size of data.
There are mainly two types of storage Unit
• Primary Storage
• Secondary Storage
Primary Storage::They are also called as Main memory or in other words as RAM (Random
Access Memory).The Data or set of instruction is stored in primary storage before processing
and later the data is transferred to ALU where further processing is done.
The primary Storage cannot store huge amount of data, and the data store in this memory is
temporary (The data is lost when there is power failure), it is also called as temporary
memory, they are very expensive.The other example of primary Storage is L1 Cache of
Processor .
Secondary Storage:: Secondary storage are also called as permanent storage unit as when the
data store in this memory are stored permanently user can recall the data whenever they need.
The data remains in this memory even when there is a power failure or shutdown, they are
much more cheaper then primary memory.The Example of Secondary Storage are Hard disk
and Zip drives .
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components that
can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are the following −
• Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.
• Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.
• Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
• Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.
Relationship between Hardware and Software
• Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must
work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
• Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
• Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
• To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into
the hardware.
• Hardware is a one-time expense.
• Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
• Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
• A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
• If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'. Both
are complementary to each other.
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A

program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software −
• System Software
• Application Software
System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as
the interface between the hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,

Assemblers, etc.
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −
• Close to the system
• Fast in speed
• Difficult to design
• Difficult to understand
• Less interactive
• Smaller in size
• Difficult to manipulate
• Generally written in low-level language.
Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for
writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called
a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet
package.
Examples of Application software are the following −
• Payroll Software
• Student Record Software
• Inventory Management Software
• Income Tax Software

• Railways Reservation Software
• Microsoft Office Suite Software
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel
• Microsoft PowerPoint
Features of application software are as follows −
• Close to the user
• Easy to design
• More interactive
• Slow in speed
• Generally written in high-level language
• Easy to understand
• Easy to manipulate and use
• Bigger in size and requires large storage space
Monitor(VDU)
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
Features of Monitors
• Size
• Resolution
• Refresh rate
• Dot pitch
Size
Monitors are available in different sizes. The standard monitor for personal computers is 13
to 16 inches. The size of the monitor is measured diagonally.
Resolution
Resolution of a monitor is the number of pixels on the screen. It is the image sharpness of a
display screen. It is expressed as a matrix. A resolution of 640×480 means there is 640
horizontal pixels and 480 vertical pixels. The actual resolution is determined by the video
controller, not by monitor. Most monitors provide the resolutions of 640×480, 800×600, and
1024×768.
Refresh Rate
The number of times the electron guns scan every pixel on the screen in one second is called
refresh rate. It is measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second.
Dot Pitch
The distance between the phosphorus dots that create a single pixel is called a dot pitch.A
computer monitor, technically termed as a visual display unit, can be plainly described as an
electronic device that transmits information from the computer onto a screen, thereby acting
as an interface and connecting the viewer with the computer. At present, computer monitors
are available in a variety of shapes, designs, and colors. However, based on the technology
used to make computer monitors, they can be broadly categorized into three types.
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
3. LED (Light-Emitting Diodes)

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors

These monitors employ the CRT technology used most commonly in the manufacturing of
television screens. In this, a stream of intense high energy electrons is used to form images on
a fluorescent screen. A cathode ray tube is a basically a vacuum tube containing an electron
gun at one end and a fluorescent screen at another end. From this electron gun, a process
called thermionic emission generates a strong beam of electrons. These electrons travel
through a narrow path within the tube with high speed using various electro-magnetic devices
and finally strike the phosphor points present on the fluorescent screen, thus creating an
image. There are several advantages of using CRT
monitors:
• These monitors are highly reliable and efficient,

and are capable of generating a resolution of up to
2048 x 1536 pixels, thereby providing a clear
picture quality. Also, CRT monitors that are now
available are capable of producing thousands of
different colors.
• Secondly, CRT monitors are affordable and cost effective.
• Unlike conventional CRT monitors, modern technological advancements have

resulted in the development of flat screen CRT monitors that reduce the glare and are
good for the eyes.
However, the only concern with buying CRT monitors is that they are heavy and can occupy
a great deal of work space. Also, these devices get heated up very easily.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors

Liquid crystal display, also known as liquid crystal diode, is one of the most advanced
technologies available at present. Typically, an LCD monitor consists of a layer of color or
monochrome pixels arranged schematically between a couple of transparent electrodes and
two polarizing filters. Optical effect is achieved by polarizing the light in varied amounts and
making it pass through the liquid crystal layer. At present, there are two types of LCD
technology available. These include the active matrix or TFT and a passive matrix
technology. Among these, TFT technology is more secure and reliable, and generates better
picture quality. On the other hand, passive matrix has a slow response time and is slowly
becoming outdated.
In recent times, LCD monitors have become increasing

popular with consumers. Some major advantages of using an
LCD monitor include:
• These monitors are compact, lightweight, and do not

consume much desk space.
• Secondly, these monitors do not consume much electricity and can even be operated
by using batteries.
• Also, the images transmitted by these monitors do not get geometrically distorted and
have little flicker.
However, LCD monitors do have certain disadvantages. Most importantly, these monitors are
very expensive. Secondly, image quality is not constant when viewed from different angles.
Also, an LCD monitor’s resolution is always constant. Any alterations can result in a reduced
performance.
LED (Light-Emitting Diodes) Monitors

LED monitors are the latest types of monitors in the market today. Like LCD, it is again a flat
panel display making use of light-emitting diodes for back-lightning instead of Cold Cathode
Fluorescent (CCFL) back-lightning used in LCDs. Primarily, the display is of LCD only but
the back-lightning is done by LEDs.
LED monitors are said to use much lesser power than CRT and LCD. Thus, they are also
considered environmental friendly. Other core advantages of LED monitors are:
1. They produce images with higher contrast.
2. They have less negative environmental impact when disposed.
3. Lifespan and durability of LED monitors is more than CRT or LCD monitors.
4. Because of the technology, the monitor panels can be made very thin.
5. Do not produce much heat while running.
LED monitors are little expensive than the former types. There are multiple ways by which
LED back-lightning is done.
• White-edge LEDs are fixed around the rim of the monitor. It used a special diffusion
panel to spread light evenly behind the screen.
• An array of LEDs are placed behind the screen. Their brightness is not controlled
individually.
• Again an array of LEDs are placed behind the screen, but the brightness of each
individual LED is controlled separately.
Keyboard
• Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
• Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104
keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
• The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
S.No Keys & Description
Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
same layout as that of typewriters.
Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set
of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines
and calculators.
Function Keys
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at
the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.
Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse
and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen,
but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to
the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can
be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track
ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that
can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in
a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had
been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine
readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.
OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It
may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is
then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −
• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on
the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
• Very low consumable costs
• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
• Character printers
• Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
• Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in
the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or
9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
• Inexpensive
• Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
• Slow Speed
• Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for
word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice
quality.
Advantages
• More reliable than DMP
• Better quality
• Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
• Slower than DMP
• Noisy
• More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types −
• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.
One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to
2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
• Very high speed
Disadvantages
• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
• Character fonts can easily be changed.
• Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
• Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
• Faster than impact printers
• They are not noisy
• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
• Very high speed
• Very high quality output
• Good graphics quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
• High quality printing
• More reliable
Disadvantages
• Expensive as the cost per page is high
• Slow as compared to laser printer
Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts
called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory
size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has
64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
• These are semiconductor memories.
• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is the working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does
not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents
of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access
it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• These are magnetic and optical memories.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is
working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.
RAM is of two types −
• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache
memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
• Long life
• No need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
• Short data lifetime
• Needs to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Smaller in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumptio
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in
such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start
a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.

Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge
is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because
the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a
quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased
one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
• Non-volatile in nature
• Cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
• Static and do not require refreshing
• Contents are always known and can be verified

MOTHER BOARD
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card,
and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the
backbone of a computer.
Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features −
• Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
• Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
• Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to
function properly.
• Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly

together.
Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.
• Intel
• ASUS
• AOpen
• ABIT
• Biostar
• Gigabyte
• MSI
Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws
through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal
components. It provides a single socket for CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more
slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and
optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for
power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound
cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse,
keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow
compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive,
digital cameras, etc.
SECONDARY MEMORY
You know that processor memory, also known as primary memory, is expensive as well as
limited. The faster primary memory are also volatile. If we need to store large amount of data
or programs permanently, we need a cheaper and permanent memory. Such memory is called
secondary memory. Here we will discuss secondary memory devices that can be used to
store large amount of data, audio, video and multimedia files.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary
memory −
• It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off
• It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes
• It is cheaper as compared to primary memory

Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there are two types
of secondary memory – fixed and removable.
Let us look at some of the secondary memory devices available.
Hard Disk Drive
Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks called platters arranged one over the
other almost ½ inches apart around a spindle. Disks are made of non-magnetic material like
aluminum alloy and coated with 10-20 nm of magnetic material.
Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds varying from 4200
rpm (rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for servers. Data is stored by
magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read
data from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).
MAGNETIC DISK
•One or moreplattersin the form of disks covered with magnetic media.

•Each disk platter has a flat circular shape.
•Each platter has two working surfacesthat stores data.
•Digital information is stored on magnetic disks in the form of microscopically small, magnetized
needles.
•Data is stored on either or both surfaces of discs in concentric rings called tracks.
•Each track is divided into a number of sectors.
•To read information, the arm is positioned over the correct track.
•Data is read and written by adisk drive which rotates the discs and positions the read/write heads over
the desired track.
Seek Time-
• The time taken by the read / write head to reach the desired track is called as seek
time.
• It is the component which contributes the largest percentage of the disk service time.
• The lower the seek time, the faster the I/O operation.
Rotational Latency-
• The time taken by the desired sector to come under the read / write head is called as
rotational latency.
• It depends on the rotation speed of the spindle.
Data Transfer Rate-
• The amount of data that passes under the read / write head in a given amount of time
is called as data transfer rate.
• The time taken to transfer the data is called as transfer time.
It depends on the following factors-
1. Number of bytes to be transferred
2. Rotation speed of the disk
3. Density of the track
4. Speed of the electronics that connects the disk to the computer
WRITE MECHANISM
-> Writes binary data by magnetizing small areas or zones of the disk.
-> Current through the coil produces magnetic field.
-> Corresponding magnetic pattern is recorded on the surface.
Magnetic tape and magnetic disk both stores the data magnetically. The surface of a magnetic tape
and the surface of a magnetic disk are covered with a magnetic material which helps in storing the
information magnetically. Both are non-volatile storage. Despite these similarities both differs in
many aspects from their appearance to their working, their cost and much more.
The basic difference between magnetic tape and magnetic disk is that magnetic tape is used for
backups whereas, magnetic disk are used as secondary storage. Let us discuss some more
differences between magnetic tape and magnetic disk with the help of comparison chart shown
below.
Basis for
Magnetic Tape Magnetic Disk
Comparison
Used for backup, and storage of
Basic less frequently used Used as a secondary storage.
information.
Several platters arranged above each other
Plastic thin, long, narrow strip
Physical to form a cylinder, each platter has a read-
coated with magnetic material.
write head.
Use Idle for sequential access. Idle for random access.
Access Slower in data accessing. Fast in data accessing.
Once data is fed, it can't be
Update Data can be updated.
updated.
If the tape is damaged, the data
Data loss In a case of a head crash, the data is lost.
is lost.
Typically stores from 20 GB to
Storage From Several hundred GB to Terabytes.
200 GB.
Magnetic tapes are less
Expense Magnetic disk is more expensive.
expensive.
Definition of Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tapes were introduced in 1928, earlier used as a secondary storage medium.
Magnetic tape is a thin long narrow plastic strip coated with the magnetizable substance.
The tape is wounded over a spool, and it is wounded or unwounded past a read-write head to
read from or write data to the tape. Magnetic

Tapes are nonvolatile in nature and hence it holds the large quantity of data permanently.
The magnetic tapes store the data sequentially. The random access to magnetic tapes takes
more time than magnetic disk because the magnetic tape has to perform forward and rewind
operation to locate a correct spot.
Once the read-write head in magnetic tape is positioned correctly, it writes the data with the
same speed as that of the magnetic disk. The data transfer speed of the magnetic tape is
similar to the magnetic disk. As random access to magnetic tapes is comparatively slower, it
was not very useful for secondary storage. Now, the magnetic tapes are used for backups, for
storing the data that is less frequently used.
Magnetic tapes are also used in supercomputer centres for holding the large volume of data
that is used for scientific research.
Definition of Magnetic Disk
In modern computers, Magnetic Disk is used for secondary storage. Like Magnetic tape, the
magnetic disk is also a non-volatile so, its stores the data permanently. The magnetic disk has
several flat circular shaped platters which appear like a CD.The diameter of each platter
ranges from 1.8 to 5.25 inches. Both inner and

outer surfaces of the platter are covered with the magnetic material so that information can be
recorded magnetically on the platters. There is a read-write head that moves over the
surfaces of each platter. These read-write heads are attached to the disk arm that helps in
moving all heads as a single unit.
Each platter surface is divided into circular tracks which are further divided into sectors. The
read-write head flies over the platter surface on a thin cushion of air. Though the disk platter
is coated with a protective layer, there is always a danger that head will make contact with the
disk causing head crash. The Head crash is not repairable the whole magnetic disk is to be
replaced.
Key Differences Between Magnetic Tape and Magnetic Disk
1. The magnetic tapes are used for backups and the storage of the data that may be less
frequently used. On the other hands, the magnetic disk is used as a secondary
storage in modern computers.
2. The magnetic disk has several platters arranged one above the other to form a
cylinder, and each platter has a read-write head that flies over the surface of the
platter.On other hands, magnetic tape is a long thin narrow plastic strip coated with
magnetizing substance wounded over a spool.
3. Magnetic tape allows fast sequential accessing but is slower in random accessing.
However, the magnetic disk is fast in accessing data sequentially or randomly.
4. Magnetic disk access the data faster than the magnetic tape.
5. Magnetic tape can not be updated once written whereas, magnetic disk can be
updated.
6. If the magnetic tape is damaged data can be lost whereas, in the case of the magnetic
disk a head crash can cause data loss.
7. Magnetic tape has a storage capacity of 20 GB to 200 GB whereas, the storage

capacity of the magnetic disk if from several hundred GB to Tera bytes.
8. Magnetic tape is less expensive as compared to the magnetic disk.
Conclusion:
Magnetic tape was earlier used as secondary storage, but now they are used for backups.
Magnetic disks are used as secondary storage for modern computers. Both Magnetic tapes
and magnetic disks are the non-volatile storages and both stores the data magnetically.
OPTICAL DISK
A storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by lasers. Optical disks
can store much more data -- up to 6 gigabytes (6 billion bytes) -- than most portable magnetic
media, such as floppies. There are three basic types of optical disks:
CD-ROM :Like audio CDs, CD-ROMs come with data already encoded onto them.
The data is permanent and can be read any number of times, but CD-ROMs cannot be
modified.
WORM : Stands for write-once, read -many. With a WORM disk drive, you can
writedata onto a WORM disk, but only once. After that, the WORM disk behaves just
like a CD-ROM.
Erasable: Optical disks that can be erased and loaded with new data, just like
magnetic disks. These are often referred to as EO (erasable optical) disks.
These three technologies are not compatible with one another; each requires a different type
of disk drive and disk. Even within one category, there are many competing formats, although
CD-ROMs are relatively standardized.
CD Drive
CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to
read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than
a dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can
eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs −
• CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are
recorded by the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on
CD-ROMs.
• CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the
CD-R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.
• CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these
optical disks again and again.
DVD Drive
DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the
data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage
capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read only, recordable and rewritable.
Pen Drive
Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic
fields or lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is
nonvolatile. It is also called USB drive, key drive or flash memory.
Blu Ray Disk

Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD) video and
other multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to CD/DVD. This
enables writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and hence pack in more data. BDs can
store up to 128 GB data.
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called a cell. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of two types
• Internal Memory − cache memory and primary/main memory
• External Memory − magnetic disk / optical disk etc.
Basic Differences Between Optical and Magnetic Storage Devices:

•
• # • Optical Storage • Magnetic Storage Devices
Devices
• 1 • Stores data as patterned • Stores data in magnetic form
image
• 2 • Optical storage devices • Magnetic storage devices offer
offer lesser capacity much higher capacity
• 3 • Requires LASER light • Doesn’t require LASER heads
to read and write data to read and write data
onto the disc
• 4 • Slower data read and • Faster data read and write
write
• 5 • Data on the disk will not • Magnetic field can destroy the
be damaged by data stored on Magnetic storage
magnetic fields devices
• 6 • Optical storages can be • Magnetic storage devices are
readable, writable and always readable and re-writable
re-writable
• 7 • Optical storage devices • Almost all magnetic storage
require additional drives devices comes with built-in
to function drives
• 8 • Easy and safe to take • Not as safe as optical storage
around devices to take around
• General • Devices that store • Devices that store information
Definitio information on the on the computer and on the
n computer and on the system, which comes in a round
system, which comes in and flat shape and rotates along
a round and flat shape the axis.
and rotates along the
axis.
• Differen • Uses laser tools to store • Uses magnetization process.
tiation and read information
• Working • A laser is used to read • The mechanical arm becomes
the information stored in the primary tool that uses the
the dots and then handle to read data from the
converted into a signal device and write data to the
of electricity that gave disk.
an audio or visual
output
• Space • 27 GB maximum • Several hundred GBs
• Basis • Magnetic Disk • Optical Disk
For
Compar
ison
• Media • Muiltiple fixed disk • Single removable disk
type
• Position • Intermediate signal to • Excellent signal to noise ratio
error noise ratio
signals
• Sample • Low • High
rate
• Impleme • Used mostly where data • Used in streaming files.
ntation is randomly accessed.
• Tracks • Circular • Spiral or circular
• Usage • Only one disk can be • Mass replication is possible
used at a time
• Access • Shorter comparatively • Longer
time
• Definition of Magnetic disk
• The Magnetic disk is made of a set of circular platters. These platters are initially
build up of non-magnetic material i.e., aluminium or aluminium alloy referred to as
substrate then the substrate is coated with a magnetic film and mounted on a
common spindle. The disks are placed inside a rotary drive where the magnetised
surface rotates close to the read and write heads. Every head is comprised of a
magnetising coil and a magnetic yoke. It stores the digital information on the
concentric tracks by applying the current pulse of appropriate polarity to the magnetic
coil.
• The number of bits stored on each track does not change by using simplest constant
angular velocity. Multiple zoned recording is used to increase the density in which
the surface is partitioned into a number of zones and the zones located near the centre
contain fewer bits than the zones farther from the centre. However, this strategy is not
optimal.
• .
•
• In the read operation, the alteration in a magnetic field is sensed. So, the two opposite
states of magnetisation represent 0 and 1; it produces the voltage in the head when 0-1
and 1-0 transition takes place in the bit stream.
• Definition of Optical disk
• The Optical disk is a storage device in which optical (light) energy is used. In the
initial stages, the designers created a compact disk in the mid- 1980s which use the
digital representation for the analog sound signals. The CD was capable of providing
great quality sound recording by taking 16-bit samples of analog signals at the speed
of 44,100 samples per second and also it can detain up to 75 minutes where a total
amount of stored bits needed is approx 3 x 109 (3 gigabits). These optical disks use
the optical technology in which a laser light is centred to the spinning disks.
• The optical disk is constructed from a resin like polycarbonate, and the surface of
this polycarbonate contains the digital information impressed on it as the sequence of
microscopic pits. A microscopic pitted surface is then glazed by a highly reflective
surface such as aluminium or gold. To make the disk scratch resistant it is coated by
acrylic and silkscreened label on it. Finally, a concentrated high-intensity laser is
utilized in the creation of the master disk.
• The information retrieval from a CD is done through housing a low powered laser in
an optical disk player. The laser is radiated through the clear polycarbonate while the
disk is spinning by the motor. As the laser falls on the pit (usually having the rough
surface), the magnitude of the reflected laser light changes. The vacant smooth area
between the pits is known as the land from which the light reflects back at a higher
magnitude.
•
A photosensor is used to identify the alteration between the pits and lands and
translate it into a digital signal. The pit area represents a ‘1’ while no change is
observed between intervals a ‘0’ is recorded. There are numerous optical disk
products are available in the market such as CD, CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD,
DVD-R, DVD-RW.
• Key Differences Between Magnetic disk and Optical disk
• The magnetic disk is a fixed storage device whereas optical disk is transportable storage
media which is removable.
• Optical disk generates better signal-to-noise ratio as compared to magnetic disk.
• The sample rate used in the magnetic disk is lower than used in the optical disk.
• In the optical disk, the data is sequentially accessed. In contrast, the data in the magnetic
disk is randomly accessed.
• Tracks in the magnetic disk are generally circular while in optical disk the tracks are
constructed spirally.
• Optical disk allows mass replication. On the contrary, in the magnetic disk, only one disk is
accessed at a time.
• The access time of the magnetic disk is lesser than the optical disk.
• Conclusion
The magnetic disk works on electromagnetic technology while optical disk functions by
using optical means (laser light). Although, the speed of the magnetic disk is higher than that
of the optical disk.
• MEMORY HIERARCHY
Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy are following when we go from top to bottom.
• Capacity in terms of storage increases.
• Cost per bit of storage decreases.
• Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU decreases.
• Access time by the CPU increases.

MEMORY UNIT
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity
is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The following table explains the main memory storage units −
S.No. Unit & Description
Bit (Binary Digit)

1
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.
Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
Byte
3
A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
item or a character.
Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small
as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of
computer words.
The following table lists some higher storage units −
S.No. Unit & Description
Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB
GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB
TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB
PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB
DATA
Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized

manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human
or electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or
special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)
Types of Data
Data, in mathematical and scientific speak, is a group of information collected. The
information could be anything, and is often used to prove or disprove a hypothesis, or
scientific guess, during an experiment. Data that can be collected can be hair color, number of
movies a person goes to, how a person feels about a certain topic, how much money a group
of people make over the course of time, and so much more. Data is usually grouped into two
different types of information: categorical and numerical. In this lesson, we'll talk about
numerical data.
What Is Numerical Data?

Numerical data is information that is something that is measurable. It is always collected in
number form, although there are other types of data that can appear in number form. An
example of numerical data would be the number of people that attended the movie theater
over the course of a month.
One of the ways you can identify numerical data is by seeing if the data can be added
together. In fact, you should be able to perform just about any mathematical operation on
numerical data. You can also put data in ascending (least to greatest) and descending (greatest
to least) order. Data can only be numerical if the answers can be represented in fraction
and/or decimal form. If you have to group the information into categories, then it is
considered categorical.
If you were to measure the height of four ladders, you could average the heights, you could
add the heights, and you could put them in ascending or descending order. That's because the
height of the ladders is numerical data!
Types of Statistical Data: Numerical, Categorical, and

Ordinal
When working with statistics, it’s important to recognize the different types of data: numerical
(discrete and continuous), categorical, and ordinal. Data are the actual pieces of information that you
collect through your study. For example, if you ask five of your friends how many pets they own, they
might give you the following data: 0, 2, 1, 4, and 18. (The fifth friend might count each of her
aquarium fish as a separate pet.) Not all data are numbers; let’s say you also record the gender of
each of your friends, getting the following data: male, male, female, male, female.
Most data fall into one of two groups: numerical or categorical.
Numerical Data or Quantitative Data

Quantitative data is a numerical measurement expressed not by means of a natural language
description, but rather in terms of numbers.These data have meaning as a measurement, such as a
person’s height, weight, IQ, or blood pressure; or they’re a count, such as the number of stock shares
a person owns, how many teeth a dog has, or how many pages you can read of your favorite book
before you fall asleep.
Numerical data can be further broken into two types: discrete and continuous.
• Discrete data represent items that can be counted; they take on possible values that can be listed
out. The list of possible values may be fixed (also called finite); or it may go from 0, 1, 2, on to infinity
(making it countably infinite). For example, the number of heads in 100 coin flips takes on values
from 0 through 100 (finite case), but the number of flips needed to get 100 heads takes on values
from 100 (the fastest scenario) on up to infinity (if you never get to that 100th heads). Its possible
values are listed as 100, 101, 102, 103, . . . (representing the countably infinite case).
• Continuous data represent measurements; their possible values cannot be counted and can only be
described using intervals on the real number line. For example, the exact amount of gas purchased at
the pump for cars with 20-gallon tanks would be continuous data from 0 gallons to 20 gallons,
represented by the interval [0, 20], inclusive. You might pump 8.40 gallons, or 8.41, or 8.414863
gallons, or any possible number from 0 to 20. In this way, continuous data can be thought of as being
uncountably infinite. For ease of recordkeeping, statisticians usually pick some point in the number
to round off. Another example would be that the lifetime of a C battery can be anywhere from 0
hours to an infinite number of hours (if it lasts forever), technically, with all possible values in
between. Granted, you don’t expect a battery to last more than a few hundred hours, but no one can
put a cap on how long it can go (remember the Energizer Bunny?).
Qualitative Data or Categorical Data

Qualitative data is a categorical measurement expressed not in terms of numbers, but rather by
means of a natural language description. In statistics, it is often used interchangeably with
"categorical" data. Categorical data represent characteristics such as a person’s gender, marital
status, hometown, or the types of movies they like. Categorical data can take on numerical values
(such as “1” indicating male and “2” indicating female), but those numbers don’t have mathematical
meaning. You couldn’t add them together, for example.
A classic example defining categorical or numerical data is shared below.
Amount of money earned last week Language mostly spoken at home
Arm span Foot length
Birthdate Opinions on environmental conservation

Concentration exercise (seconds) School post code
Dominant hand reaction time State/Territory live in
Favourite sport Travel method to school
Height Travel time to school
Hours slept per night Year level
Categorical Numerical
1. Birthdate 1. Amount of money earned last week
2. Favourite sport 2. Arm span
3. Language mostly spoken at home 3. Concentration exercise (seconds)
4. Opinions on environmental conservation 4. Dominant hand reaction time
5. School post code 5. Height
6. State/Territory live in 6. Hours slept per night
7. Travel method to school 7. Foot length
8. Year level 8. Travel time to school
Why is data, that contains numbers, such as post codes and birthdates, considered categorical?
A quick and easy way to decide whether data is numerical or categorical is to ask yourself “Can I
calculate an average of these numbers?. If you can calculate an average, the data is numerical, if you
cannot, the data is categorical. Since an average postcode or average year level has no meaning, this
data is categorical, even though the data is presented as numerals.
Ordinal Data
When the categories may be ordered, these are called ordinal variables.Ordinal data mixes
numerical and categorical data. The data fall into categories, but the numbers placed on the
categories have meaning. For example, rating a restaurant on a scale from 0 (lowest) to 4 (highest)
stars gives ordinal data. Ordinal data are often treated as categorical, where the groups are ordered
when graphs and charts are made. However, unlike categorical data, the numbers do have
mathematical meaning. For example, if you survey 100 people and ask them to rate a restaurant on a
scale from 0 to 4, taking the average of the 100 responses will have meaning. This would not be the
case with categorical data.
Another definition for ordinal data:
A set of data is said to be ordinal if the values / observations belonging to it can be ranked (put in
order) or have a rating scale attached. You can count and order, but not measure, ordinal data.
The categories for an ordinal set of data have a natural order, for example, suppose a group of people
were asked to taste varieties of biscuit and classify each biscuit on a rating scale of 1 to 5,
representing strongly dislike, dislike, neutral, like, strongly like. A rating of 5 indicates more
enjoyment than a rating of 4, for example, so such data are ordinal.
Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness,
discomfort, etc.
Nominal Data
Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without any quantitative value. “Nominal” scales
could simply be called “labels.” Here are some examples, below. Notice that all of these scales are
mutually exclusive (no overlap) and none of them have any numerical significance. A good way to
remember all of this is that “nominal” sounds a lot like “name” and nominal scales are kind of like
“names” or labels.
Summary
Data- Data can be classified into two different types.
Categorical Numerical
Values or observations that can be sorted into Values or observations that can be measured. And
groups or categories. these numbers can be placed in ascending or
Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph descending order.
categorical data.
Scatter plots and line graphs are used to graph

numerical data.
Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous

Values or observations Values or observations Values or observations You can measure continuous
can be assigned a code can be ranked (put in that is counted as data. Values or observations
in the form of a number order) or have a rating distinct and separate may take on any value
where the numbers are scale attached. You can and can only take within a finite or infinite
simply labels. You can count and order, but not particular values. interval. Examples: height,
count but not order or measure, ordinal data. Examples: the number of time and temperature.
measure nominal data. Example: house kittens in a litter; number
Examples: Sex, and eye numbers and swimming of threads in a sheet,
colour. level. number of stars given for
an energy rating.
ALPH AN U MERICAL
ALPHA NUMERICAL DATA
alphanumeric is a description of data that is both letters and numbers. For example,
"1a2b3c" is a short string of alphanumeric characters. Alphanumeric is commonly used to
help explain the availability of text that can be entered or used in a field such as an
alphanumeric password.
What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the
receiver. Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics −
• Timely − Information should be available when required.
• Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
• Completeness − Information should be complete.
Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase
their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the
following basic steps - input, processing, and output. These three steps constitute the data
processing cycle.
• Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when
electronic computers are used, the input data can be recorded on any one of the
several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.
• Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more useful
form. For example, pay-checks can be calculated from the time cards, or a summary
of sales for the month can be calculated from the sales orders.
• Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The
particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output
data may be pay-checks for employees.
Storage Devices and Storage Media
USB Stick,Storage Medium
The storage medium is a part of the storage system where the actual data is stored, such as on
a DVD or a memory card. This medium can then be put into a storage device like a DVD
player or phone to read this data. You usually find these two parts to be separate pieces,
making the storage medium removable. Some storage devices can be found inside of the
system unit, while others are plugged into an external port. There are letters on the storage
device that go along with this that helps the unit to identify them. These letters or words
describe where these are and what they are used for. For example, when you plug in a USB
into the USB port on the computer, while viewing this USB in “My Computer” you will see a
letter next to it verifying what it is used for in the system unit. Storage devices contain
primary and secondary memory. Primary memory is volatile memory, which means that when
the device is shut off, the information is lost. Secondary is the exact opposite, being non-
volatile in that the memory remains even if the computer is turned off.[3] The problem with
these devices is you must be cautious with how they are treated, especially if they have
important information. Misplacing or mistreating can result in a loss of important data that
could be impossible to get back depending on the circumstances.
Hard Drives
Every computer contains one, if not two, hard drives. There are internal and external hard
drives. The internal hard drive is located inside the system unit, and the external hard drive is
connected to the computer for extra storage. It is vital that an owner of a computer purchases
an external hard drive to backup his or her computer in case it crashed. An external hard drive
is extremely convenient to store information; however, one must be cautious of the possibility
of "hard drive theft" because it is easy for someone to access a random, external hard drive
into their own computer. Many people today use a finger print or password to access to their
hard drive because of this reason. Without a hard drive, one could not store the countless
amount of information contained to a computer. The hard drive holds a port to connect to the
motherboard.[4] There are a wide range of capacity for hard drives, depending on the
computer owner's preference.[5] Magnetic hard drives and solid-state hard drives are two
common hard drives used for computers. A magnetic hard drive is the term computer users
mean when they say hard drive, and solid-state hard drives cause flash memory technology.
Without hard drives, many information and data would be lost and forgotten.
Hard drives are used as primary storage units to store most data and computer programs to
operate on a computer. The two types of hard drives available for purchase are: internal hard
drives, and external hard drives. There are many things to consider if you are a consumer
seeking these storage devices. The internal hard drive, which can be included in the computer
before purchase, is directly connected to the motherboard, (A.K.A the brain of the computer),
as well as other components inside the tower or casing of the computer/laptop. An external
hard drive is commonly used among users who are either portably transporting data/programs
from device to device, or seeking extra storage space for their files. External hard drives can
be very small, and convenient for traveling with data. There are multiple different options to
explore while considering a hard drive: speed, consistency, and durability. The types of hard
drives offered include either of the following: magnetic storage, optical storage, and electrons
which use flash memory media.[6]
Disk Access Time(SEEKING)

Disk access time is a measurement that calculates the amount of time it takes before for a
drive to read and write data. Disk access time involves three major steps: seek time, rotational
delay (or rotational latency), data movement time. Seek time is the amount of time it takes for
the head to move to the disk to prepare for reading. Rotational delay is the delay that occurs
when waiting for the disk to begin rotating. Data movement time involves the movement of
data from the disk to memory of the computer or the movement of data from the memory of
the computer to the disk. Maximum rotational latency is the time it takes for the disk to
perform a full rotation excluding any acceleration time. There are two types of ways in which
a disk rotates: constant linear velocity and constant angular velocity. Constant linear velocity
occurs when the rotational speed of the disk is dependent upon the location of the head.
Constant angular velocity occurs when the disk is spun at the same speed regardless of the
location of the head, like vinyl records. Certain low-noise disks utilize a slower disk access
time to reduce noise created by the hard drive. Slower rotational speeds and seek speeds are
purposefully installed to make sure that audible clicks and crunching sounds don’t interfere
with recordings.
Unit II: Hardware and Software
Computer Peripherals: Cables, Buses, Device drivers, installation of devices: keyboard, mouse,
scanner, printer, web-camera, speakers and many more; plug-and-play devices; expansion
slots……..System software, Program Language Translators, application software, Programming
Language Paradigms: Imperative, Object-Oriented and Logic languages, Basics of Popular Operating
Systems (Windows and Linux); The User Interface, Using Mouse and Organizing Desktop
components, Running an Application, File, Folders and Directory management features, Using Help;
Creating Short cuts, Configuring Operating System: Windows and Ubuntu, BIOS, System Utilities and
Antivirus software.
Computer Peripherals
A peripheral or peripheral device is "an ancillary device used to put information into and get information out of
the computer". Three categories of peripheral devices exist based on their relationship with the computer:
1. an input device sends data or instructions to the computer, such as a mouse, keyboard, graphics
tablet, image scanner, barcode reader, game controller, light pen, light gun, microphone, digital
camera, webcam, dance pad, and read-only memory);
2. an output device provides output from the computer, such as a computer monitor, projector, printer,
headphones and computer speaker.
3. an input/output device performs both input and output functions, such as a computer data storage device
(including a disk drive, USB flash drive, memory card and tape drive).
Many modern electronic devices, such as internet capable digital watches, smartphones, and tablet computers,
have interfaces that allow them to be used as computer peripheral devices.
A computer peripheral is any external device that provides input and output for the computer. For example, a
keyboard and mouse are input peripherals, while a monitor and printer are output peripherals. Computer
peripherals, or peripheral devices, are sometimes called "I/O devices" because they provide input and output for
the computer. Some peripherals, such as external hard drives, provide both input and output for the computer.
Cabels
Computer cables are overwhelming. There are so many standards, acronyms, and terms to know. There are
number of cables are available in used for computer.
USB (Universal Serial Bus)
The USB connection is the most ubiquitous of all computer connector types in the world. Nearly every
computer peripheral device—keyboards, mice, headsets, flash drives, wireless adapters, and such—can be
connected to a computer through a USB port.
USB keeps evolving, which means there are multiple USB versions:
• USB 1.0 can transmit data at speeds up to 1.5 MB/s.
• USB 2.0 can transmit data at speeds up to 60 MB/s and
is compatible with older versions of USB.
• USB 3.0 can transmit data at speeds up to 625 MB/s. It
is compatible with previous versions of USB.
• USB 3.1 can transmit data at speeds up to 1.25 GB/s. It
is compatible with previous versions of USB. At the
time of this article, USB 3.1 is the most common type
found in the market.
• USB 3.2 can transmit data at speeds up to 2.5 GB/s, but
only when using a USB-C connection. It is compatible
with previous versions of USB.
• USB 4.x is a future specification that will transmit data
at speeds up to 5 GB/s, but only when using a USB-C connection. It will release in mid-2019 and will be
compatible with USB 3.2 and USB 2.0.
There are also several “shapes” for USB connections:
• Type A supports USB 1.0, USB 2.0, USB 3.0, USB 3.1.
• Type B supports USB 1.0, USB 2.0, USB 3.0, USB 3.1.
• Type C (i.e. USB-C) supports USB 3.1, USB 3.2, USB 4.x.
• Mini supports USB 2.0.
• Micro supports USB 2.0.
HDMI (High Definition multimedia interface)
High-definition broadcasts are now the standard for high-quality video. Unlike VGA and DVI, which only
transmit video signals, HDMI sends both video and audio signals together. These signals are digital; thus,
HDMI is only compatible with newer devices. (Learn more
about video cable types!)
HDMI connections come in five types:
• Type A is the most popular. This connector can be
identified by its 19 pins on the male head. Type A is
compatible with single-link DVI-D connections.
• Type B is larger than Type A, coming in at 29 pins on
the male head. Type B is compatible with dual-link
DVI-D connections. You won’t see this type often, if
ever.
• Type C (Mini) is a 19-pin connector that’s most often
used with portable devices, like camcorders and digital
cameras.
• Type D (Micro) also has 19 pins and looks similar to a
Micro-USB cable. It’s mostly used for mobile devices,
including smartphones and tablets.
• Type E is much larger with a locking mechanism. It’s mainly used in automotive applications.
Display Port
Like HDMI, DisplayPort is a media interface that transmits
both video and audio signals together and was designed to
replace VGA and DVI. These days, DisplayPort is mainly
used to connect devices (e.g. a computer) to monitors, so
you’ll only see it among other monitor cable types.
There are multiple versions of DisplayPort, but all
DisplayPort cables are compatible with all DisplayPort
devices. The speed will be limited by the lowest version of
DisplayPort supported between the device and cable. Look
for these DisplayPort cable certifications:
• RBR (Reduced Bit Rate): Up to 810 MB/s.
• HBR (High Bit Rate): Up to 1,350 MB/s.
• HBR2 (High Bit Rate 2): Up to 2,700 MB/s.
• HBR3 (High Bit Rate 3): Up to 4,050 MB/s.
DisplayPort is compatible with HDMI and USB using adapters. There is also Mini DisplayPort, which was
mainly used in older Apple devices released before 2011.
Thunderbolt
Thunderbolt cables are designed to connect external devices to a
computer. They’re mainly used in Apple devices released 2011
and later. For more on cables, adapters, and ports for Apple
devices, check out our helpful guide. Thunderbolt
1 and Thunderbolt 2 cables use the same connector as Mini
DisplayPort, and all Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 connections
are compatible with Mini DisplayPort connections.
Thunderbolt 3 cables use the same connector as USB-C, and all Thunderbolt 3 connections are compatible with
USB-C connections. Thunderbolt 3 is also compatible with Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 using adapters.
VGA (Video Graphics Array)

Created way back in the 1980s, the VGA connection cable is one of the
oldest computer monitor cable types. It’s an analog video signal cable,
so it has faded out of popularity due to world’s shift toward digital
video signals. Still, if you look on any video card or display apparatus,
there is a good chance you’ll see a VGA port.
VGA connections can be identified by 15 pins arranged in 3 rows with
5 on each row. Each row corresponds to the 3 different color channels
used in display: red, green, and blue.
DVI (Digital Visual Interface)

The DVI connection succeeded VGA in the 2000s as video technology
moved from analog to digital. Digital displays, like LCD, proved to be
higher quality and eventually became the market standard for video
devices (at the time).
DVI connections come in three types:
• DVI-A can transmit analog signals, allowing it to be backwards
compatible with VGA (useful for CRT monitors and older LCD
monitors).
• DVI-D can transmit newer digital signals.
• DVI-I is capable of both analog and digital. In certain cases, you
may need a VGA-to-DVI or DVI-to-VGA converter cable.
DVI has largely fallen out of use, having been replaced by more modern monitor cord types like HDMI,
DisplayPort, and Thunderbolt.
IDE (Integrated Driver Electronics)

IDE cables were used to connect storage devices to a motherboard. If
you’ve ever opened up a an old hard drive then you likely know what
an IDE connector looks like: it’s the wide cable that looks like a ribbon
with more than 2 plugs.
The connectors on an IDE cable have 40 pins; the smaller 2.5-inch
drive variety uses a form-factor version of the IDE that has 44 pins.
SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

Newer hard drives mainly prefer SATA ports over IDE ports. In fact, SATA was designed to succeed IDE, and
it has. Compared to IDE, SATA provides higher data transfer speeds. Your motherboard needs to be compatible
with SATA these days; fortunately, most of them are.
A standard SATA cable can be identified by two connectors, each having 7 pins and an empty notch. It looks
like an L-shape.
E-sata (External Sata)
eSATA technology is an extension of, or improvement on, the
SATA cable—it makes SATA technology available in an external
form. In reality, eSATA isn’t much different than SATA, but it
allows connections to devices like external hard drives and external
optical drives. However, eSATA has fallen out of popularity due to
advancements in USB speeds.
Ethernet
Ethernet cables are used to set up local area networks. In most cases, they’re used to connect routers to modems
and computers, though you can also connect two devices directly by
using a cross-over Ethernet cable.
If you’ve ever tried to install or fix a home Wi-Fi router, you’ve
likely dealt with an Ethernet computer cable. It looks unique so it’s
easy to distinguish from different types of cables.
Nowadays, Ethernet cables come in several varieties:
• 10BASE-T Ethernet is the oldest and most basic type and
supports data speeds up to 1.25 MB/s.
• 100BASE-TX Ethernet (i.e. Fast Ethernet) is also an older
variety of Ethernet that supports data speeds up to 12.5
MB/s.
• 1000BASE-T Ethernet (i.e. Gigabit Ethernet) is the most
common type of Ethernet used in homes as of this writing. It
supports data speeds up to 125 MB/s.
• 10GBASE-T Ethernet (i.e. 10 Gigabit Ethernet) uses Cat6
wiring (as opposed to Cat5 or Cat5e in previous versions) to
support data speeds up to 1.25 GB/s.
Computer Power Cord (Kettle Plug)
Connect one end to: AC power socket
Connect other end to: power supply unit (see image below), computer monitor
3.5mm Audio Cable
Also known as phone connector (since 3.5mm jacks are often found on mobile phones too
Connect one end to: computer speakers, 3.5mm headphones, 3.5mm microphone
Connect other end to: audio ports on computer (see image below use Green socket)
• Green audio port: computer speakers or headphones
• Pink audio port: microphone
• Blue audio port: MP3 player, CD player, DVD player, turntable, electric guitar etc (line-in port to play and
record sounds from the above devices)
PS/2 Cable
Connect one end to: PS/2 keyboard, PS/2 mouse
Connect other end to: PS/2 ports on computer (see image below)
• Purple PS/2 port: keyboard
• Green PS/2 port: mouse
Buses
When referring to a computer, the bus also known as the address bus, data bus, or local bus, is a data connection
between two or more devices connected to the computer. For example, a bus enables a computer processor to
communicate with the memory or a video card to with the memory. You can think of it as a public
transportation or school bus.
In computer architecture, a bus is a communication system that transfers data between components inside
a computer, or between computers. This expression covers all related hardware components (wire, optical fiber,
etc.) and software, including communication protocols.
Early computer buses were parallel electrical wires with multiple hardware connections, but the term is now
used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical function as a parallel electrical bus. Modern
computer buses can use both parallel and bit serial connections, and can be wired in either a multi-
drop (electrical parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB.
A bus was originally an electrical parallel structure with conductors connected with identical or similar CPU
pins, such as a 32-bit bus with 32 wires and 32 pins. The earliest buses, often termed electrical power buses or
bus bars, were wire collections that connected peripheral devices and memory, with one bus designated for
peripheral devices and another bus for memory. Each bus included separate instructions and distinct protocols
and timing.
Parallel bus standards include advanced technology attachment (ATA) or small computer system interface
(SCSI) for printer or hard drive devices. Serial bus standards include universal serial bus (USB), FireWire or
serial ATA with a daisy-chain topology or hub design for devices, keyboards or modem devices.
Computer bus types are as follows:
1. System Bus: A parallel bus that simultaneously transfers data in 8-, 16-, or 32-bit channels and is the
primary pathway between the CPU and memory.
2. Internal Bus: Connects a local device, like internal CPU memory.
3. External Bus: Connects peripheral devices to the motherboard, such as scanners or disk drives.
4. Expansion Bus: Allows expansion boards to access the CPU and RAM.
5. Front side Bus: Main computer bus that determines data transfer rate speed and is the primary data
transfer path between the CPU, RAM and other motherboard devices.
6. Backside Bus: Transfers secondary cache (L2 cache) data at faster speeds, allowing more efficient CPU
operations.
Device drivers
In computing, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is
attached to a computer. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems
and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the
hardware being used.
A driver communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the
hardware connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the
device. Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling
program. Drivers are hardware dependent and operating-system-specific. They usually provide
the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface.
Hardware that uses a device driver to connect to a computer includes printers, displays, CD-ROM readers,
network or sound cards, computer mice or hard disks. Device drivers will instruct a computer on how to
communicate with each input/output (I/O) device through translating the operating system's I/O instructions to a
software language the hardware device understands.
Applications
Because of the diversity of modern hardware and operating systems, drivers operate in many different
environments. Drivers may interface with:
1. Printers 3. Network cards
2. Video adapters 4. Sound cards
5. Local buses of various sorts—in particular, for bus mastering on modern systems
6. Low-bandwidth I/O buses of various sorts (for pointing devices such as mice, keyboards, USB, etc.)
7. Computer storage devices such as hard disk, CD-ROM, and floppy disk buses (ATA, SATA, SCSI)
8. Implementing support for different file systems
9. Image scanners
10. Digital cameras
Common levels of abstraction for device drivers include:
• For hardware:
o Interfacing directly
o Writing to or reading from a device control register
o Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video BIOS)
o Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers)
o Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different[8]
• For software:
o Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources
o Implementing only primitives
o Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g. TWAIN)
o Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level (e.g. PostScript)
So choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer
system configuration.
Installation of devices scanner, printer, web-camera, speakers and many more

Installation of Keyboard
Today, almost all wired keyboards use USB as the interface to the computer. Older computers may use PS/2 as
an interface to the computer. If your keyboard is wireless, it can be communicating over Bluetooth, RF (radio
frequency), or IR (infrared). Below are the steps on how to connect each of these types of computer keyboards.
1. Connecting a USB keyboard:
Connect the USB keyboard to the USB ports on the back or front of your computer. If you are using a USB hub,
it can also be connected to the hub. However, we recommend a direct connection to the back of the computer if
possible.
If you have a laptop computer, an external keyboard can also be connected to one of the USB ports. If no USB
ports are available, a USB hub would be needed.
After the keyboard has been connected, it should automatically be detected and installed. If the keyboard has
any special features, you need to install the keyboard software and drivers.
2. Wireless keyboard
All wireless keyboards have a receiver that is plugged into the computer (usually by USB connection), and the
keyboard connects to that receiver wirelessly. Connect this receiver either into the back or front of your
computer. Once connected, make sure your wireless keyboard has batteries or is charged and turned on.
After the keyboard has been connected, it should be automatically detected and installed. If the keyboard has
any special features, you need to install the keyboard software and drivers.
3. Connecting a PS/2 keyboard
Connect the keyboard to the PS/2 port on the back of the computer.
When looking at the back of the computer, you'll notice two PS/2 ports next to each other. Verify you're
connecting the keyboard to the purple connection, as shown in the picture below. If your PS/2 ports are not
color coded, the keyboard will be the connection closest to the left edge of the computer (when looking at it
from the back). If the connections are vertical and not horizontal like in the picture below, the keyboard
connection may be either port, depending on the case and motherboard. Look for a small keyboard symbol next
to the port to identify which one is for the keyboard.
Installation of Mouse
Today, almost all wired and wireless mice use USB as the interface to the computer. However, older computers
may utilize PS/2 or serial ports. If your mouse is wireless, it can be communicating over Bluetooth, RF (radio
frequency), or IR(infrared). To proceed, select your connection type from the list below and follow the
instructions.
1. Connecting a wireless USB mouse
A cordless mouse has a small receiver that communicates with the mouse. The receiver connects to the
computer via a USB port. Look for a USB port in the back or on the side of your computer and plug in the
receiver.
Once the wireless receiver is connected to the computer, Windows should automatically find and install the
appropriate drivers as long as you're connected to the Internet. Make sure there are batteries in the mouse or that
it is charged. Next, verify that the mouse is turn on. Many wireless devices have an on and off switch on the
bottom of them.
2. Connecting a wired USB mouse
Connect the USB cable coming from the mouse to one of the USB ports (shown right) on the back or side of
your computer. If you are using a USB port hub, connect the mouse cable to that.
After the mouse is connected, the computer should automatically install the drivers and provide basic
functionality. If the mouse you want to change how any special buttons work, additional software may need to
be installed.
If the mouse is not functioning, see our mouse troubleshooting section.
3. Connecting a Bluetooth mouse
A Bluetooth mouse connects to a computer wirelessly using a Bluetooth signal. The computer must have
Bluetooth built in or have a Bluetooth adapter connected to it.
To connect a Bluetooth mouse to your computer, follow the steps below.
Open the Bluetooth utility on your computer and make sure Bluetooth is turned on. The Bluetooth utility, if
enabled, can usually be found in the notification area, with an icon that looks like the Bluetooth symbol.
Turn on the mouse if it has an On/Off switch. Check the Bluetooth utility to see if it detects the Bluetooth
mouse.
When the Bluetooth utility finds the Bluetooth mouse, select the mouse in the Bluetooth device list and click
the Pair button.
If successful, the mouse will be connected to the computer.
4. Connecting a PS/2 mouse
Connect the cable coming from the mouse to the green-colored PS/2 port (shown right) on the back of the
computer. If your PS/2 ports are not color coded, the mouse port will be the one furthest away from the left
edge of the computer case (when viewed from the back).
After the mouse is connected, the computer should automatically install the drivers and provide basic
functionality. If the mouse you want to change how any special buttons work, additional software may need to
be installed. If the mouse is not functioning, see our mouse troubleshooting section.
5. Connecting a serial mouse
Connect the mouse to the serial port on the back of the computer. If you have more than one serial port on the
computer, we recommend connecting the mouse to the first port. Once connected, depending on your computer
setup, you may need to configure the mouse COM ports in CMOS setup.
Today, most computers no longer have serial ports. Most serial mice are specialized, so to use one, you need to
install the software included with the mouse, or from the mouse manufacturer's website.
Installation of Scanner
Before you can scan documents into your computer with a scanner, you need to install the scanner driver so that
your scanner and computer can communicate. Start by connecting the scanner to your computer’s USB port (see
your scanner manual for information about how it connects to your computer).
1. Turn the scanner on. If you’re not using a Plug and Play device or Windows doesn’t have the driver for
that device, you see the Found New Hardware message.
2. Click the Found New Hardware message, click Yes, This Time Only, and then click next again. You
only need to do this step if you don’t permit Windows 7 to automatically connect to Windows Update.
Otherwise, you don’t see the Found New Hardware Wizard.
3. If you have a CD for the scanner, insert it in your CD drive and click next. Windows 7 searches for your
scanner driver software and installs it.
4. Choose Start→Control Panel and type scanners in the Search box. Windows returns a set of links.
5. Click the View Scanners and Cameras link.
6. Click the Add Device button and then click next. The Scanner and Camera Installation Wizard window
appears. When you click next, the next screen of the wizard appears.
7. Click a Manufacturer in the list on the left and then click a model in the list on the right. Now it’s just a
matter of following the wizard directions based on the model of scanner you choose and whether you
have a manufacturer’s disc (a CD- or DVD-ROM). If you don’t have a disc, Windows can help you
download software from the Internet.
8. When you reach the end of the wizard, click Finish. The installation is complete.
Installation of Printer
Connecting the printer to the computer
Connect the printer to the computer either using a USB cable, parallel port cable, or SCSI cable and then
connect the power plug to a power outlet. Today, most all home computer printers are using a USB cable
similar to the example picture.
Setup printer and install software. Every printer should come with the software used to install a printer in
Windows or your operating system.
1. After everything is plugged in, turn the computer on.
2. Insert the CD that came with the printer. If the CD does not automatically start, open My Computer,
double-click on the CD drive, and then click the Setup or Install file. If you have downloaded the
drivers, run the downloaded setup file.
3. Follow the installation wizard and once completed, your software is installed.
4. Test the printer to make sure it is working.
Installing a printer only using the drivers
If you only want the printer to be installed and none of the extra software programs, you can only install the
printer driver by following the steps below.
1. With the printer connected and powered on, open the Control Panel.
2. In the Control Panel, double-click the Printers or Printers and Faxicon.
3. In the Printers window, click the Add a printer icon.
4. After completing the above steps, you should see the Windows Printer Wizard. Click Next to start the
wizard.
5. Next, you have the choice of installing a Local or Network printer. If the printer is connected to your
computer, choose Local printer attached to this computer and click Next.
6. When prompted for the location of the printer drivers, browse to the directory of your drivers or point it
to the printer CD.
Testing the printer
1. Open the Control Panel.
2. Double-click the Devices and Printers, Printers, or Printers and Fax icon.
3. Right-click on the Printer you want to test and click Properties. If you do not see your printer, your
printer is not installed.
4. In the Printers Properties window, click the Print Test Page button.
5. If the printer can print a test page, your printer is installed and set up properly. However, if you cannot
print in other programs, the program you are attempting to print from has issues.
Installation of Web camera

1. Attach the webcam to your computer. Plug the webcam's USB cable into one of the rectangular USB
ports on the side or back of your computer.
a. USB plugs can only be inserted one way. If the plug won't fit into the port, rotate the plug 180
degrees and try again.
b. If you're on a Mac, you'll most likely need to buy a USB to USB-C adapter in order to fit a
normal webcam.
c. Make sure that you plug the webcam directly into your computer, not a USB hub. USB hubs are
often too underpowered to operate a webcam.
2. Insert the webcam's CD. Place the CD that came with the webcam in your computer's CD tray, making
sure that the logo is face-up in the process. Since most modern Macs don't come with CD drives, you
will have to have a separate CD drive attached via USB cable if you're using a Mac.
a. If the webcam didn't come with a CD, skip this step.
b. You can usually find a copy of the webcam's software in the "Support" section of the webcam
company's website.
3. Wait for the webcam's setup page to open. Your webcam's setup page should open automatically. If your
webcam didn't include a CD, plugging the webcam into your computer will most likely start the setup
process.
4. Follow any on-screen instructions. Your webcam's individual instructions will vary, but most setup
processes will involve clicking through a series of preference windows before clicking an Install button.
a. Pay attention to the windows' information here. You'll most likely need to select certain
preferences that will help the webcam work later.
5. Wait for your webcam to finish installing. Once the webcam has finished installing, its program should
open, at which point you can begin setting up the webcam.
Setting up the Webcam
1. Open the webcam's program. If the webcam's program didn't automatically open upon completion of
installation, you'll need to look up the program and open it manually.
a. The webcam's program will usually have the webcam company's name in it, so try searching for
the company (e.g., "youcam") in Start (Windows) or Spotlight (Mac).
2. Mount the webcam. Many webcams have a clip on the base that allows the webcam to latch onto the top
of a computer monitor. If your webcam doesn't have such a clip, look for a flat, elevated space in which
to place the webcam.
3. Adjust the webcam as needed. In the middle of your webcam program's window, you should see real-
time footage from your webcam. Using the footage as a reference, adjust your webcam to point at your
face from your preferred angle.
4. Test the webcam's sound. While speaking into the webcam, look for spikes in activity next to the
"Audio" (or similarly titled) section in the webcam's window. If you don't see any activity here, your
webcam's microphone isn't working and might need to be enabled from the webcam's or computer's
settings.
a. Check your webcam's manual to see specific instructions on how to address lack of audio input.
5. Change your webcam's settings if necessary. Most webcam programs will have a Settings section (or a
gear-shaped icon) somewhere in the window. You can click on this section to view and change settings
like contrast, low-light response, and so on.
a. The settings location and options will vary from webcam to webcam. Consult your webcam's
manual if you can't find the settings section.
Installation of Speaker
Follow these step-by-step instructions to attach speakers to your computer
Step 1: Ensure that the computer is turned off.
Step 2: Plug the speakers into the power socket.
Step 3: Locate the 3.5mm jack connected to the cable at the back of the speakers. You’ll use this plug to attach
them to your computer tower.
Step 4: On the back of the computer tower are a number of small, round, coloured-coded sockets. The one to
plug your speakers into is usually green. It may also be marked with a headphones symbol or be labelled ‘Audio
out’.
Push the jack into this socket firmly to get a good connection. But don’t continue pushing if you meet any
resistance – the socket is attached to the sound card on the computer’s mother board, and if you push too hard,
you could damage it.
Step 5: In some speaker set-ups, there’s an additional ‘subwoofer’, a larger third speaker that provides bass
sounds. Before plugging this in, find out if your sound card can support multiple speakers. If it does, follow the
color coding on the back of the tower as you connect the jacks – plug the green jack into the green socket, the
black jack into the black socket and so on.
Step 6: Turn on your computer and speakers and adjust the volume control. Your computer is probably set to
play a small tune when it’s turned on. If you now hear it, you’ll know that the speakers are on and working. But
don’t worry if you don’t hear it.
Step 7: The computer should recognize the addition of speakers to your system and will respond accordingly.
Possibly it will say ‘New driver detected’ and run through a short set-up process. You’ll need to click ‘Yes’ to
allow it to make the appropriate changes.
Step 8: To test that your speakers are working, play something you know has a soundtrack. Pop a CD or DVD
in the DVD drive or watch a clip on YouTube. You may also notice that sounds now occur when simple
functions are carried out – for example, a noise when you click a button or open a window or when an email
arrives.
Plug and Play Devices

In computing, a plug and play (PnP) device or computer bus is one with a specification that facilitates the
discovery of a hardware component in a system without the need for physical device configuration or user
intervention in resolving resource conflicts. The term "plug and play" has since been expanded to a wide variety
of applications to which the same lack of user setup applies.
Expansion devices are controlled and exchange data with the host system through defined memory or I/O space
port addresses, direct memory access channels, interrupt request lines and other mechanisms, which must be
uniquely associated with a particular device to operate.
Some computers provided unique combinations of these resources to each slot of a motherboard or backplane.
Other designs provided all resources to all slots, and each peripheral device had its own address decoding for
the registers or memory blocks it needed to communicate with the host system. Since fixed assignments made
expansion of a system difficult, devices used several manual methods for assigning addresses and other
resources, such as hard-wired jumpers, pins that could be connected with wire or removable straps, or switches
that could be set for particular addresses. As microprocessors made mass-market computers affordable,
software configuration of I/O devices was advantageous to allow installation by non-specialist users. Early
systems for software configuration of devices included the MSX standard, NuBus, Amiga Autoconfig, and IBM
Microchannel.
Initially all expansion cards for the IBM PC required physical selection of I/O configuration on the board with
jumper straps or DIP switches, but increasingly ISA bus devices were arranged for software configuration. By
1995, Microsoft Windows included a comprehensive method of enumerating hardware at boot time and
allocating resources, which was called the "Plug and Play" standard.
Expansion Slots
An expansion slot is a socket on the motherboard that is used to insert an expansion card (or circuit board),
which provides additional features to a computer such as video, sound, advanced graphics, Ethernet or memory.
The expansion card has an edge connector that fits precisely into the expansion slot as well as a row of contacts
that is designed to establish an electrical connection between the motherboard and the electronics on the card,
which are mostly integrated circuits. Depending on the form factor of the case and motherboard, a computer
system generally can have anywhere from one to seven expansion slots. With a backplane system, up to 19
expansion cards can be installed.
Expansion cards can provide various functions including:
1. Sound 5. TV and radio tuning
2. Modems 6. Video processing
3. Network
4. Interface adapters
7. Host adapting such as redundant array of 10. Advanced multirate codec
independent disks or small computer system 11. Basic input/output system (BIOS)
interface 12. Expansion read-only memory (ROM)
8. Solid-state drive 13. Security devices
9. Power-on self-test 14. RAM memory
Older expansion cards also included memory expansion cards, clock/calendar cards, hard disk cards,
compatibility cards for hardware emulation, and disk controller cards. The Altair 8800 was the first slot-type
expansion card bus added to a microcomputer. It was developed in 1974-1975 by IBM Corp.
System software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing
capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These
software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a
very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users. Some
examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.
Operating system
The operating system is the central part of the computer system, or you can say that it is the lifeline of the
computer. We will install the OS on a computer so that it can function smoothly. Suppose all the devices like
keyboard, mouse, CPU, monitor are connected and now you think as we switch on the power supply, the
computer will start working. No, this is not possible until we install the operating system on it.
It is necessary to install as it performs the following functions:
• It will allocate resources to each task.
• It will keep all hardware parts of the system in a ready state so that it can follow the instructions given by the
user.
• It enables the user to access and use application software.
• It schedules the multiple tasks by priority.
• It controls the improper use of the computer.
• It sets the coordination between the different devices.
• It prevents the error during the use of the software.
• It enables the computer to access network.
• It manages different computer resources such as software, hardware etc..
• It controls the input and output devices of the computer.
• It detects installs and troubleshoots devices.
Example: The earlier OS was MS-DOS which make use of Command Line Interface(CLI). After then,
windows was developed by Microsoft which make use of Graphical User Interface(GUI). So, they keep on
evolving.
Programming Language Translators (Compiler/Interpreter/Assembler)
Programming Language Translators are those who convert the high-level language and middle-level language
into machine language as machine understands only its language. The high-level language is the language
through which the user interacts with the computer. Java, C, C++, PHP, Python all are the examples of high-
level language. Machine language is the code which is understood by the processor only. The average human
being cannot be able to understand it.
Some famous translators are Compiler, Interpreter and assembler. They are designed by the manufacturers of
the computer. Translators can completely translate the code into machine code at once, or they can do it line by
line.
Device Drivers
Driver software is a type of system software so that we can use our devices smoothly without any
troubleshooting problem. This type of software enables the components to perform their tasks as directed by the
OS. Example of device which require driver’s printer, plotter, scanner etc.
If the device is new for the operating system like the printer, then we have to install the drivers so that it get
familiar with the OS. We can install them from the websites of the manufacturers or some other alternative
source like from the internet.
Firmware Software
It is the operational software which is already embedded in flash, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM memory chips so
that the OS can identify them quickly. The task of the firmware is to directly manage and control all the
activities of any single hardware.
Traditionally, firmware was installed on the non-volatile chips. We can upgrade them by changing with the new
programmed chips. However, nowadays, firmware was installed on the flash chips. So, now we can upgrade
them without swapping the chips.
There are two types of chips: BIOS (Basic Input/ Output System) chip and UEFI (Unified Extended Firmware
Interface) chip. The manufacturer installs the firmware on the motherboard, and it can be accessed through
these two types of chips. It is the configuration interface. When the computer is powered on and is going
through POST (Power on Self Test), then it is first loaded. The main difference between the firmware and the
driver is that firmware will reside within the devices whereas the drivers will install in the operating system.
Utility Software
Utility software is a kind of system software which acts as an interface between system software and application
software. These are those programs which are specifically designed for some particular purpose like
maintenance of the computer or diagnose any error in the computer. Generally, these are third-party tools which
come along with the operating system.
The features of the utility software are as follows:
• To protect us against external threats, the inclusion of a firewall is there. Example: windows firewall
• It can scan hardware diagnostic services like performance monitor, hard disk sentinel.
• It can also compress files so that the disk space can be optimised. E.g., WinRAR, WinZip.
• Utility can do disk partition services like Windows Disk Management.
• Utility can help us in recovering in our lost data. E.g., iCare Data Recovery
• Utility can back up our data to increase the security of our systems.
• Utility can do defragmentation of a disk so that the scattered file can be organized on the drive. E.g., Disk
Defragmenter.
• Utility can perform antivirus and security software so that the security of the files and the applications can be
maintained. E.g., AVG, Microsoft Security Essentials etc.
Program Language Translators
Programming Language Translators are those who convert the high-level language and middle-level language
into machine language as machine understands only its language. The high-level language is the language
through which the user interacts with the computer. Java, C, C++, PHP, Python all are the examples of high-
level language. Machine language is the code which is understood by the processor only. The average human
being cannot be able to understand it.
Some famous translators are Compiler, Interpreter and assembler. They are designed by the manufacturers of
the computer. Translators can completely translate the code into machine code at once, or they can do it line by
line.
Application software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software
applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a
simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work
together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software are the
following.
1. Payroll Software 6. Microsoft Office Suite Software
2. Student Record Software 7. Microsoft Word
3. Inventory Management Software 8. Microsoft Excel
4. Income Tax Software 9. Microsoft PowerPoint
5. Railways Reservation Software 10. Types of system software
Programming Language Paradigms: Imperative, Object-Oriented and Logic languages

A programming paradigm is a style, or “way,” of programming. Programming paradigms are a way to
classify programming languages based on their features. Languages can be classified into multiple paradigms.
Paradigm can also be termed as method to solve some problem or do some task. Programming paradigm
is an approach to solve problem using some programming language or also we can say it is a method to solve a
problem using tools and techniques that are available to us following some approach. There are lots for
programming language that are known but all of them need to follow some strategy when they are implemented
and this methodology/strategy is paradigms. Apart from varieties of programming language there are lots of
paradigms to fulfill each and every demand.
Some paradigms are concerned mainly with implications for the execution model of the language, such
as allowing side effects, or whether the sequence of operations is defined by the execution model. Other
paradigms are concerned mainly with the way that code is organized, such as grouping a code into units along
with the state that is modified by the code. Yet others are concerned mainly with the style of syntax and
grammar. Some Common Paradigms You should know these:
1. Imperative: Programming with an explicit sequence of commands that update state.
2. Declarative: Programming by specifying the result you want, not how to get it.
3. Structured: Programming with clean, goto-free, nested control structures.
4. Procedural: Imperative programming with procedure calls.
5. Functional (Applicative): Programming with function calls that avoid any global state.
6. Function-Level (Combinator): Programming with no variables at all.
7. Object-Oriented: Programming by defining objects that send messages to each other. Objects have their
own internal (encapsulated) state and public interfaces. Object orientation can be:
8. Class-based: Objects get state and behavior based on membership in a class.
9. Prototype-based: Objects get behavior from a prototype object.
10. Event-Driven: Programming with emitters and listeners of asynchronous actions.
11. Flow-Driven: Programming processes communicating with each other over predefined channels.
12. Logic (Rule-based): Programming by specifying a set of facts and rules. An engine infers the answers to
questions.
13. Constraint: Programming by specifying a set of constraints. An engine finds the values that meet the
constraints.
14. Aspect-Oriented: Programming cross-cutting concerns applied transparently.
15. Reflective: Programming by manipulating the program elements themselves.
16. Array: Programming with powerful array operators that usually make loops unnecessary.
Some important Paradigm is.
Imperative programming paradigm
It is one of the oldest programming paradigms. It features close relation relation to machine architecture. It is
based on Von Neumann architecture. It works by changing the program state through assignment statements. It
performs step by step task by changing state. The main focus is on how to achieve the goal. The paradigm
consists of several statements and after execution of all the result is stored.
Advantage:
1. Very simple to implement 2. It contains loops, variables etc.
Disadvantage:
1. Complex problem cannot be solved 3. Parallel programming is not possible
2. Less efficient and less productive
Imperative programming is divided into three broad categories: Procedural, OOP and parallel processing. These
paradigms are as follows:
Procedural programming paradigm: This paradigm emphasizes on procedure in terms of under lying machine
model. There is no difference in between procedural and imperative approach. It has the ability to reuse the
code and it was boon at that time when it was in use because of its reusability.
Object oriented programming: The program is written as a collection of classes and object which are meant for
communication. The smallest and basic entity is object and all kind of computation is performed on the objects
only. More emphasis is on data rather procedure. It can handle almost all kind of real life problems which are
today in scenario.
Advantages:
1. Data security 3. Code reusability
2. Inheritance 4. Flexible and
5. abstraction is also present
Parallel processing approach: Parallel processing is the processing of program instructions by dividing them
among multiple processors. A parallel processing system possesses many numbers of processor with the
objective of running a program in less time by dividing them. This approach seems to be like divide and
conquer. Examples are NESL (one of the oldest one) and C/C++ also supports because of some library function.
Declarative programming paradigm:
It is divided as Logic, Functional, and Database. In computer science the declarative programming is a style of
building programs that expresses logic of computation without talking about its control flow. It often considers
programs as theories of some logic. It may simplify writing parallel programs. The focus is on what needs to be
done rather how it should be done basically emphasizing on what code is actually doing. It just declares the
result we want rather how it has be produced. This is the only difference between imperative (how to do) and
declarative (what to do) programming paradigms. Getting into deeper we would see logic, functional and
database.
Logic programming paradigms: It can be termed as abstract model of computation. It would solve logical
problems like puzzles, series etc. In logic programming we have a knowledge base which we know before and
along with the question and knowledge base which is given to machine, it produces result. In normal
programming languages, such concept of knowledge base is not available but while using the concept of
artificial intelligence, machine learning we have some models like Perception model which is using the same
mechanism.
In logical programming the main emphasize is on knowledge base and the problem. The execution of the
program is very much like proof of mathematical statement, e.g., Prolog
Functional programming paradigms: The functional programming paradigms have its roots in mathematics and
it is language independent. The key principal of these paradigms is the execution of series of mathematical
functions. The central model for the abstraction is the function which is meant for some specific computation
and not the data structure. Data are loosely coupled to functions. The function hides their implementation.
Function can be replaced with their values without changing the meaning of the program. Some of the
languages like Perl, JavaScript mostly uses this paradigm.
Database/Data driven programming approach: This programming methodology is based on data and its
movement. Program statements are defined by data rather than hard-coding a series of steps. A database
program is the heart of a business information system and provides file creation, data entry, update, query and
reporting functions. There are several programming languages that are developed mostly for database
application. For example SQL. It is applied to streams of structured data, for filtering, transforming, aggregating
(such as computing statistics), or calling other programs. So it has its own wide application.
Basics of Popular Operating Systems (Windows and Linux)

Windows
Microsoft Windows is a group of several graphical operating system families, all of which are developed,
marketed and sold by Microsoft. Each family caters to a certain sector of the computing industry. Active
Microsoft Windows families include Windows NT and Windows IoT; these may encompass subfamilies,
e.g. Windows Server or Windows Embedded Compact (Windows CE). Defunct Microsoft Windows families
include Windows 9x, Windows Mobile and Windows Phone.
Windows is a series of operating systems developed by Microsoft. Each version of Windows includes
a graphical user interface, with a desktop that allows users to view files and folders in windows. For the past
two decades, Windows has been the most widely used operating system for personal computers PCs.
Microsoft Windows is designed for both home computing and professional purposes. Past versions of Windows
home editions include Windows 3.0 (1990), Windows 3.1 (1992), Windows 95 (1995), Windows 98 (1998),
Windows Me (2000), Windows XP (2001), and Windows Vista (2006). The current version, Windows 7, was
released in 2009.
The first business-oriented version of Windows, called Windows NT 3.1, was in 1993. This was followed by
Windows 3.5, 4.0, and Windows 2000. When Microsoft released Windows XP in 2001, the company simply
created different editions of the operating system for personal and business purposes. Windows Vista and
Windows 7 have followed the same release strategy.
Windows is designed to run on standard x86 hardware, such as Intel and AMD processors. Therefore, it can be
installed on multiple brands of hardware, such as Dell, HP, and Sony computers, as well as home-built PCs.
Windows 7 also includes several touchscreen features, that allow the operating system to run on certain tablets
and computers with touchscreen displays. Best Features of Windows Operating System
1. Speed: Even aside from incompatibilities and other issues that many people had with Vista, one of the most
straightforward was speed – it just felt too sluggish compared to XP, even on pumped up hardware. You can
also expect faster boot times. And the boot sequence is now not only prettier than it was with Vista, but it’s
speedier too.
2. Compatibility:
3. Lower Hardware Requirements:
4. Search and Organization
5. Safety and Security:
6. Interface and Desktop
7. Taskbar/Start menu
Some other features of Windows oprating system are
1. Control panel 6. Internet browser 11. Setting
2. Desktop 7. Microsoft pain 12. System
3. Device manager 8. Notepad information
4. Event viewer 9. Task menu 13. Task manager
5. File explorer 10. Registry editor 14. Search box
Advantages and Disadvantages of Microsoft Windows
1. The biggest advantage of Windows is that it provides ready-made solutions that can be implemented by
just about anyone who’s ever used a computer.
2. Microsoft Office is also 100% compatible with any file or document produced in the office space in
America. In fact, MS Office isn’t compatible with other software and systems, so much as other
software and systems strive to be compatible with Office!
3. Finally, software services are in large supply when it comes to Windows. From Microsoft’s official
services, to Maryland software support, to Microsoft certification training for individuals, there is no
lack of software support for Windows.
4. Of course, Windows detractors will tell you that there is more need for software services when it comes
to Windows. And while this worldwide operating system is far from trash, it is often not as stable as its
Mac or Linux counterparts.
5. The only other major disadvantage of using Windows in the workplace is that over 95% of all viruses
and malicious software are written for the Windows OS. This means you have to double-down all
security measures if you’re using Microsoft software across the board.
Linux operating System

Linux is an operating system or a kernel. It is distributed under an open source license. Its functionality list is
quite like UNIX. The Linux open source operating system, or Linux OS, is a freely distributable, cross-
platform operating system based on Unix that can be installed on PCs, laptops, netbooks, mobile and tablet
devices, video game consoles, servers, supercomputers and more.
The Linux OS is frequently packaged as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use, and
includes the Linux kernel (the core of the operating system) as well as supporting tools and libraries. Popular
Linux OS distributions include Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora, Red Hat and openSUSE.
Components of Linux System
Linux Operating System has primarily three components
1. Kernel − Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating
system. It consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel
provides the required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application programs.
2. System Library − System libraries are special functions or programs using which application programs
or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implement most of the functionalities of
the operating system and do not requires kernel module's code access rights.
3. System Utility − System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level tasks.
Basic Features
Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.
1. Portable − Portability means software can works on different types of hardware in same way. Linux
kernel and application programs supports their installation on any kind of hardware platform.
2. Open Source − Linux source code is freely available and it is community based development project.
Multiple teams work in collaboration to enhance the capability of Linux operating system and it is
continuously evolving.
3. Multi-User − Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system resources like
memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.
4. Multiprogramming − Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at same
time.
5. Hierarchical File System − Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/ user files are
arranged.
6. Shell − Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute commands of the
operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations, call application programs. etc.
7. Security − Linux provides user security using authentication features like password protection/
controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.
Architecture: The architecture of a Linux System consists of the following layers −
4. Hardware layer − Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc.).
5. Kernel − It is the core component of Operating System, interacts directly with hardware, provides low
level services to upper layer components.
6. Shell − an interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from users. The shell takes
commands from the user and executes kernel's functions.
7. Utilities − Utility programs that provide the user most of the functionalities of an operating systems.
The benefits of using Linux
Linux now enjoys popularity at its prime, and it's famous among programmers as well as regular computer users
around the world. Its main benefits are -
1. It offers a free operating system. You do not have to shell hundreds of dollars to get the OS like
Windows!
2. Being open-source, anyone with programming knowledge can modify it.
3. The Linux operating systems now offer millions of programs/applications to choose from, most of them
free!
4. Once you have Linux installed you no longer need an antivirus! Linux is a highly secure system. More
so, there is a global development community constantly looking at ways to enhance its security. With
each upgrade, the OS becomes more secure and robust
5. Linux is the OS of choice for Server environments due to its stability and reliability (Mega-companies
like Amazon, Facebook, and Google use Linux for their Servers). A Linux based server could run non-
stop without a reboot for years on end.
The User Interface
As already mentioned, in addition to the hardware, a computer also needs a set of programs—an operating
system—to control the devices. This page will discuss the following:
1. There are different kinds of operating systems: such as Windows, Linux and Mac OS
2. There are also different versions of these operating systems, e.g. Windows 7, 8 and 10
3. Operating systems can be used with different user interfaces (UI): text user interfaces (TUI) and
graphical user interfaces (GUI) as examples
4. Graphical user interfaces have many similarities in different operating systems: such as the start menu,
desktop etc.
When you can recognize the typical parts of each operating system’s user interface, you will mostly be able to
use Windows and Linux as well as e.g. Mac OS.
THE ROLE OF OPERATING SYSTEM IN THE COMPUTER
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs which ensures the interoperability of the hardware and software
in your computer. The operating system enables, among other things,
1. The identification and activation of devices connected to the computer,
2. The installation and use of programs, and
3. The handling of files.
USER INTERFACES
A user interface (UI) refers to the part of an operating system, program, or device that allows a user to enter and
receive information. A text-based user interface displays text, and its commands are usually typed on a
command line using a keyboard. With a graphical user interface, the functions are carried out by clicking or
moving buttons, icons and menus by means of a pointing device. The images contain the same information: a
directory listing of a computer. You can often carry out the same tasks regardless of which kind of UI you are
using.
TEXT USER INTERFACE (TUI)
Modern graphical user interfaces have evolved from text-based UIs. Some operating systems can still be used
with a text-based user interface. In this case, the commands are entered as text (e.g., “cat story.txt”).
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
In most operating systems, the primary user interface is graphical, i.e. instead of typing the commands you
manipulate various graphical objects (such as icons) with a pointing device. The underlying principle of
different graphical user interfaces (GUIs) is largely the same, so by knowing how to use a Windows UI, you
will most likely know how to use Linux or some other GUI.
Most GUIs have the following basic components:
1. A start menu with program groups
2. A taskbar showing running programs
3. A desktop
4. Various icons and shortcuts.
Using Mouse
Using a computer mouse is one of the first steps to properly operating a computer. The mouse allows you to
move the cursor and click programs. These steps will show you how to use a PC and MAC computer mouse,
whether it is plugged into the computer, wireless, or connect via Bluetooth.
Using a PC Computer Mouse
1. Familiarize yourself with the mouse. The front of the mouse points away from you and has two buttons
on the left and right which you can click. These allow you to open programs and menus. In the middle of
these two buttons is a small wheel, which allows you to scroll up and down pages.
a. You can use your index finger to click the left button and the middle finger to click the right one.
b. On the bottom of the mouse is a censor that allows the mouse to know where to move.
c. A wireless mouse may have a compartment to insert a battery, and it may have an on and off
button.
2. Place the mouse on a clean, smooth surface, preferably a mouse pad. This allows the mouse to move
without interference. You may have issues with the mouse if it is not on a mouse pad, such as it not
scrolling smoothly.
3. Grip the mouse lightly in your dominant hand. You don’t want to hang on to the mouse too tightly or
click with a lot of force. Keep your fingers relaxed, and keep the mouse at elbow level. If your fingers
become tired, take breaks from the computer.
4. Plug in the mouse with its USB connector. Your mouse will have a cable extending from it, or it will
come with a small USB connector if it is wireless. USB ports are located in different areas for every
computer, but in general, laptops will have USB ports on the left or right side of the keyboard; most
desktops will have a USB on the front or back of the modem or either side of the monitor.
a. Look for a small square port about the size of your USB connector.
b. Insert the USB connector. Flip the USB connector upside down if it does not fit the first time, but
never force the USB connector in.
5. Connect the mouse via Bluetooth if necessary. Plug the Bluetooth transceiver into a USB port, then
press and hold the connect button on the USB transceiver for five seconds. Next, the connection wizard
will pop up, so follow the instructions in the wizard to connect your device.
6. Make sure the mouse is working. Your computer should be on, and you should see a cursor on the
screen you can control by moving your mouse. If the mouse isn’t working, try plugging it in to a
Different USB port or plugging it in again. Also, make sure a wireless mouse is on and has batteries.
7. Practice clicking with the mouse. The left button is the primary button for right-handed users, and the
right button is the primary button for left-handed users. Click the primary button once to click on
something and twice in a row to “double click” on a program or menu. When clicking the non-primary
button, this is called “right-clicking.”
a. Single-clicking often selects an item or opens a menu.
b. Double-clicking often opens items or folders.
c. Right-clicking usually displays a list of things you can do with a selected item.
8. Practice scrolling and dragging items with the mouse. Move the wheel with your pointer finger to scroll
up and down pages. To drag an object, place the cursor on it, then press and hold down the primary
button, and move the mouse to a new location. Release the primary button once you are done.
9. Customize the mouse as needed. You can change how quickly your mouse pointer moves on the screen,
change the mouse’s primary buttons if you’re left handed, and even change the pointer’s appearance. Go
to the settings on your PC to do this.
Organizing Desktop components

The graphical desktop environment should not pose any problems for former Windows* or Macintosh* users.
The main components of the desktop are the icons on the desktop and the panel at the bottom of the screen.
Desktop icons represent files, directories, applications, functions, and removable media, like CDs or DVDs.
The desktop has the following icons by default:
1. Trash: Contains files and folders that have been deleted.
2. My Computer: Displays information about hardware, network status, operating system, hard disks,
common folders, and removable devices.
3. Network Browsing: Displays network services you can access. Some of the services might require
authentication.
4. Printer
The panel is a bar, typically located at the top or the bottom of the screen. It is designed to provide information
about running applications or the system and easy access to some important functions or applications. If you
hold your pointer over an icon, a short description is displayed. The panel typically consists of the following
areas:
1. Main Menu Icon: By default, the left end of the panel has an icon that opens the main menu, similar to
the start button on the MS Windows desktop. The main menu has a well-ordered structure for
accessing the main applications. It also contains menu items for major functions like logging out or
searching for applications.
2. Quick Launcher: Next to the main menu icon, find the quick launcher. It holds some icons for the most
important functions or applications to enable you to start them without going through the main menu.
3. Desktop Previewer: Next to the quick launcher, find the desktop previewer, which shows your different
desktops. These virtual desktops enable you to organize your work. If you use many programs
simultaneously, you might want to run some programs in one desktop and other program in the other
desktop. To switch between desktops, click the desktop symbol in the panel.
4. Taskbar: The taskbar is located next to the desktop previewer. By default, all started applications and
open windows are displayed in the taskbar, which allows you to access any application regardless of
the currently active desktop. If you click a window title in the taskbar, the application is moved to the
foreground. If it is already in the foreground, clicking minimizes the application.
5. System Tray: The rightmost part of the panel usually holds the system clock, the volume control, and
several other helper applications.
Managing the Trash Bin

The trash bin is a directory for files marked for deletion. Drag icons from the file manager or the desktop
to the trash bin icon by keeping the left mouse button pressed. Then release to drop them there. Alternatively,
right-click an icon and select Move to Trash from the menu. Click the trash bin icon to view its contents. You
can retrieve an item from the trash if desired.
Files removed with Delete are not moved to the trash bin, but deleted completely. To delete the files in
the trash bin completely, right-click the trash bin icon then click Empty Trash Bin.
Running an Application
Now that you have a computer, you probably want to run and
manage software programs, from programs that manage your
finances to a great animated game of bingo. By using the best
methods for accessing and running programs on your
computer, you save time and make your life easier. You can
open, or launch, a program by using any of the following four
methods:
• Choose Start→All Programs. Click the program name
on the All Programs list that appears. You see a list of
programs; just click the program on that sublist to open
it.
• Double-click a program shortcut icon on the desktop.
• Click an item on the taskbar. The taskbar should
display by default; if it doesn’t, press the Windows logo
key (on your keyboard) to display it and then click an
icon on the taskbar, just to the right of the Start button.
• If you used the program recently and saved a document,
choose it from the list of recently used programs
displayed when you first open the Start menu. Then
click a document created in that program from the list that displays.
When the application opens, if it’s a game, play it; if it’s a spreadsheet, enter numbers into it; if it’s your e-mail
program, start deleting junk mail . . . you get the idea.
File Folders and Directory management features
File management in windows can be done through Windows explorer or My Computer. Windows Explorer
displays the hierarchical list
of files, folders, and storage
drives (both fixed and
removable) on your
computer. It also lists any
network drives that have
been mapped to as a drive
letters on your computer.
Windows Explorer can be
used to copy, move,
rename, and search for files
and folders. For example, to
copy a file, you can open a
folder that contains the
desired file to be copied or
moved and then just drag
and drop the file to target
folder or drive.
When files or folders are
deleted from hard disk,
Windows places them in the
Recycle Bin, from where
they can be retrieved, until
the Recycle Bin is made
empty. Files or folders
deleted from a File
Management in Windows removable storage media such as network drive are permanently deleted and are not
sent to the Recycle Bin.
Using Windows Explorer
Windows offer another utility "Windows Explorer" which helps you in working with files and folders on your
computer.
1. To open Windows Explorer,
2. Click on Start,
3. Point to All Programs,
4. Point to Accessories, and then click on Windows Explorer
The left pane of the Explorer window shows a hierarchy of all the drives, folders and desktop items on your
computer. A drive or folder that contains other folders has a plus sign to the left of the icon. Click the plus sign
to expand it and see the folders inside.
Opening drives and folders
Two drives nearly all computers have are a floppy drive (drive A:) and a hard drive (drive C:). If you have more
than one drive, then they are named D:, E: and so on. If you have a CD drive or a DVD drive, it also is named
with a letter. Opening a hard drive is easy. Just double click the icon representing the drive you want to open.
Files and folders contained in the drive are now shown in the opened window. Now for opening a folder, double
click its icon.
1. Coping or Moving a file or Folder using My Document
2. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
3. Click the file or folder to be copied. More than one file or folder can be copied at a time.
4. To select more than one consecutive files or folders, click the first file or folder, press and hold down
SHIFT key, and then click the last files or folders.
Opening drives and folders
1. To select non-consecutive files or folders, press and hold down CTRL key, and then click each of the
files or folders to be copied.
2. Under Edit menu, select Copy.
3. Select the target drive or folder to which you want to copy the files
4. Under Edit menu, select Paste to copy the desired file or folder to the target drive.
View file details
1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
2. Double-click the folder that contains the files to be viewed.
3. On the View menu, click Details.
4. It will display all the details about the files such as Name, Type, size etc.
Copying and moving files using Explorer
1. Click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, and then click Windows Explorer.
2. Make sure the destination for the file or folder you want to move is visible.
3. Drag the file or folder from the right pane and drop it on to the destination folder in the left pane to
move the file or folder there.
4. If you drag an item while pressing the right mouse button, you can move, copy, or create a shortcut to
the file in its new location.
5. To copy the item instead of moving it, press and hold down CTRL while dragging.
6. If you drag an item to another disk, it is copied, not moved. To move the item, press and hold down
SHIFT while dragging.
7. Dragging a program to a new location creates a shortcut to that program. To move a program, right-click
and then drag the program to the new location.
Copying and Moving the Files
Create a new folder
Folders help you to organize your files. You can create a folder either by using My Computer window or
through Windows Explorer. You can create a Folder in any existing disk drive or folder or on the windows
desktop. The steps for creating a folder are:
1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents
2. Under File menu click New and select Folder.
3. A new folder is displayed with the default name, New Folder.
4. Type a name for the new folder, and then press ENTER.
5. A new folder can also be created directly on the desktop by right-clicking a blank area on the desktop,
pointing to New, and then clicking Folder.
Rename a file or folder
2. Click on the file or folder you want to rename.
3. Under File menu click on Rename.
4. Type the new name, and then press ENTER key.
5. Alternately file or folder can also be renamed by right-clicking it and then clicking on Rename.
Delete a file or folder
2. Click on the file or folder you want to delete.
3. Under File menu click on Delete.
4. Files or folders can also be deleted by right-clicking the file or folder and then clicking Delete.
5. Deleted files or folders are stored in the Recycle Bin, till they are permanently removed from the
Recycle Bin.
6. To retrieve a deleted file, double-click the Recycle Bin icon on the desktop. Right-click on the file to be
retrieved, and then click Restore.
7. To permanently delete a file, press and hold down SHIFT key and drag it to the Recycle Bin.
Using Help
In computing, Help usually refers to online documentation. Many programs come with the instruction manual,
or a portion of the manual, integrated into the program. If you encounter a problem or forget
command while running the program, you can summon the documentation by pressing a designated Help key or
entering a HELP command. In Windows, the Help key is the function key labeled F1.
Using the Help System
Once you summon the Help system, the program often displays a menu of Help topics. You can choose the
appropriate topic for whatever problem you are currently encountering. The program will then display
a help screen that contains the desired documentation. Some programs are more sophisticated, displaying
different Help messages depending on where you are in the program. Such systems are said to be context
sensitive.
The Macintosh Help system is often referred to as Balloon Help because the help messages appear in a cartoon-
like balloon. Newer Macs also have something called Interactive Help, which contains tutorials that show you
how to perform different operations.
Help may refer to any of the following:
1. Help is a term used to describe the process of assisting another person with a problem.
2. Help is an MS-DOS, Windows command line, and Linux command to list an overview of commands
and a quick way to find help.
3. Help is an available option or menu in most software programs that allow users to search and find
answers to questions they may have about that program. Most Microsoft Windows programs can access
help by using the F1 function key on the keyboard.
Creating Short cuts

Shortcuts are a great way to quickly access programs, files, folders, and even web pages. They can be
conveniently placed on your desktop or in certain directories or folders. There are a few methods used to
achieve these results. To proceed, make your selection from the list below follow the steps below.
Create a shortcut using Microsoft's wizard
This method allows users to create shortcuts on the Windows desktop or in a
folder.
1. Right-click a blank space on the Windows desktop, a folder, or in
directory.
2. Move your mouse cursor over New in the drop-down menu that
appears.
3. Then select Shortcut.
4. On the Create Shortcut window, click the Browse button.
5. Locate the program for which you’d like to create a shortcut (A) and then click OK (B).
6. Click the Next button.
7. Type in a name for the shortcut, then click the Finish button.
Create a shortcut from a folder
1. Open the Windows File Explorer by pressing the Windows key and E at the same time.
2. Browse to the folder that contains the program for which you'd like to create a shortcut.
3. Right-click on the program and select Create Shortcut from the drop-down menu that appears.
4. Doing so creates a shortcut named "<selected program's name> - Shortcut" in the current directory.
5. Once the steps above have been completed, you can right-click the shortcut to copy or cut it, and
then paste it to another location.
Configuring Operating System: Windows and Ubuntu
Windows
You use certain Control Panel programs to configure operating system settings. The System program that you
use to configure the operating system settings affects the operating system environment regardless of which
user is logged on to the computer.
Configuring Performance Options
To configure operating system settings, in Control Panel, click Performance and Maintenance. To view
operating system performance configuration options, in the Performance and Maintenance window, click
System, and then click the advanced tab. The Advanced tab of the System Properties dialog box allows you to
configure performance options, user profiles, startup and recovery settings, environment variables, and error
reporting. In the Advanced tab, in the Performance box, click Settings to display the Performance Options
dialog box. There are two tabs on the Performance Options dialog box: the Visual Effects tab and the advanced
tab.
Visual Effects
There are a number of options that you can select to manually control the visual effects on your computer. Let
Windows Choose What's Best for My Computer, Adjust For Best Appearance, Adjust For Best Performance,
and Custom. If you want to manually indicate which visual effects to apply, select Custom.
Advanced Performance Options
The options in this dialog box allow you to adjust the application response, which is the priority of foreground
programs versus background programs, and virtual memory.
Processor Scheduling
Windows XP Professional uses the Processor Scheduling settings to distribute microprocessor resources
between running programs. Selecting Programs assigns more resources to the foreground program (the active
program that is responding to user input).
Memory Usage
Windows XP Professional uses the Memory Usage settings to distribute memory resources between running
programs. Select Programs if your computer is being used primarily as a workstation. With the Programs
option, your programs will work faster and your system cache will be the default size for Windows XP
Professional. Select System Cache if you are using your computer as a server or if the programs you are running
require a large system cache.
Virtual Memory
For virtual memory, Windows XP Professional uses a process called demand paging to exchange data between
random access memory (RAM) and paging files. When you install Windows XP Professional, Setup creates a
virtual-memory paging file, PAGEFILE.SYS, on the partition where you installed Windows XP Professional.
Enhancing Performance
You can enhance system performance in several ways. First, if your computer has multiple hard disks, create a
paging file for each disk. Second, you can enhance performance by moving the paging file off the drive that
contains the Windows XP Professional %systemroot% folder (by default, the Windows folder).Third, you can
enhance system performance by setting the initial size of the paging file to the value displayed in the Virtual
Memory dialog box's Maximum Size box.
Configuring User Profiles
To view, create, delete, and change the type of user profiles, in Control Panel, click Performance And
Maintenance, click System, and then click the Advanced tab. In the User Profiles box, click Settings to display
the User Profiles dialog box. The User Profiles dialog box lists the profiles stored on the computer you are
sitting at. You can perform the following tasks:
1. Change Type.??Allows you to change the type of profile. There are two types of profiles:
a. Local profile.??Windows XP Professional creates a user profile the first time that a user logs on
at a computer. After the user logs on for the first time, Windows XP Professional stores the local
profile on that computer.
b. Roaming profile.??A roaming user profile is especially helpful in a domain environment because
it follows the user around, setting up the same desktop environment for the user no matter which
computer the user logs on to in the domain.
2. Delete.??Allows you to delete user profiles.
3. Copy To.??Allows you to create user profiles by copying an existing user profile and assigning it to
another user.
Configuring Startup and Recovery Settings
The System Properties dialog box also controls the startup and recovery settings for a computer. Click Settings
to display the Startup and Recovery dialog box. The System Startup options control the behavior of the Please
Select the Operating System to start menu. The Recovery options control the actions that Windows XP
Professional performs in the event of a stop error, which is a severe error that causes Windows XP Professional
to stop all processes. Stop errors are also known as fatal system errors or blue screen errors.
System Startup
When you first turn on the computer, the system displays the Please Select the Operating System to start screen,
which lists the available operating systems. By default, the system chooses one of the operating systems and
displays a countdown timer.
System Recovery
You must be logged on as a member of the Administrators group to set the options in the Startup And Recovery
dialog box.
The following requirements must be met for the Write Debugging Information recovery option to work:
1. A paging file must be on the system partition.
2. The paging file must be at least 1 MB larger than the amount of physical RAM in your computer if you
choose Complete Memory Dump.
Configuring Environment Variables
Environment variables define the system and user environment information, and they contain information such
as a drive, path, or filename. Environment variables provide information that Windows XP Professional uses to
control various applications. For example, the TEMP environment variable specifies where an application
places its temporary files.
System Environment Variables
System environment variables apply to the entire system. Consequently, these variables affect all system users.
During installation, Setup configures the default system environment variables, including the path to the
Windows XP Professional files. Only an administrator can add, modify, or remove a system environment
variable.
User Environment Variables
The user environment variables differ for each user of a particular computer. The user environment variables
include any user-defined settings (such as a desktop pattern) and any variables defined by applications (such as
the path to the location of the application files). Users can add, modify, or remove their user environment
variables in the System Properties dialog box.
Configuring Error Reporting
Error reporting assists Microsoft in improving future products and in resolving any difficulties you might
encounter with Windows XP Professional. To configure error reporting, in the advanced tab of the System
Properties dialog box, click Error Reporting. This displays the Error Reporting dialog box. Notice that Enable
Error Reporting is selected. To turn off error reporting, click Disable Error Reporting.
Configuring System Restore
The Windows XP Professional System Restore feature allows you to track and reverse harmful changes made to
your system. In the System Properties dialog box, click the System Restore tab.
Configuring Automatic Updates
Automatic Updates (AU) is a proactive service that allows users with administrative privileges to automatically
download and install critical operating system updates such as security fixes and patches. You are notified
before the installation takes place and given the opportunity to postpone the download operation. Updates are
downloaded in the background so that you can continue to work during downloading. To configure AU, click
the Automatic Updates tab of the System Properties dialog box.
Under Notification Settings, you can select one of the following three options:
1. Download The Updates Automatically And Notify Me When They Are Ready To Be Installed.
2. Notify Me Before Downloading Any Updates And Notify Me Again Before Installing Them On My
Computer.
3. Turn Off Automatic Updating. I Want To Update My Computer Manually.
Configuring Remote Access to Your Computer
If you have a computer problem, the Remote Assistance feature allows you to invite another person, a remote
assistant, to help you over the Internet. The remote assistant can accept your invitation, chat with you about the
problem, and view your desktop. He or she can also transfer any files required to fix the problem. To configure
the Remote Assistance feature, click the Remote tab in the System Properties dialog box.
Joining a Domain or Workgroup
You might need to install a computer when it is not attached to the network, the network is down, or a domain
controller is not available. In those instances you can install Windows XP Professional and have your computer
join a workgroup. When you add your computer to the network, or the network or a domain controller is
available, you can join your computer to the domain. To join a domain or a workgroup, you use the Computer
Name tab of the System Properties dialog box.
Reference: http://etutorials.org/Microsoft+Products/microsoft+windows+xp+professional+training+kit/Chapter+10+-
+Configuring+Windows+XP+Professional/Lesson+3nbspConfiguring+Operating+System+Settings/
Ubuntu
Installing Linux: Let's look the various methods we can use to install Ubuntu.
Installing Linux using USB stick
This is one of the easiest methods of installing Ubuntu or any distribution on your computer. Follow the steps.
1. Download the .iso or the OS files on your computer from this link.
2. Download free software like 'Universal USB installer to make a bootable USB stick.
3. Select an Ubuntu Distribution form the dropdown to put on your USB
a. Select your Ubuntu iso file download in step 1.
b. Select the drive letter of USB to install Ubuntu and Press create button.
4. Click YES to Install Ubuntu in USB.
5. After everything has been installed and configured, a small window will appear Congratulations! You
now have Ubuntu on a USB stick, bootable and ready to go.
Installing Linux using CD-ROM
Those who like the way a CD runs should try using this method.
1. Download the .iso or the OS files onto your computer from this
link http://www.ubuntu.com/download/desktop.
2. Burn the files to a CD.
3. Boot your computer from the optical drive and follow the instructions as they come.
BIOS
BIOS (an acronym for Basic Input/Output System and also known as the System BIOS, ROM BIOS or PC
BIOS) is non-volatile firmware used to perform hardware initialization during the booting process (power-on
startup), and to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs. The BIOS firmware comes pre-
installed on a personal computer's system board, and it is the first software to run when powered on.
BIOS (basic input/output system) are the program a personal computer's microprocessor uses to get the
computer system started after you turn it on. It also manages data flow between the computer's operating
system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse and printer.
BIOS are an integral part of your computer and comes with it when you bring it home. BIOS are a program that
is made accessible to the microprocessor on an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) chip.
When you turn on your computer, the microprocessor passes control to the BIOS program, which is always
located at the same place on EPROM.
When BIOS boots up (starts up) your computer, it first determines whether all of the attachments are in place
and operational and then it loads the operating system (or key parts of it) into your computer's random access
memory (RAM) from your hard disk or diskette drive.
With BIOS, your operating system and its applications are freed from having to understand exact details (such
as hardware addresses) about the attached input/output devices. When device details change, only the BIOS
program needs to be changed. Sometimes this change can be made during your system setup. In any case,
neither your operating system nor any applications you use need to be changed. When you turn on the
computer, BIOS instructions are initiated. These instructions make it check the RAM and the Processor (for
faults) on your computer.
1. It enumerates the RAM by checking each compartment to see if all of them are working.
2. After checking out RAM and Processor, it checks for other devices attached to the computer
3. It detects all the peripherals, including the keyboard and mouse and then checks for the boot options
4. Boot options are checked in the sequence configured in your BIOS: Boot from CD-ROM, Boot From
Hard Drive, Boot from LAN, etc.
5. It checks for bootstraps on the devices in the order you or the machine vendor configured the BIOS.
6. It passes reigns of the computer to the operating system by loading the essential parts of the OS into the
random access memory (RAM) reserved for the OS, after bootstrap is located.
System Utilities and Antivirus software.

System Utilities
Utility software is system software designed to help to analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. It is
used to support the computer infrastructure. However, utilities often form part of application systems. For
example a batch job may run user-written code to update a database and may then include a step that runs a
utility to back up the database, or a job may run a utility to compress a disk before copying files.
Although a basic set of utility programs is usually distributed with an operating system (OS), and utility
software is considered part of the operating system, users often install replacements or additional utilities. Those
utilities may provide additional facilities to carry out tasks that are beyond the capabilities of the operating
system.
System Utilities
1. Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses and block or remove them.
2. Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system.
3. Computer access control software grants or denies requests for access to system resources.
4. Debuggers typically permit the examination and modification of data and program instructions in
memory and on disk.
5. Diagnostic programs determine and report the operational status of computer hardware and
software. Memory testers are one example.
6. Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings, check data
transfer or log events.
7. Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a computer.
8. Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry keys that are no
longer in use.
9. System monitors monitor resources and performance in a computer system.
10. System profiles provide detailed information about installed software and hardware.
Storage Device Management utilities
1. Backup software makes copies of all information stored on a disk and either restores the entire disk
(aka Disk cloning) in an event of disk failure or selected files that are accidentally deleted or
corrupted. Undeletion utilities are sometimes more convenient.
2. Disk checkers scan an operating hard drive and check for logical (filesystem) or physical errors.
3. Disk compression utilities transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing the
capacity of the disk.
4. Disk defragmenters detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several locations on
the hard disk and collect the fragments into one contiguous area.
5. Disk formatters prepare a data storage device such as a hard disk, solid-state drive, floppy disk or USB
flash drive for initial use. These are often used to permanently erase an entire device.
6. Disk partition editors divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file
system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
7. Disk space analyzers provide a visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder
(including sub folders) and files in folder or drive. Showing the distribution of the used space.
8. Tape initializers write a label to a magnetic tape or other magnetic medium. Initializers for DEC
tape formatted the tape into blocks.
File Management Utilities
1. Archives output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files.
Archive suites may include compression and encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities have a
separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation. One nearly universal type of archive file format is
the zip file.
2. Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
3. Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file.
4. Data conversion utilities transform data from a source file to some other format, such as from a text file
to a PDF document.
5. Data recovery utilities are used to rescue good data from corrupted files.
6. Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a target data storage
and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:
a. File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may be used to
create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry their digital music,
photos and video in their mobile devices.
b. Revision control utilities can recreate a coherent structure where multiple users simultaneously
modify the same file.
7. Disk cleaners find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of
space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.
8. File comparison utilities provide a standalone capability to detect differences between files.
9. File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management, email recovery and
management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging,
setting write protection status, setting file access permissions, generating and modifying folders and data
sets.
Miscellaneous Utilities
1. Data generators (e.g. IEBDG) create a file of test data according to specified patterns.
2. Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file without regard to file format. These files can be data
or programs.
3. HTML checkers validate HTML code and check links.
4. Installation or setup utilities are used to initialize or configure programs, usually applications programs,
for use in a specific computer environment. There are also Uninstallers.
5. Patching utilities perform alterations of files, especially object programs when program source is
unavailable.
6. Screensavers prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors.
7. Sort/Merge programs arrange records (lines) of a file into a specified sequence.
8. Standalone macro recorders permit use of keyboard macros in programs that do not natively support
such a feature.
9. Text editors are used to create and modify script and batch files.
Antivirus Software
Antivirus software, or anti-virus software, also known as anti-malware, is a computer program used to prevent,
detect, and remove malware. Antivirus software was originally developed to detect and remove computer
viruses, hence the name. However, with the proliferation of other kinds of malware, antivirus software started to
provide protection from other computer threats.
In particular, modern antivirus software can protect users from: malicious browser helper
objects (BHOs), browser hijackers, ransomware, keyloggers, backdoors, rootkits, trojan horses, worms,
malicious LSPs, dialers, fraudtools, adware and spyware. Some products also include protection from
other computer threats, such as infected and malicious URLs, spam, scam and phishing attacks, online
identity (privacy), online banking attacks, social engineering techniques, advanced persistent threat (APT)
and botnet DDoSattacks.
How antivirus software works
Antivirus software typically runs as a background process, scanning computers, servers or mobile
devices to detect and restrict the spread of malware. Many antivirus software programs include real-time threat
detection and protection to guard against potential vulnerabilities as they happen, as well as system scans that
monitor device and system files looking for possible risks. Antivirus software usually performs these basic
functions:
1. Scanning directories or specific files for known malicious patterns indicating the presence of malicious
software;
2. Allowing users to schedule scans so they run automatically;
3. Allowing users to initiate new scans at any time; and
4. Removing any malicious software it detects. Some antivirus software programs do this automatically in
the background, while others notify users of infections and ask them if they want to clean the files.
Types of antivirus programs
1. Norton
2. BullGaurd
3. Panda
4. Avira
5. Quick hill
6. Mackeeper
7. MacCafe
8. Avast
9. Netgear
10. Kasperkey
Unit III: Basic Computer Literacy
Word Processing Basics (MS Word / LibreOffice Writer): Opening and Closing of documents; Text
creation and Manipulation; Formatting of text; Table handling; Spell check, language setting and
thesaurus; Printing of word document;
Using Spread Sheets (MS Excel / LibreOffice Calc) Basic operations of Spreadsheets; Manipulation of
cells; Formulas and Functions; Editing of Spread Sheet, printing of Spread Sheet;
Basics of presentation software (MS PowerPoint / LibreOffice Impress) Preparation and Presentation
of Slides; Slide Show; How to make an effective presentation: Working with Presentation Tools
(Create, Edit, Move, Delete, Resize, Format text object), Working with Graphics tools (Creating
Tables, Organization Charts, Hyperlinks), Saving, editing and closing presentation; Taking printouts of
presentation / handouts.
Word Processing Basics (MS Word / LibreOffice Writer): Opening and Closing of documents;
Text creation and Manipulation; Formatting of text; Table handling; Spell check, language
setting and thesaurus; Printing of word document;
Introduction
Microsoft Word (or simply Word) is a word processor developed by Microsoft. It was first released on October
25, 1983 under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems. Subsequent versions were later written for
several other platforms including IBM PCs running DOS(1983), Apple Macintosh running the Classic Mac
OS (1985), AT&T Unix PC (1985), Atari ST (1988), OS/2 (1989), Microsoft Windows (1989), SCO
Unix (1994), and macOS (formerly OS X; 2001).
Commercial versions of Word are licensed as a standalone product or as a component of Microsoft
Office, Windows RT or the discontinued Microsoft Works suite.
File Format
Microsoft Word's native file formats are denoted either by a .doc or .docx filename extension. Although
the .doc extension has been used in many different versions of Word, it actually encompasses four distinct file
formats:
Basics
Microsoft Office Word 2010 allows you to create and edit personal and business documents, such as letters,
reports, invoices, emails and books. By default, documents saved in Word 2010 are saved with the .docx
extension. Microsoft Word can be used for the following purposes −
1. To create business documents having various graphics including pictures, charts, and diagrams.
2. To store and reuse readymade content and formatted elements such as cover pages and sidebars.
3. To create letters and letterheads for personal and business purpose.
4. To design different documents such as resumes or invitation cards etc.
5. To create a range of correspondence from a simple office memo to legal copies and reference
documents.
Explore Window in Word 2010

File Tab: The File tab replaces the Office button from Word 2007. You can click it to check the backstage view.
This is where you come when you need to open or save files, create new documents, print a document, and do
other file-related operations.
Quick Access Toolbar: This you will find just above the File tab. This is a convenient resting place for the most
frequently used commands in Word. You can customize this toolbar based on your comfort.
Ribbon: Ribbon contains commands organized in three components −
1. Tabs − these appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related commands. Home,
Insert, Page Layout is examples of ribbon tabs.
2. Groups − they organize related commands; each group name appears below the group on the Ribbon.
For example, group of commands related to fonts or group of commands related to alignment, etc.
3. Commands − Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.
Title bar: This lies in the middle and at the top of the window. Title bar shows the program and document titles.
Rulers: Word has two rulers - a horizontal ruler and a vertical ruler. The horizontal ruler appears just beneath
the Ribbon and is used to set margins and tab stops. The vertical ruler appears on the left edge of the Word
window and is used to gauge the vertical position of elements on the page.
Help: The Help Icon can be used to get word related help anytime you like. This provides nice tutorial on
various subjects related to word.
Zoom control: Zoom control lets you zoom in for a closer look at your text. The zoom control consists of a
slider that you can slide left or right to zoom in or out; you can click the + buttons to increase or decrease the
zoom factor.
View Buttons: The group of five buttons located to the left of the Zoom control, near the bottom of the screen,
lets you switch through the Word's various document views.
1. Print Layout view − this displays pages exactly as they will appear when printed.
2. Full Screen Reading view − this gives a full screen view of the document.
3. Web Layout view − this shows how a document appears when viewed by a Web browser, such as
Internet Explorer.
4. Outline view − this lets you work with outlines established using Word’s standard heading styles.
5. Draft view − this formats text as it appears on the printed page with a few exceptions. For example,
headers and footers aren't shown. Most people prefer this mode.
Document Area: This is the area where you type. The flashing vertical bar is called the insertion point and it
represents the location where text will appear when you type.
Status Bar: This displays the document information as well as the insertion point location. From left to right,
this bar contains the total number of pages and words in the document, language, etc.
You can configure the status bar by right-clicking anywhere on it and by selecting or deselecting options from
the provided list.
Dialog Box Launcher: This appears as very small arrow in the lower-right corner of many groups on the
Ribbon. Clicking this button opens a dialog box or task pane that provides more options about the group.
Saving New Document

Once you are done with typing in your new Word document, it is time to save your document to avoid losing
work you have done on a Word document. Following are the steps to save an edited Word document
1. Click the File tab and select the Save As option.
2. Select a folder where you will like to save the document, Enter the file name which you want to give to
your document and Select the Save As option, by default it is the .docx format.
3. Finally, click on the Save button and your document will be saved with the entered name in the selected
folder.
Saving New Changes

There may be an instance when you open an existing document and edit it partially or completely or an
instance where you may like to save the changes in between editing of the document. If you want to save this
document with the same name, then you can use either of the following simple options. Just press the Ctrl +
S keys to save the changes.
Optionally you can click on the floppy icon available at the top left corner and just above the File tab. This
option will also help you save the changes.
You can also use the third method to save the changes, which is the Save option available just above the Save
As option as shown in the above screenshot.
Opening New Document

A new, blank document always opens when you start Microsoft Word. Suppose you want to start another new
document while you are working on another document, or you closed an already opened document and want to
start a new document. Here are the steps to open a new document –
1. Click the File tab and select the New option.
2. When you select the New option from the first column, it will display a list of templates in the second
column. Double-click on the Blank document; this is the first option in the template list. We will discuss
the other templates available in the list in the following chapters. You should have your blank document
as shown below. The document is now ready for you to start typing your text.
You can use a shortcut to open a blank document anytime. Try using the Ctrl + N keys and you will see a new
blank document similar to the one in the above screenshot.
Opening Existing Document
There may be a situation when you open an existing document and edit it partially or completely. Follow the
steps given below to open an existing document −
1. Click the File tab and select the Open option.
2. This will display the following file Open dialog box. This lets you navigate through different folders and
files, and also lets you select a file which you want to open.
3. Finally, locate and select a file which you want to open and click the small triangle available on
the Open button to open the file. You will have different options to open the file, but simply use
the Open option.
This will open your selected file. You can use the Open Read-Only option if you are willing just to read the file
and you have no intention to modify, i.e., edits the file.
Closing Existing Document

When you finish working with a document, you will proceed to close the document. Closing a document
removes it from your computer screen and if you had other documents open, Word displays the last document
you used otherwise, you see a blank Word window. Here are simple steps to close an opened document −
1. Click the File tab and select the Close option.
2. When you select the Close option and if the document is not saved before closing, it will display the
following Warning box asking whether the document should be saved or not.
3. To save the changes, click Save, otherwise click Don't Save. To go back to the document, click Cancel.
This will close the document and if you have other documents open, Word displays the last document
you used.
Entering Text
Document area is the area where you type your text. The flashing vertical bar is called the insertion point and it
represents the location where the text will appear when you type. Keep the cursor at the text insertion point and
start typing the text? The following are the two important points that will help you while typing −
1. You do not need to press Enter to start a new line. As the insertion point reaches the end of the line,
Word automatically starts a new one. You will need to press Enter, to add a new paragraph.
2. When you want to add more than one space between words, use the Tab key instead of the spacebar.
This way you can properly align text by using the proportional fonts.
Insert and Add Text

First we will see how inserted text will be added into the existing content without replacing any existing
content.
1. Click the location where you wish to insert text; you can also use the keyboard arrows to locate the
place where the text needs to be inserted.
2. Start typing the text that needs to be inserted. Word inserts the text to the left of the insertion point,
moving the existing text to the right
Insert and Replace Text
In the Insertion mode, text will be added into the existing content but same time it will over write all the
content which comes in its way.
1. Right-click the status bars and selects the Overtype option from the displayed menu.
2. Click on the Insert text available at the status bar and it will switch to the Overtype mode.
3. Now click the location where the text needs to be inserted or you can use the keyboard arrows to locate the
place where the text needs to be inserted.
4. Start typing the text that needs to be inserted. Word will replace the existing text with the newly typed text
without moving the position of the exiting test.
Move within the same document
1. Select a portion of the text using any of the text selection methods.
2. Now take your mouse pointer over the selected text and hold the left button of the mouse and keep holding
it while moving around the document.
3. Take your mouse pointer to the place where you want to move the selected text and release the mouse
button. You will see that the selected text is moved to the desired location.
Move within different documents
You can move the selected text from one document to another document. Following are some simple steps
which will help you in moving text from one document to another document.
1. Keep both the documents opened and to ensure that both documents are visible, click the Arrange
All button on the View tab on the Ribbon.
2. Now, select a portion of the text using any of the text selection methods.
3. Take your mouse pointer over the selected text and hold the left button of the mouse and keep holding it
while moving around the document.
4. Take your mouse pointer at the place in the second document where you want to move the selected text and
release the mouse button. You will see that the selected text is moved to the desired location in the second
document.
Select Text
1. Selecting text between two points: Click at the start of the block of text, hold down Shift, and click at the
end of the block.
2. Selecting a single word: Double-click anywhere on the word you want to select.
3. Selecting a paragraph: Triple-click anywhere on the paragraph you want to select.
4. Selecting a sentence: Hold down the Ctrl key and click anywhere in the sentence you want to select.
5. Selecting a column of text: Hold down Alt, click and hold the mouse button, and drag over the column you
want to select.
Delete Text
Using Backspace & Delete Keys
1. Backspace: Keep the insertion point just after the character you want to delete and press
the Backspace key. Word deletes the character immediately to the left of the insertion point.
2. Ctrl + Backspace: Keep the insertion point just after the word you want to delete and press Ctrl +
Backspace key. Word deletes the whole word immediately to the left of the insertion point.
3. Delete: Keep the insertion point just before the character you want to delete and press the Delete key. Word
deletes the character immediately to the right of the insertion point.
4. Ctrl + Delete: Keep the insertion point just before the word you want to delete and press Ctrl + Delete key.
Word deletes the word immediately to the right of the insertion point.
Using Selection Method
1. Deleting text between two points: Click at the start of the block of text, hold down the Shift key, and click
at the end of the block to select the portion of text and finally press either the Backspace key or
the Delete key.
2. Deleting a single word: Double-click anywhere on the word you want to delete and finally press either
the Backspace key or the Delete key.
3. Deleting a paragraph: Triple-click anywhere on the paragraph you want to delete and finally press either
4. Deleting a sentence: Hold down the Ctrl key and click anywhere in the sentence you want to delete and
finally press either the Backspace or the Delete key.
5. Deleting a column of text: Hold down the Alt key, click and hold the mouse button, and drag over the
column you want to delete and finally press either the Backspace key or the Delete key.
6. Deleting a line: Bring your mouse in the selection bar area and click in front of the line you want to delete
and finally press either the Backspace key or the Delete key.
7. Deleting entire document content: Press Ctrl + A keys to delete the entire document and finally press either
Copy & Paste Operation
The Copy operation will just copy the content from its original place and create a duplicate copy of the content
at the desired location without deleting the text from it's the original location. Following is the procedure to
copy the content in word −
2. You have various options available to copy the selected text in clipboard. You can make use of any one of
the options
a. Using Right-Click − When you right-click on the selected text, it will display the copy option, click
this option to copy the selected content in clipboard.
b. Using Ribbon Copy Button − after selecting text, you can use the copy button available at the
ribbon to copy the selected content in clipboard.
c. Using Ctrl + c Keys − after selecting a text, just press Ctrl + c keys to copy the selected content in
clipboard.
3. Finally click at the place where you want to copy the selected text and use either of these two simple
options
a. Using Ribbon Paste Button − Just click the Paste button available at the ribbon to paste the copied
content at the desired location.
b. Using Ctrl + v Keys − This is simplest way of pasting the content. Just press Ctrl + v keys to paste
the content at the new location.
Cut & Paste Operation
The Cut operation will cut the content from its original place and move the content from its original location to
a new desired location. Following is the procedure to move the content in word −
2. Now, you have various options available to cut the selected text and put it in the clipboard. You can make
use of one of the options −
a. Using Right-Click − If right-click on the selected portion of text, it will display cut option, just click
this option to cut the selected content and keep it in clipboard.
b. Using Ribbon Cut Button − after selecting a portion of text, you can use cut button available at the
ribbon to cut the selected content and keep it in clipboard.
c. Using Ctrl + x Keys − after selecting a portion of text, just press Ctrl + x keys to cut the selected
content and keep it in clipboard.
3. Finally, click at the place where you want to move the selected text and use either of these two simple
options −
a. Using Ribbon Paste Button − Just click the Paste button available at the ribbon to paste the content
at the new location.
b. Using Ctrl + v Keys − this is simplest way of pasting the content. Just press Ctrl + v keys to paste
the content at the new location.
Copy, Cut & Paste in different documents

You can use the same procedure that we discussed above to copy and paste or cut and paste content from one
document to another document. This is very simple, just copy or cut the desired content from one document
and go into another document where you want to paste the content and use mentioned step to paste the content.
You can use the Alt + Tab keys to switch through the different documents and select the desired destination
document.
Find & Replace

Find Command
The Find command enables you to locate specific text in your document. Following are the steps to find a
word document in the following screen −
1. Let us work out on a sample text available in our Word document. Just type =rand() and press Enter;
2. Click the Find option in the Editing group on the Home tab or press Ctrl + F to launch the Navigation pane.
3. Enter a word which you want to search in the Search box, as soon as you finish typing, Word searches for
the text you entered and displays the results in the navigation pane and highlights the word in the document.
4. You can click the clear button (X) to clear the search and results and perform another search.
5. You can use further options while searching for a word. Click the option buttonto display the options menu
and then click the Options option; this will display a list of options. You can select the options like match
case to perform case-sensitive search
6. Finally, if you are done with the Search operation, you can click the close button (X) to close the
Navigation Pane.
Find & Replace Operation
We assume you are an expert in searching a word or phrase in a word document as explained above. This
section will teach you how you can replace an existing word in your document. Following are the simple steps.
1. Click the Replace option in the Editing group on the Home tab or press Ctrl + H to launch the Find and
Replace dialog box.
2. Type a word which you want to search. You can also replace the word using the Find and Replace dialog
box.
3. Click the Replace button available on the Find and Replace dialog box and you will see the first occurrence
of the searched word would be replaced with the replace with word. Clicking again on Replace button
would replace next occurrence of the searched word. If you will click Replace All button then it would
replace all the found words in one go. You can also use Find Next button just to search the next occurrence
and later you can use Replace button to replace the found word.
4. You can use More >> button available on the dialog box to use more options and to make your search more
specific like case sensitive search or searching for whole word only etc.
5. Finally, if you are done with the Find and Replace operation, you can click the Close (X) or Cancel button
of the dialog box to close the box.
Check Spelling and Grammar

Using Review tab
Here is the simple procedure to find out the spelling mistakes and fix them −
1. Click the Review tab and then click the Spelling & Grammar button.
2. A Spelling and Grammar dialog box will appear and will display the wrong spellings or errors in grammar.
3. Now you have following options to fix the spelling mistakes−
a. Ignore − If you are willing to ignore a word, then click this button and Word ignores the word
throughout the document.
b. Ignore All − Like Ignore, but this ignores all occurrences of the same misspelling, not just once but
throughout the document.
c. Add to Dictionary − Choose Add to Dictionary to add the word to the Word spelling dictionary.
d. Change − this will change the wrong word using the suggested correct word.
e. Change All − Like Change, but this changes all occurrences of the same misspelling, not just once
but throughout the document.
f. AutoCorrect − If you select a suggestion, Word creates an AutoCorrect entry that automatically
corrects this spelling error from now on.
4. Select one of the given suggestions you want to use and click the Change option to fix the spelling or
grammar mistake and repeat the step to fix the entire spelling or grammar mistake.
5. Word displays a dialog box when it finishes checking for spelling and grammar mistakes, finally Click OK.
Check Spelling and Grammar using Right Click
If you will right-click the mouse button over a misspelled word, then it will show you the correct suggestions
and the above mentioned options to fix the spelling or grammar mistake. Try it yourself.
Formatting Text
Change the Font Type & Size
1. Select the portion of text the font of which needs to be changed and click the Home tab. Now click the Font
Type button to list down all the fonts available.
2. Try to move the mouse pointer over the listed fonts. You will see that the text font changes when you move
the mouse pointer over different fonts. You can use the Font Scroll Bar to display more fonts available.
Finally select a desired font by clicking over the font name in the list.
3. Similar way, to change the font size, click over the Font Size button which will display a font size list. You
will use the same procedure to select a desired font size that you have used while selecting a font type.
Use Shrink and Grow Buttons
You can use a quick way to reduce or enlarge the font size. The Shrink Font button can be used to reduce the
font size whereas the Grow Font button can be used to enlarge the font size.
Clear Formatting Options: All of the setting can be reset to plain text, or the default formatting. To reset text to
default settings
1. Select the portion of text that you want to reset.
2. Click the Clear Formatting button in the Home tab Font group, or simply use Ctrl + SPACEBAR.
Making text bold

We use bold text to give more emphasis on the sentence. It is very simple to change a selected portion of text
into bold font by following two simple steps −
1. Select the portion of text that the font of which needs to be made bold. You can use any of the text selection
methods to select the portion of text.
2. Click the Font Bold [ B ] button in the Home tab Font group, or simply use Ctrl + B keys to make the
selected portion of text bold.
Making Text Italic
An italic text appears with a small inclination and we use the italicized text to differentiate it from other text. It
is very simple to change the selected text into italic font by following two simple steps −
1. Select the portion of text the font of which needs to be italicized. You can use any of the text selection
2. Click the Font Italic [ I ] button in the Home tab Font group, or simply use the Ctrl + I keys to convert the
portion of text in italic font.
Underline the Text
An underlined portion of text appears with an underline and we use the underlined portion of text to make it
more distinguished from other text. It is very simple to change the selected text into underlined font by
following two simple steps −
1. Select the portion of text which needs to be underlined. You can use any of the text selection method to
select the portion of text.
2. Click Font Underline [ U ] button in the Home tab Font group, or simply use the Ctrl + U keys to put an
underline under the text.
Strikethrough the Text
Strikethrough portion of text will look as if a line has been drawn through the middle of it. It is very simple to
change a selected portion of text into a strikethrough portion of text by following two simple steps −
1. Select the portion of text that you want to change to a bold font. You can use any of the text selection
method to select the portion of text.
2. Click Font Strikethrough [ abc ] button in the Home tab Font group to put a line in the middle of the text
which is called strikethrough the text.
Change Text to Sentence Case
A sentence case is the case where the first character of every sentence is capitalized. It is very simple to change
the selected portion of text into sentence case by following two simple steps −
1. Select the portion of text that that needs to be put in sentence case. You can use any of the text selection
2. Click the Change Case button and then select the Sentence Case option to capitalize the first character of
every selected sentence.
Change Text to Lowercase
Changing text to lowercase is where every word of a sentence is in lowercase. It is very simple to change a
selected portion of text into lowercase by following two simple steps −
1. Select the portion of text that needs to be put in lowercase. You can use any of the text selection methods to
select the portion of text.
2. Click the Change Case button and then select Lowercase option to display all the selected words in
lowercase.
Change Text to Uppercase
This is where every word of a sentence is in uppercase. It is very simple to change selected text into uppercase
by following two simple steps −
2. Click the Change Case button and then select UPPERCASE option to display all selected words in all caps.
All characters of every selected word will be capitalized.
Capitalize Text
A capitalize case is the case where every first character of every selected word is in capital. This is very simple
to change selected text into capitalize by following two simple steps −
1. Select the portion of text that needs to be capitalized. You can use any of the text selection method to select
the portion of text.
2. Click the Change Case button and then select the Capitalize Each Word option to put a leading cap on each
selected word.
Toggle the Text
The Toggle operation will change the case of every character in reverse way. A capital character will become a
character in lower case and a character in lower case will become a character in upper case. It is very simple to
toggle case of the text by following two simple steps −
2. Click the Change Case button and then select the tOGGLE cASE option to change all the words in
lowercase into words in uppercase; the words in uppercase words change to words in lowercase.
Change Font Colors
The text that we type comes in black by default; you can always change the color of the font to a color of your
choice. It is very simple to change the text color by following two simple steps −
1. Select the portion of text the font color of which needs to be changed. You can use any of the text selection
2. Click the Font Color button triangle to display a list of colors. Try to move your mouse pointer over
different colors and you will see the text color will change automatically. You can select any of the colors
available by simply clicking over it.
If you click at the left portion of the Font Color button, the selected color gets applied to the text automatically;
you need to click over the small triangle to display a list of colors. If you do not find a color of your choice, you
can use the More Colors option to display the color pallet box which allows you to select a color from a range
of colors.
Highlight Text with Colors
You can highlight a selected portion of text using any color and it will look like it was marked with a
highlighter pen. Usually we highlight a text using yellow color. It is very simple to highlight a portion of text
with a color by following two simple steps
1. Select the portion of text that needs to be highlighted with color. You can use any of the text selection
2. Click the Text Highlight Color button triangle to display a list of colors. Try to move your mouse pointer
over different colors and you will see the text color changes automatically. You can select any of the colors
available by simply clicking over it.
If you click at the left portion of the Text Highlight Color button, then the selected color gets applied to the
portion of text automatically; you need to click over the small triangle to display a list of colors.
Apply Text Effects
Microsoft word provides a list of text effect which add to the beauty of your document, especially to the cover
page or the headings of the document. This is very simple to apply various text effects by following two simple
steps −
2. Click the Text Effect button to display a list of effects including shadow, outline, glow, reflection etc. Try
to move your mouse pointer over different effects and you will see the text effect will change automatically.
You can select any of the text effect available by simply clicking over it.
Left-Aligned Text
A paragraph's text is left aligned when it is aligned evenly along the left margin. Here is a simple procedure to
make a paragraph text left-aligned.
1. Click anywhere on the paragraph you want to align and click the Align Text Leftbutton available on
the Home tab or simply press the Ctrl + L keys.
Center Aligned Text
A paragraph's text will be said center aligned if it is in the center of the left and right margins. Here is a simple
procedure to make a paragraph text center aligned.
1. Click anywhere on the paragraph you want to align and click the Center button available on the Home
tab or simply press the Ctrl + E keys.
Right-Aligned Text
A paragraph's text is right-aligned when it is aligned evenly along the right margin. Here is a simple procedure
to make a paragraph text right-aligned.
1. Click anywhere on the paragraph you want to align and click the Align Text Right button available on
the Home tab or simply press the Ctrl + R keys.
Justified Text
A paragraph's text is justified when it is aligned evenly along both the left and the right margins. Following is a
simple procedure to make a paragraph text justified.
1. Click anywhere on the paragraph you want to align and click the Justify button available on the Home
tab or simply press the Ctrl + J keys.
Left Indentation
Left indentation means to move the left edge of the paragraph inward towards the center of the paragraph. Let
us use the following steps to create left indentation.
1. Click anywhere on the paragraph you want to indent left and click the Increase Indent button available on
the Home tab or simply press the Ctrl + M keys. You can click multiple times to create deeper indentation.
2. You can remove left indentation by clicking the Decrease Indent button available on Home tab or simply
press Ctrl + Shift+ M keys. You can click multiple times to remove deeper indentation.
Right Indentation
Right indentation means to move the right edge of the paragraph inward towards the center of the paragraph.
Let us use the following steps to create right indentation.
1. Click anywhere on the paragraph you want to indent and then click on the Increase Right Indent spinner
available on the Page Layout tab. You can click on the spinner multiple times to create deeper indentation.
You can use the Left Indent spinners as well to set left indentation from the same place.
2. You can remove right indentation by clicking the Decrease Right Indent spinner in the opposite direction.
You can also use the Paragraph Dialog Box to set the left and the right indentations.
First Line Indentation
You can move the left side of the first line of a paragraph inward toward the center. Let us see the procedure to
perform first line indentation.
1. Click anywhere on the paragraph you want to indent right and click the Paragraph Dialog Box launcher
available on the Home tab.
2. Click the Before Text spinner to set left indentation and select the First Line Option to move the left side of
the first line of a paragraph inward toward the center. You can control the movement by setting
the Indentation Unit. A preview box will give only the idea and not the indentation status.
Hanging Indentation
You can move the left side of the first line of a paragraph leftward, away from the center which is called
the hanging indentation. Let us see the procedure to perform hanging indentation.
1. Click anywhere on the paragraph you want to indent right and click the Paragraph Dialog Box launcher
available on the Home tab.
2. Click the Before Text spinner to set left indentation and select Hanging Option to move the left side of the
first line of a paragraph leftward, away from the center. You can control the movement by setting
the Indentation Unit. A preview box will give only the idea and not the indentation status.
Create a List from Existing Text
This is very simple to convert a list of lines into a bulleted or numbered list. Following are the simple steps to
create either bulleted list or numbered list.
1. Select a list of text to which you want to assign bullets or numbers. You can use any of the text selection
2. Click the Bullet Button triangle to display a list of bullets you want to assign to the list. You can select any
of the bullet style available by simply clicking over it.
3. If you are willing to create a list with numbers, then click the Numbering Button triangle instead of the
bullet button to display a list of numbers you want to assign to the list. You can select any of the numbering
style available by simply clicking over it.
Create a List as You Type
You can create a bulleted list as you type. Word will automatically format it according to your text. Following
are the simple steps to create bulleted list as you type.
1. Type *, and then either press the SPACEBAR or press the TAB key, and then type the rest of what you
want in the first item of the bulleted list.
2. When you are done with typing, press Enter to add the item in the list automatically and go to add next item
in the list.
3. Repeat Step 2 for each list item.
You can create a numbered list as you type. Word will automatically format it according to your text.
Following are the simple steps to create numbered list as you type.
1. Type 1, and then either press the SPACEBAR or press the TAB key, and then type the rest of what you
want in the first item of the numbered list.
2. When you are done with typing, press Enter to add the item in the list automatically and go to add next item
in the list.
3. Repeat Step 2 for each list item.
You can create sub-lists. These sub-lists are called multi-lists. It is simple to create sublists; press the Tab key to
put items in sub-list. You can try it yourself.
Spacing between Lines
Following are the simple steps to adjust spacing between two lines of the document.
1. Select the paragraph or paragraphs for which you want to define spacing. You can use any of the text
selection method to select the paragraph(s).
2. Click the Line and Paragraph Spacing Button triangle to display a list of options to adjust space between the
lines. You can select any of the option available by simply clicking over it.
Spacing between Paragraphs
You can also set distance between two paragraphs. Following are the simple steps to set this distance.
1. Select the paragraph or paragraphs for which you want to define spacing and click the Paragraph Dialog
Box launcher available on the Home tab.
2. Click the before spinner to increase or decrease the space before the selected paragraph. Similar way, click
the after spinner to increase or decrease the space after the selected paragraph. Finally, click the OK button
to apply the changes.
Add Borders to Text
Following are the simple steps to add border to any text or paragraph.
1. Select the portion of text or paragraph to which you want to add border. You can use any of the text
selection method to select the paragraph(s).
2. Click the Border Button to display a list of options to put a border around the selected text or paragraph.
You can select any of the option available by simply clicking over it.
3. Try to add different borders like left, right top or bottom by selecting different options from the border
options.
4. To delete the existing border, simply select the No Border option from the border options.
Add Borders to Page
You can add borders of your choice to word pages by following the steps given below.
1. Click the Border Button to display a list of options to put a border. Select the Border and Shading option
available at the bottom of the list of options as shown in the above screenshot. This will display a Border
and Shading dialog box. This dialog box can be used to set borders and shading around a selected text or
page borders.
2. Click the Page Border tab which will display a list of border settings, styles and options whether this border
should be applied to the whole document or just one page or the first page.
3. You can use the Preview section to disable or enable left, right, top or bottom borders of the page. Follow
the instruction given in the preview section itself.
4. You can customize your border by setting its color, width by using different art available under the style
section.
Add Shades to Text
The following steps will help you understand how to add shades on a selected portion of text or a paragraph(s).
1. Click the Border Button to display a list of options to put a border. Select the Border and Shading option
and Shading dialog box. This dialog box can be used to set borders and shading around a selected portion of
text or page borders.
2. Click the Shading tab; this tab will display the options to select fill, color and style and whether this border
should be applied to a paragraph or a portion of text.
3. You can use the Preview section to have an idea about the expected result. Once you are done, click
the OK button to apply the result
SET TABS
Microsoft Word tabs help in setting up information properly within a column. Word enables you to set left,
center, right, decimal, or bar tabs to line up columnar information. By default, Word places tabs every .5inch
across the page between the left and right margins.
1. Left: Left-aligns text at tab stop and this is the default tab.
2. Center: Centers text over tab stop.
3. Right: Right-aligns text at tab stop.
4. Decimal: Aligns numbers at decimal point over tab stop.
5. Bar: Creates a bar to separate the text.
Setting a Tab
Following are the simple steps to set the center and the right tabs in a Word document. You can use similar
steps but different tabs to set up decimal and bar tabs.
1. Type some text that you want to line up with the tab stops. Press the Tab key only once between each
column of information you to want to line up. I typed the following three lines.
2. Select a tab type using the Tab button; assume the center tab and finally select the paragraph or paragraphs
the tabs of which you want to set. Next click the ruler where you want the tab to appear, a tab will appear at
the ruler where you just clicked and the selected portion of text will be adjusted in the center.
3. Now select the right tab using the Tab Button and click the ruler at the right side where you want to align
the text at the right side. A right tab will appear at the ruler where you just clicked and the selected portion
of text will be right-aligned.
Moving a Tab
You can move an already set tab at a particular location by following the steps given below.
1. Click just before the line for which you want to change the tab setting. Drag the tab sign available at the
ruler to the left or right.
2. A vertical line marks its position as you drag and when you click and drag a tab, the text moves with the
tab.
Copy and Apply Text Formatting
The following steps will help you understand how to copy and apply text formatting from one portion of text in
your document to another portion of text in your document.
1. Select the portion of text containing the formatting that you want to copy. I have selected a text which has
bold and underlined font as shown below.
2. Click the Home tab and click the Format Painter button to copy the format of the selected text. As soon as
you click the format painter button, the mouse pointer changes to a paint brush when you move the mouse
over your document.
3. Now you are ready to apply the copied text format to any of the selected text. So select a text using mouse
where you want to apply the copied text format. While selecting a portion of text, you have to make sure
that your mouse pointer is still in paint brush shape. After selecting the text, just release the right-click
button of the mouse and you will see that newly selected text is changed to the format used for the original
selection. You can click anywhere outside the selection to continue working on your document for further
editing.
Copy and Apply Text Formatting multiple times
1. If you are intended to apply formatting at multiple places, then you will have to double-click the Format
Painter button while copying the text format. Later on, you just keep selecting the text where you want to
apply the text formatting.
2. When you are done with applying formatting at all the places, click Format Painter to come out of the
format applying operation.
Page Formatting
Adjust Margins
The following steps will help you understand how to set margins for an open document.
1. Open the document the margins of which need to be set. If you want the margins to be applied only to a
selected part of a document, select that particular part.
2. Click the Page Layout tab, and click the Margins button in the Page Setup group. This will display a list of
options to be selected but you have to click the Custom Margins option available at the bottom.
You can also select any of the predefined margins from the list, but using custom margins option you will have
more control on all the settings.
3. You will have to display a Page Dialog Box as shown below where you can set top, left, right and bottom
margins under the Margins Tab. Select the Apply to: option to apply the margin on selected text or
complete document.
4. If you are going to bind the document and want to add an extra amount of space on one edge for the
binding, enter that amount in the Gutter text box, and select the side the gutter is on with the Gutter
Position drop-down list. After setting all the desired values for all the margins, click the OK button to apply
the margins.
Add Header and Footer
The following steps will help you understand how to add header and footer in a Word document.
1. Click the Insert tab, and click either the Header button or the Footer button that which needs to be added
first. Assume you are going to add Header; when you click the Header button it will display a list of built-
in Headers from where you can choose any of the headers by simply clicking on it.
2. Once you select any of the headers, it will be applied to the document in editable mode and the text in your
document will appear dimmed, Header and Footer buttons appear on the Ribbon and a Close Header and
Footer button will also appear at the top-right corner.
3. Finally, you can type your information whatever you want to have in your document header and once you
are done, click Close Header and Footer to come out of the header insertion mode. You will see the final
result as follows.
Edit Header and Footer
The following steps will help you understand how to edit the existing header or footer of your document.
1. Click the Insert tab, and click either the Header button or Footer button or whatever you want to edit.
Assume you are going to edit the Header, so when you click the Header button it will display a list of
options including the Edit Header option.
2. Click on the Edit Header option and Word will display the editable header as shown in the following
screenshot.
3. Now you can edit your document header and once you are done, click Close Header and Footer to come
out of the edit header mode.
Add Page Numbers
Following are the simple steps to add page numbers in a Word document.
1. Click the Insert tab, and click the Page Number button available in the header and footer section. This will
display a list of options to display the page number at the top, bottom, current position etc.
2. When you move your mouse pointer over the available options, it displays further styles of page numbers
to be displayed. For example, when I take the mouse pointer at the Bottom of Page option it displays the
following list of styles.
3. Finally, select any one of the page number styles. I selected the Accent Bar 1style by clicking over it. You
will be directed to the Page Footer modification mode. Click the Close Header and Footer button to come
out of the Footer Edit mode.
You can format your page numbers using the Format Page Numbers option available under the listed options.
Remove Page Numbers
The following steps will help you remove page numbering from a Word document.
1. Click the Insert tab, and click the Page Number button available in the header and footer section. This will
display a list of options to display page number at the top, bottom, current position, etc. At the bottom, you
will have the Remove Page Number soption. Just click this option and it will delete all the page numbers
set in your document.
Insert Page Breaks
The following steps will help you insert page breaks in a Word document.
2. Step 1 − Bring your insertion point immediately before the text that has to appear on a new page.
3. Step 2 − Click the Insert tab, and click the Page Break button available in the Pages group.
Word inserts a page break and moves all text after the page break onto a new page. You can also use the Ctrl +
Enter keys to create a page break at the pointed location.
Delete a Page Break
Just put the insertion point on the previous page of the page break that needs to be deleted. Press the Delete key
multiple times until both the pages get merged.
Insert Blank Pages
Following are the simple steps to insert blank page in a word document.
1. Bring your insertion point immediately before the text where you want to insert a blank page.
2. Click the Insert tab, and click the Blank Page button available in the Pages group.
Word inserts a new blank page and moves all the text after the page break onto a new page.
Delete Blank Pages
The following steps will help you delete blank page from a Word document.
1. Click the Home tab, and click the Show/Hide ¶ paragraph marks button available in the Paragraph group or
simply press the Ctrl + Shift + * keys. This will display all the page breaks as shown below −
2. Bring your cursor immediately before the Page Break mark available on the blank page and press
the Delete Key. This will delete the blank page and again you can click the Show/Hide ¶ paragraph marks
button to hide all the paragraph marks.
Add Cover Pages
Following are the simple steps to add a cover page in a Word document.
1. Click the Insert tab, and click the Cover Page button available in the Pages group. This will display a list
of Built-in Cover Pages as shown below.
2. Choose a cover page from the options available in the gallery. The selected cover page will be added as the
first page of your document which can later be modified according to the requirements. If you want to
place the cover page elsewhere except the first page, right-click the cover page in the gallery and select the
location you want from the menu that appears.
Delete Cover Pages
The following steps will help you understand how to delete an existing cover page from a Word document.
1. Click the Insert tab, and click the Cover Page button available in the Pages group. This will display a list of
Built-in Cover Pages as shown below. You will find a Remove Current Cover Page option available at the
bottom of the cover page gallery.
2. Click the Remove Current Cover Page option and your cover page will be deleted from your document.
Change Page Orientation
The following steps will help you understand how to change the page orientation of a word document.
1. Open the Word document the orientation of which needs to be changed. By default, orientation will
be Portrait Orientation as shown below.
2. Click the Page Layout tab, and click the Orientation button available in the Page Setup group. This will
display an Option Menu having both the options (Portrait & Landscape) to be selected.
3. Click any of the options you want to set to orientation. Because our page is already in portrait orientation,
we will click the Landscape option to change my orientation to landscape orientation.
Working with Table

Create a Table
The following steps will help you understand how to create a table in a Word document.
1. Click the Insert tab followed by the Table button. This will display a simple grid as shown below. When
you move your mouse over the grid cells, it makes a table in the table that appears in the document. You
can make your table having the desired number of rows and columns.
2. Click the square representing the lower-right corner of your table, which will create an actual table in your
document and Word goes in the table design mode. The table design mode has many options to work with
as shown below.
3. This is an optional step that can be worked out if you want to have a fancy table. Click the Table Styles
button to display a gallery of table styles. When you move your mouse over any of the styles, it shows real
time preview of your actual table.
4. To select any of the styles, just click the built-in table style and you will see that the selected style has been
applied on your table.
Delete a Table
Following are the simple steps to delete an existing table from a word document.
1. Click anywhere in the table you want to delete.
2. Click the Layout tab, and click the Delete Table option under the Delete Table Button to delete the
complete table from the document along with its content.
Add a Row
Following are the simple steps to add rows in a table of a word document.
1. Click a row where you want to add an additional row and then click the Layout tab; it will show the
following screen.
2. Now use the Row & Column group of buttons to add any row below or above to the selected row. If you
click the Insert Below button, it will add a row just below the selected row as follows. you click the Insert
Above button, it will add a row just above the selected row.
Delete a Row
The following steps will help you delete rows from a table of a Word document.
1. Click a row which you want to delete from the table and then click the Layout tab; it will show the
following screen.
2. Click the Layout tab, and then click the Delete Rows option under the Delete Table Button to delete the
selected row.
Add a Column
The following steps will help you add columns in a table of a Word document.
1. Click a column where you want to add an additional column and then click the Layout tab; it will show the
following screen.
2. Now use the Row & Column group of buttons to add any column to the left or right of the selected column.
If you click the Insert Left button, it will add a column just left to the selected column as follows.
If you click the Insert Right button, it will add a column just next to the selected column.
Delete a Column
Following are the simple steps to delete columns from a table of a word document.
1. Click a column which you want to delete from the table and then click the Layout tab; it will show the
following screen.
2. Click the Layout tab, and click the Delete Column option under the Delete Table Button to delete the
selected column.
Move a Table
The following steps will help you move a table within the same Word document.
1. Bring your mouse pointer over the table which you want to move from one location to another location. As
soon as you bring your mouse pointer inside the table, a small Cross Icon will appear at the top-left corner
of the table as shown below.
2. Click over the small Cross Icon which will select the whole table. Once the table is selected, use
the Cut button or simply press the Ctrl + X keys to cut the table from its original location.
3. Bring your insertion point at the location where you want to move the table and use Paste button or simply
press Ctrl + V keys to paste the table at the new location.
Resize a Table
The following steps will help you resize a table available in a Word document.
1. Bring your mouse pointer over the table which you want to resize. As soon as you bring your mouse
pointer inside the table, a small Cross Icon will appear at the top-left corner and a small Resize Icon will
appear at the bottom-right corner of the table as shown below.
2. Bring the mouse pointer over the Resize Icon till it changes to a diagonal doublesided arrow and this is the
time when you need to press the left mouse button and keep holding the button while resizing the table.
Drag the table up to make it shorter or down to make it larger. You can drag the table diagonally to
simultaneously change both the width and the height of the table.
Merging Cells
The following steps will help you merge table cells in a Word document.
1. Bring your mouse pointer position inside the first cell that you want to merge. Now press the Shift key and
click the cells around the cell which you want to merge into the first cell. This will highlight the cells
which you click and they will be ready to be merged.
2. Now click the Layout tab and then click the Merge Cells button which will merge all the selected cells.
After merging the cells, all the content of the cells will be scrambled which you can fix later as you like. For
example, you can convert the merged cells text into title or some other description. For example, let us have
center-aligned and bigger font text as follows on top of the table.
Split a Table
Following are the simple steps to split a table into two tables in a Word document.
1. Bring your mouse pointer position anywhere in the row that should appear as the first row of the new table.
2. Now click the Layout tab and then click the Split Table button which will split the table into two tables and
the selected row will become the first row of the lower table.
After splitting the table into two tables, you can further divide it into two parts and you can continue dividing
the Word tables as long as a table has more than one row.
Split a Cell
The following steps will help you split a cell into two sub-cells of a table available in word document.
1. Bring your mouse pointer position inside the cell that has to be divided into multiple cells.
2. Now click the Layout tab and then click the Split Cells button; this will display a dialog box asking for the
number of rows and columns to be created from the selected cell.
3. Select the desired number of rows and columns that have to go into the resultant cell and finally click
the OK button to apply the result. ou can divide a cell into multiple cells either row-wise or column-wise or
both.
Add a Formula
Following are the simple steps to add formula in a table cell available in Word document.
1. Consider the following table with the total number of rows. Click in a cell that should contain the sum of
the rows.
2. Now click the Layout tab and then click the Formula button; this will display a Formula Dialog Box which
will suggest a default formula, which is =SUM(LEFT) in our case. You can select a number format
using Number Format List Box to display the result or you can change the formula using the Formula List
Box.
3. Now click OK to apply the formula and you will see that the left cells have been added and the sum has
been put in the total cell where we wanted to have it. You can repeat the procedure to have the sum of other
two rows as well.
Cell Formulae
The Formula dialog box provides the following important functions to be used as formula in a cell.
1. AVERAGE( ): The average of a list of cells
2. COUNT( ): The number of items in a list of cells
3. MAX( ): The largest value in a list of cells
4. MIN( ): The smallest value in a list of cells
5. PRODUCT( ): The multiplication of a list of cells
6. SUM( ): The sum of a list of cells
Add Borders to Table
The following steps will help you add borders in a table cell available in Word document.
1. Select the table to which you want to add border. To select a table, click over the table anywhere which
will make the Cross icon visible at the top-left corner of the table. Click this cross icon to select the table.
2. Click the Border button to display a list of options to put a border around the selected table. You can select
any of the option available by simply clicking over it.
3. Try to add and remove different borders like left, right, top or bottom by selecting different options from
the border options.
4. You can apply border to any of the selected row or column. You can try it yourself.
5. To delete the existing border, simply select the No Border option from the border options.
Using Border Options
You can add borders of your choice to word table by following the simple steps given below.
1. Click the Border button to display a list of options to put a border. Select the Border and Shading option
and Shading dialog box. This dialog box can be used to set borders and shading around a selected table.
2. Click the Border tab; this will display a list of border settings, styles and options whether this border should
be applied to the table or text or paragraph.
3. You can use the Preview section to disable or enable left, right, top or bottom borders of the selected table
or row or column. Follow the given instructions in the preview section itself to design the border you like.
4. You can customize your border by setting its color, width by using different width thickness available
under the style section.
Add Shades to Table
The following steps will help you add shades on a selected table or its rows or columns.
1. Select a row or column where you want to apply a shade of your choice.
2. Click the Border button to display a list of options to put a border. Select the Border and Shading option
available at the bottom of the list of options. This will display a Border and Shading dialog box. This
dialog box can be used to set borders and shading around selected row(s) or column(s).
3. Click the Shading tab which will display options to select fill, color and style and whether this border
should be applied to cell or table or selected portion of text.
4. You can use the Preview section to have an idea about the expected result. Once you are done, click
the OK button to apply the result.
Printing Document
Preview Documents
The following steps will help you preview your Microsoft Word Document.
1. Open the document the preview of which you want to see.
2. Click the File tab followed by the Print option; this will display a preview of the document in the right
column. You can scroll up or scroll down your document to walk through the document using the
given Scrollbar. In the next chapter, we will learn how to print the previewed document and how to set
different printing options..
3. Once you are done with your preview, you can click the Home tab to go to the actual content of the
document.
Printing Documents
The following steps will help you print your Microsoft Word document.
1. Open the document for which you want to see the preview. Next click the Filetab followed by
the Print option which will display a preview of the document in the right column. You can scroll up or
scroll down your document to walk through the document using given Scrollbar. The middle column gives
various options to be set before you send your document to the printer.
2. You can set various other printing options available. Select from among the following options, depending
on your preferences. Option and Description
a. Copies: Set the number of copies to be printed; by default, you will have one copy of the document.
b. Print Custom Range: This option will be used to print a particular page of the document. Type the
number in Pages option, if you want to print all the pages from 7 till 10 then you would have to
specify this option as 7-10 and Word will print only 7th, 8th, 9thand 10th pages.
c. Print One Sided: By default, you print one side of the page. There is one more option where you
will turn up your page manually in case you want to print your page on both sides of the page.
d. Collated: By default, multiple copies will print Collated; if you are printing multiple copies and you
want the copies uncollected, select the uncollected option.
e. Orientation: By default, page orientation is set to Portrait; if you are printing your document in
landscape mode then selects the Landscape mode.
f. A4: By default, the page size is A4, but you can select other page sizes available in the dropdown
list.
g. Custom Margin: Click the Custom Margins dropdown list to choose the document margins you
want to use. For instance, if you want to print fewer pages, you can create narrower margins; to
print with more white space, create wider margins.
h. 1 Page per Sheet: By default, the number of pages per sheet is 1 but you can print multiple pages on
a single sheet. Select any option you like from the given dropdown list by clicking over the 1 Page
per Sheet option.
3. Once you are done with your setting, click on the Print button which will send your document to the printer
for final printing.
Using Spread Sheets (MS Excel / LibreOffice Calc) Basic operations of Spreadsheets;
Manipulation of cells; Formulas and Functions; Editing of Spread Sheet, printing of Spread
Sheet;
Introduction
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet developed by Microsoft for Windows, macOS, Android and iOS. It features
calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a macro programming language called Visual Basic for
Applications. It has been a very widely applied spreadsheet for these platforms, especially since version 5 in
1993, and it has replaced Lotus 1-2-3 as the industry standard for spreadsheets. Excel forms part of
the Microsoft Office suite of software.
File extensions
Microsoft Excel 2007, along with the other products in the Microsoft Office 2007 suite, introduced new file
formats. The first of these (.xlsx) is defined in the Office Open XML (OOXML) specification.
Excel 2010 formats
Format Extension Description
The default Excel 2007 and later workbook format. In reality a Zip compressed
archive with a directory structure of XML text documents. Functions as the
Excel Workbook .xlsx
primary replacement for the former binary .xls format, although it does not
support Excel macros for security reasons.
Excel Macro-
enabled .xlsm As Excel Workbook, but with macro support.
Workbook
As Excel Macro-enabled Workbook, but storing information in binary form
Excel Binary rather than XML documents for opening and saving documents more quickly
.xlsb
Workbook and efficiently. Intended especially for very large documents with tens of
thousands of rows, and/or several hundreds of columns.
Excel Macro- A template document that forms a basis for actual workbooks, with macro
.xltm
enabled Template support. The replacement for the old .xlt format.
Excel Excel add-in to add extra functionality and tools. Inherent macro support because of the file
.xlam
Add-in purpose.
Explore Window
The following basic window appears when you start the excel application. Let us now understand the various
important parts of this window.
File Tab
The File tab replaces the Office button from Excel 2007. You can click it to check the Backstage view, where
you come when you need to open or save files, create new sheets, print a sheet, and do other file-related
operations.
Quick Access Toolbar
You will find this toolbar just above the File tab and its purpose is to provide a convenient resting place for the
Excel's most frequently used commands. You can customize this toolbar based on your comfort.
Ribbon
Ribbon contains commands organized in three components −

1. Tabs: They appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related commands. Home, Insert,
Page Layout is the examples of ribbon tabs.
2. Groups: They organize related commands; each group name appears below the group on the Ribbon.
For example, group of commands related to fonts or group of commands related to alignment etc.
3. Commands: Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.
Title Bar: This lies in the middle and at the top of the window. Title bar shows the program and the sheet titles.
Help: The Help Icon can be used to get excel related help anytime you like. This provides nice tutorial on
various subjects related to excel.
Zoom Control: Zoom control lets you zoom in for a closer look at your text. The zoom control consists of a
slider that you can slide left or right to zoom in or out. The + buttons can be clicked to increase or decrease the
zoom factor.
View Buttons: The group of three buttons located to the left of the Zoom control, near the bottom of the screen,
lets you switch among excel's various sheet views.
1. Normal Layout view: This displays the page in normal view.
2. Page Layout view: This displays pages exactly as they will appear when printed. This gives a full screen
look of the document.
3. Page Break view: This shows a preview of where pages will break when printed.
Sheet Area: The area where you enter data. The flashing vertical bar is called the insertion point and it
represents the location where text will appear when you type.
Row Bar: Rows are numbered from 1 onwards and keeps on increasing as you keep entering data. Maximum
limit is 1,048,576 rows.
Column Bar: Columns are numbered from A onwards and keeps on increasing as you keep entering data. After
Z, it will start the series of AA, AB and so on. Maximum limit is 16,384 columns.
Status Bar: This displays the sheet information as well as the insertion point location. From left to right, this bar
can contain the total number of pages and words in the document, language etc. You can configure the status
bar by right-clicking anywhere on it and by selecting or deselecting options from the provided list.
Dialog Box Launcher
This appears as a very small arrow in the lower-right corner of many groups on the Ribbon. Clicking this
button opens a dialog box or task pane that provides more options about the group.
Saving New Sheet

Once you are done with typing in your new excel sheet, it is time to save your sheet/workbook to avoid losing
work you have done on an Excel sheet. Following are the steps to save an edited excel sheet −
1. Click the File tab and select Save As option.
2. Select a folder where you would like to save the sheet, Enter file name, which you want to give to your
sheet and Select a Save as type, by default it is .xlsx format.
3. Finally, click on save button and your sheet will be saved with the entered name in the selected folder.
Saving New Changes
There may be a situation when you open an existing sheet and edit it partially or completely, or even you would
like to save the changes in between editing of the sheet. If you want to save this sheet with the same name, then
you can use either of the following simple options.
1. Just press Ctrl + S keys to save the changes.
2. Optionally, you can click on the floppy icon available at the top left corner and just above the File tab.
This option will also save the changes.
3. You can also use third method to save the changes, which is the Save option available just above
the Save As option as shown in the above screen capture.
Creating New Worksheet
Three new blank sheets always open when you start Microsoft Excel. Below steps explain you how to create a
new worksheet if you want to start another new worksheet while you are working on a worksheet, or you
closed an already opened worksheet and want to start a new worksheet.
1. Right Click the Sheet Name and select Insert option.
2. Now you'll see the Insert dialog with select Worksheet option as selected from the general tab. Click
the Ok button.
You can use a short cut to create a blank sheet anytime. Try using the Shift+F11 keys and you will see a new
blank sheet similar to the above sheet is opened.
Copy Worksheet
Here are the steps to copy an entire worksheet.
1. Right Click the Sheet Name and select the Move or Copy option.
2. Now you'll see the Move or Copy dialog with select Worksheet option as selected from the general tab.
Click the Ok button.
Select Create a Copy Checkbox to create a copy of the current sheet and Before sheet option as (move to
end) so that new sheet gets created at the end. Press the Ok Button.
Hiding Worksheet
Here is the step to hide a worksheet.
1. Right Click the Sheet Name and select the Hide option. Sheet will get hidden.
Un-hiding Worksheet
Here are the steps to unhide a worksheet.
2. Right Click on any Sheet Name and select the Unhide... option.
3. Select Sheet Name to unhide in Unhide dialog to unhide the sheet.
Press the Ok Button. Now you will have your hidden sheet back.
Delete Worksheet
Here is the step to delete a worksheet.
1. Right Click the Sheet Name and select the Delete option.
Sheet will get deleted if it is empty, otherwise you'll see a confirmation message. Press the Delete Button. Now
your worksheet will get deleted.
Close Workbook
Here are the steps to close a workbook.
1. Click the Close Button as shown below. You'll see a confirmation message to save the workbook.
2. Press the Save Button to save the workbook. Now your worksheet will get closed.
Open workbook
Let us see how to open workbook from excel in the below mentioned steps.
1. Click the File Menu as shown below. You can see the Open option in File Menu. There are two more
columns recent workbooks and recent places, where you can see the recently opened workbooks and the
recent places from where workbooks are opened.
2. Clicking the Open Option will open the browse dialog as shown below. Browse the directory and find
the file you need to open.
3. Once you select the workbook the workbook is open.
Editing Worksheet
Inserting Data
For inserting data in MS Excel, just activate the cell type text or number and press enter or Navigation keys.
Inserting Formula
For inserting formula in MS Excel go to the formula bar, enter the formula and then press enter or navigation
key. See the screen-shot below to understand it.
Modifying Cell Content
For modifying the cell content just activate the cell, enter a new value and then press enter or navigation key to
see the changes. See the screen-shot below to understand it.
Select with Mouse
Drag the mouse over the data you want to select. It will select those cells as shown below.
Select with Special
If you want to select specific region, select any cell in that region. Pressing F5 will show the below dialogue
box. Click on Special button to see the below dialogue box. Select current region from the radio buttons. Click
on ok to see the current region selected.As you can see in the below screen, the data is selected for the current
region.
Delete with Mouse
Select the data you want to delete. Right Click on the sheet. Select the delete option, to delete the data.
Delete with Delete Key
Select the data you want to delete. Press on the Delete Button from the keyboard, it will delete the data.
Selective Delete for Rows
Select the rows, which you want to delete with Mouse click + Control Key. Then right click to show the
various options. Select the Delete option to delete the selected rows.
Move data
Let us see how we can Move Data with MS Excel.
1. Step 1 − Select the data you want to Move. Right Click and Select the cut option.
2. Step 2 − Select the first cell where you want to move the data. Right click on it and paste the data. You
can see the data is moved now.
Row and Column Basics
MS Excel is in tabular format consisting of rows and columns.
1. Row runs horizontally while Column runs vertically.
2. Each row is identified by row number, which runs vertically at the left side of the sheet.
3. Each column is identified by column header, which runs horizontally at the top of the sheet.
For MS Excel 2010, Row numbers ranges from 1 to 1048576; in total 1048576 rows, and Columns ranges
from A to XFD; in total 16384 columns.
Navigation with Rows and Columns
Let us see how to move to the last row or the last column.
1. You can go to the last row by clicking Control + Down Navigation arrow.
2. You can go to the last column by clicking Control + Right Navigation arrow.
Cell Introduction
The intersection of rows and columns is called cell. Cell is identified with Combination of column header and
row number. For example − A1, A2.
Copy Paste
1. To copy and paste, just select the cells you want to copy. Choose copy optionafter right click or
press Control + C.
2. Select the cell where you need to paste this copied content. Right click and select paste option or
press Control + V.
3. In this case, MS Excel will copy everything such as values, formulas, Formats, Comments and
validation. MS Excel will overwrite the content with paste. If you want to undo this, press Control +
Z from the keyboard.
4. Copy Paste using Office Clipboard
5. When you copy data in MS Excel, it puts the copied content in Windows and Office Clipboard. You can
view the clipboard content by Home → Clipboard. View the clipboard content. Select the cell where
you need to paste. Click on paste, to paste the content.
Copy Paste in Special way
You may not want to copy everything in some cases. For example, you want to copy only Values or you want
to copy only the formatting of cells. Select the paste special option as shown below. Below are the various
options available in paste special.
1. All − Pastes the cell’s contents, formats, and data validation from the Windows Clipboard.
2. Formulas − Pastes formulas, but not formatting.
3. Values − Pastes only values not the formulas.
4. Formats − Pastes only the formatting of the source range.
5. Comments − Pastes the comments with the respective cells.
6. Validation − Pastes validation applied in the cells.
7. All using source theme − Pastes formulas, and all formatting.
8. All except borders − Pastes everything except borders that appear in the source range.
9. Column Width − Pastes formulas, and also duplicates the column width of the copied cells.
10. Formulas & Number Formats − Pastes formulas and number formatting only.
11. Values & Number Formats − Pastes the results of formulas, plus the number.
12. Merge Conditional Formatting − This icon is displayed only when the copied cells contain conditional
formatting. When clicked, it merges the copied conditional formatting with any conditional formatting
in the destination range.
13. Transpose − Changes the orientation of the copied range. Rows become columns, and columns become
rows. Any formulas in the copied range are adjusted so that they work properly when transposed.
Find and Replace Dialogue
Let us see how to access the Find & Replace Dialogue. To access the Find & Replace, Choose Home → Find
& Select → Find or press Control + F Key. You can replace the found text with the new text in the Replace
tab.
Exploring Options
Now, let us see the various options available under the Find dialogue.
1. Within − Specifying the search should be in Sheet or workbook.
2. Search By − Specifying the internal search method by rows or by columns.
3. Look In − If you want to find text in formula as well, then select this option.
4. Match Case − If you want to match the case like lower case or upper case of words, then check this
option.
5. Match Entire Cell Content − If you want the exact match of the word with cell, then check this option.
Spell Check Basis
Let us see how to access the spell check.
1. To access the spell checker, Choose Review ➪ Spelling or press F7.
2. To check the spelling in just a particular range, select the range before you activate the spell checker.
3. If the spell checker finds any words it does not recognize as correct, it displays the Spelling
dialogue with suggested options.
Exploring Options
Let us see the various options available in spell check dialogue.
1. Ignore Once − Ignores the word and continues the spell check.
2. Ignore All − Ignores the word and all subsequent occurrences of it.
3. Add to Dictionary − Adds the word to the dictionary.
4. Change − Changes the word to the selected word in the Suggestions list.
5. Change All − Changes the word to the selected word in the Suggestions list and changes all subsequent
occurrences of it without asking.
6. AutoCorrect − Adds the misspelled word and its correct spelling (which you select from the list) to the
AutoCorrect list.
Zoom Slider
By default, everything on screen is displayed at 100% in MS Excel. You can change the zoom percentage from
10% (tiny) to 400% (huge). Zooming doesn’t change the font size, so it has no effect on the printed output.
You can view the zoom slider at the right bottom of the workbook.
Zoom In
You can zoom in the workbook by moving the slider to the right. It will change the only view of the workbook.
You can have maximum of 400% zoom in.
Zoom Out
You can zoom out the workbook by moving the slider to the left. It will change the only view of the workbook.
You can have maximum of 10% zoom in. .
Special Symbol
Using Symbols
Go to Insert » Symbols » Symbol to view available symbols. You can see many symbols available there like
Pi, alpha, beta, etc. Select the symbol you want to add and click insert to use the symbol.
Using Special Characters
Go to Insert » Symbols » Special Characters to view the available special characters. You can see many special
characters available there like Copyright, Registered etc. Select the special character you want to add and click
insert, to use the special character.
Adding Comment to Cell
Adding comment to cell helps in understanding the purpose of cell, what input it should have, etc. It helps in
proper documentation. To add comment to a cell, select the cell and perform any of the actions mentioned
below.
1. Choose Review » Comments » New Comment.
2. Right-click the cell and choose Insert Comment from available options.
3. Press Shift+F2.
Initially, a comment consists of Computer's user name. You have to modify it with text for the cell comment.
Modifying Comment
You can modify the comment you have entered before as mentioned below.
1. Select the cell on which the comment appears.
2. Right-click the cell and choose the Edit Comment from the available options.
3. Modify the comment.
Formatting Comment
Various formatting options are available for comments. For formatting a comment, Right click on cell » Edit
comment » Select comment » Right click on it » Format comment. With formatting of comment you can
change the color, font, size, etc of the comment.
Text Boxes
Text boxes are special graphic objects that combine the text with a rectangular graphic object. Text boxes and
cell comments are similar in displaying the text in rectangular box. But text boxes are always visible, while cell
comments become visible after selecting the cell.
Adding Text Boxes
To add a text box, perform the below actions.
 Choose Insert » Text Box » choose text box or draw it.
Initially, the comment consists of Computer's user name. You have to modify it with text for the cell comment.
Formatting Text Box
After you have added the text box, you can format it by changing the font, font size, font style, and alignment,
etc. Let us see some of the important options of formatting a text box.
1. Fill − Specifies the filling of text box like No fill, solid fill. Also specifying the transparency of text box
fill.
2. Line Color − Specifies the line color and transparency of the line.
3. Line Style − Specifies the line style and width.
4. Size − Specifies the size of the text box.
5. Properties − Specifies some properties of the text box.
6. Text Box − Specifies text box layout, Auto-fit option and internal margins.
Undo Changes
You can reverse almost every action in Excel by using the Undo command. We can undo changes in following
two ways.
1. From the Quick access tool-bar » Click Undo.
2. Press Control + Z.
You can reverse the effects of the past 100 actions that you performed by executing Undo more than once. If
you click the arrow on the right side of the Undo button, you see a list of the actions that you can reverse. Click
an item in that list to undo that action and all the subsequent actions you performed.
Redo Changes
You can again reverse back the action done with undo in Excel by using the Redo command. We can redo
changes in following two ways.
1. From the Quick access tool-bar » Click Redo.
2. Press Control + Y.
Formatting Cell
MS Excel Cell can hold different types of data like Numbers, Currency, Dates, etc. You can set the cell type in
various ways as shown below −
1. Right Click on the cell » Format cells » Number.
2. Click on the Ribbon from the ribbon.
Various Cell Formats: Below are the various cell formats.
1. General − this is the default cell format of Cell.
2. Number − this displays cell as number with separator.
3. Currency − this displays cell as currency i.e. with currency sign.
4. Accounting − Similar to Currency, used for accounting purpose.
5. Date − various date formats are available under this like 17-09-2013, 17th-Sep-2013, etc.
6. Time − Various Time formats are available under this, like 1.30PM, 13.30, etc.
7. Percentage − this displays cell as percentage with decimal places like 50.00%.
8. Fraction − this displays cell as fraction like 1/4, 1/2 etc.
9. Scientific − this displays cell as exponential like 5.6E+01.
10. Text − this displays cell as normal text.
11. Special − Special formats of cell like Zip code, Phone Number.
12. Custom − you can use custom format by using this.
Setting Font from Home
You can set the font of the selected text from Home » Font group » select the font. Setting Font From Format
Cell Dialogue
1. Right click on cell » Format cells » Font Tab
2. Press Control + 1 or Shift + Control + F
Text Decoration
Various options are available in Home tab of the ribbon as mentioned below.
1. Bold − It makes the text in bold by choosing Home » Font Group » Click B or Press Control + B.
2. Italic − It makes the text italic by choosing Home » Font Group » Click I or Press Control + I.
3. Underline − It makes the text to be underlined by choosing Home » Font Group » Click U or
Press Control + U.
4. Double Underline − It makes the text highlighted as double underlined by choose Home » Font Group »
Click arrow near U » Select Double Underline.
More Text Decoration Options
There are more options available for text decoration in Formatting cells » Font Tab » Effects cells as
mentioned below.
1. Strike-through − It strikes the text in the center vertically.
2. Super Script − It makes the content to appear as a super script.
3. Sub Script − It makes content to appear as a sub script.
Rotating Cell from Home Tab
Click on the orientation in the Home tab. Choose options available like Angle CounterClockwise, Angle
Clockwise, etc.
Rotating Cell from Formatting Cell
Right Click on the cell. Choose Format cells » Alignment » Set the degree for rotation.
Changing Background Color
By default the background color of the cell is white in MS Excel. You can change it as per your need
from Home tab » Font group » Background color.
Changing Foreground Color
By default, the foreground or text color is black in MS Excel. You can change it as per your need from Home
tab » Font group » Foreground color.
Also you can change the foreground color by selecting the cell Right click » Format cells » Font Tab » Color.
Change Alignment from Home Tab
You can change the Horizontal and vertical alignment of the cell. By default, Excel aligns numbers to the right
and text to the left. Click on the available option in the Alignment group in Home tab to change alignment.
Change Alignment from Format Cells
Right click on the cell and choose format cell. In format cells dialogue, choose Alignment Tab. Select the
available options from the Vertical alignment and Horizontal alignment options.
Exploring Alignment Options
1. Horizontal Alignment − you can set horizontal alignment to Left, Centre, Right, etc.
 Left − Aligns the cell contents to the left side of the cell.
 Center − Centers the cell contents in the cell.
 Right − Aligns the cell contents to the right side of the cell.
 Fill − Repeats the contents of the cell until the cell’s width is filled.
 Justify − Justifies the text to the left and right of the cell. This option is applicable only if the cell is
formatted as wrapped text and uses more than one line.
2. Vertical Alignment − you can set Vertical alignment to top, Middle, bottom, etc.
 Top Aligns the cell contents to the top of the cell.
 Center Centers the cell contents vertically in the cell.
 Bottom Aligns the cell contents to the bottom of the cell.
 Justify Justifies the text vertically in the cell; this option is applicable only if the cell is formatted as
wrapped text and uses more than one line.
Merge Cells
MS Excel enables you to merge two or more cells. When you merge cells, you don’t combine the contents of
the cells. Rather, you combine a group of cells into a single cell that occupies the same space.
You can merge cells by various ways as mentioned below.
1. Choose Merge & Center control on the Ribbon, which is simpler. To merge cells, select the cells that
you want to merge and then click the Merge & Center button.
2. Choose Alignment tab of the Format Cells dialogue box to merge the cells.
Additional Options
The Home » Alignment group » Merge & Center control contains a drop-down list with these additional
options −
1. Merge Across − When a multi-row range is selected, this command creates multiple merged cells —
one for each row.
2. Merge Cells − Merges the selected cells without applying the Center attribute.
3. Unmerge Cells − Unmerges the selected cells.
Wrap Text and Shrink to Fit
If the text is too wide to fit the column width but don’t want that text to spill over into adjacent cells, you can
use either the Wrap Text option or the Shrink to Fit option to accommodate that text.
Apply Borders
MS Excel enables you to apply borders to the cells. For applying border, select the range of cells Right Click »
Format cells » Border Tab » Select the Border Style.
Then you can apply border by Home Tab » Font group » Apply Borders.
Apply Shading
You can add shading to the cell from the Home tab » Font Group » Select the Color.
Formatting Cells
In MS Excel, you can apply formatting to the cell or range of cells by Right Click » Format cells » Select the
tab. various tabs are available as shown below. Alternative to Placing Background
1. Number − you can set the Format of the cell depending on the cell content. Find tutorial on this at MS
Excel - Setting Cell Type.
2. Alignment − you can set the alignment of text on this tab. Find tutorial on this at MS Excel - Text
Alignments.
3. Font − you can set the Font of text on this tab. Find tutorial on this at MS Excel - Setting Fonts.
4. Border − you can set border of cell with this tab. Find tutorial on this at MS Excel - Borders and
Shades.
5. Fill − you can set fill of cell with this tab. Find tutorial on this at MS Excel - Borders and Shades.
6. Protection − you can set cell protection option with this tab.
Formatting Worksheet
Sheet Options
MS Excel provides various sheet options for printing purpose like generally cell gridlines aren’t printed. If you
want your printout to include the gridlines, Choose Page Layout » Sheet Options group » Gridlines » Check
Print. Options in Sheet Options Dialogue
 Print Area − you can set the print area with this option.
 Print Titles − you can set titles to appear at the top for rows and at the left for columns.
 Print −
o Gridlines − Gridlines to appear while printing worksheet.
o Black & White − Select this check box to have your color printer print the chart in black and
white.
o Draft quality − Select this check box to print the chart using your printer’s draft-quality setting.
o Rows & Column Heading − Select this check box to have rows and column heading to print.
 Page Order −
o Down, then Over − It prints the down pages first and then the right pages.
o Over, then Down − It prints right pages first and then comes to print the down pages.
Margins
Margins are the unprinted areas along the sides, top, and bottom of a printed page. All printed pages in MS
Excel have the same margins. You can’t specify different margins for different pages. You can set margins by
various ways as explained below.
 Choose Page Layout » Page Setup » Margins drop-down list, you can select Normal, Wide, Narrow, or
the custom Setting.
 These options are also available when you choose File » Print.
If none of these settings does the job, choose Custom Margins to display the Margins tab of the Page Setup
dialog box.
Center on Page
By default, Excel aligns the printed page at the top and left margins. If you want the output to be centered
vertically or horizontally, select the appropriate check box in the Center on Page section of the Margins tab as
shown in the above screenshot.
Page Orientation
Page orientation refers to how output is printed on the page. If you change the orientation, the onscreen page
breaks adjust automatically to accommodate the new paper orientation.
Types of Page Orientation
 Portrait − Portrait to print tall pages (the default).
 Landscape − Landscape to print wide pages. Landscape orientation is useful when you have a wide
range that doesn’t fit on a vertically oriented page.
Changing Page Orientation
 Choose Page Layout » Page Setup » Orientation » Portrait or Landscape.
 Choose File » Print.
Header and Footer
A header is the information that appears at the top of each printed page and a footer is the information that
appears at the bottom of each printed page. By default, new workbooks do not have headers or footers.
Adding Header and Footer
 Choose Page Setup dialog box » Header or Footer tab.
You can choose the predefined header and footer or create your custom ones.
 &[Page] − Displays the page number.
 &[Pages] − Displays the total number of pages to be printed.
 &[Date] − Displays the current date.
 &[Time] − Displays the current time.
 &[Path]&[File] − Displays the workbook’s complete path and filename.
 &[File] − Displays the workbook name.
 &[Tab] − Displays the sheet’s name.
Other Header and Footer Options
When a header or footer is selected in Page Layout view, the Header & Footer » Design » Options group
contains controls that let you specify other options −
 Different First Page − Check this to specify a different header or footer for the first printed page.
 Different Odd & Even Pages − Check this to specify a different header or footer for odd and even
pages.
 Scale with Document − If checked, the font size in the header and footer will be sized. Accordingly if
the document is scaled when printed. This option is enabled, by default.
 Align with Page Margins − If checked, the left header and footer will be aligned with the left margin,
and the right header and footer will be aligned with the right margin. This option is enabled, by default.
Page Breaks
If you don’t want a row to print on a page by itself or you don't want a table header row to be the last line on a
page. MS Excel gives you precise control over page breaks.
MS Excel handles page breaks automatically, but sometimes you may want to force a page break either a
vertical or a horizontal one. so that the report prints the way you want. For example, if your worksheet consists
of several distinct sections, you may want to print each section on a separate sheet of paper.
Inserting Page Breaks
Insert Horizontal Page Break − For example, if you want row 14 to be the first row of a new page, select cell
A14. Then choose Page Layout » Page Setup Group » Breaks » Insert Page Break.
Insert vertical Page break − In this case, make sure to place the pointer in row 1. Choose Page Layout » Page
Setup » Breaks » Insert Page Break to create the page break.
Removing Page Breaks
 Remove a page break you’ve added − Move the cell pointer to the first row beneath the manual page
break and then choose Page Layout » Page Setup » Breaks » Remove Page Break.
 Remove all manual page breaks − Choose Page Layout » Page Setup » Breaks » Reset All Page Breaks.
Background Image
Unfortunately, you cannot have a background image on your printouts. You may have noticed the Page Layout
» Page Setup » Background command. This button displays a dialogue box that lets you select an image to
display as a background. Placing this control among the other print-related commands is very misleading.
Background images placed on a worksheet are never printed.
Alternative to Placing Background
 You can insert a Shape, WordArt, or a picture on your worksheet and then adjust its transparency. Then
copy the image to all printed pages.
 You can insert an object in a page header or footer.
Freezing Panes
If you set up a worksheet with row or column headings, these headings will not be visible when you scroll
down or to the right. MS Excel provides a handy solution to this problem with freezing panes. Freezing panes
keeps the headings visible while you’re scrolling through the worksheet.
Using Freeze Panes
Follow the steps mentioned below to freeze panes.
 Select the First row or First Column or the row Below, which you want to freeze, or Column right to
area, which you want to freeze.
 Choose View Tab » Freeze Panes.
 Select the suitable option −
o Freeze Panes − To freeze area of cells.
o Freeze Top Row − To freeze first row of worksheet.
o Freeze First Column − To freeze first Column of worksheet.
 If you have selected Freeze top row you can see the first row appears at the top, after scrolling also. See
the below screen-shot.
Unfreeze Panes
To unfreeze Panes, choose View Tab » Unfreeze Panes.
Conditional Formatting
MS Excel 2010 Conditional Formatting feature enables you to format a range of values so that the values
outside certain limits, are automatically formatted.
Choose Home Tab » Style group » Conditional Formatting dropdown.
Various Conditional Formatting Options
 Highlight Cells Rules − It opens a continuation menu with various options for defining the formatting
rules that highlight the cells in the cell selection that contain certain values, text, or dates, or that have
values greater or less than a particular value, or that fall within a certain ranges of values.
Suppose you want to find cell with Amount 0 and Mark them as red. Choose Range of cell » Home Tab »
Conditional Formatting DropDown » Highlight Cell Rules » Equal To.
After Clicking ok, the cells with value zero are marked as red.
 Top/Bottom Rules − It opens a continuation menu with various options for defining the formatting rules
that highlight the top and bottom values, percentages, and above and below average values in the cell
selection.
Suppose you want to highlight the top 10% rows you can do this with these Top/Bottom rules.
 Data Bars − It opens a palette with different color data bars that you can apply to the cell selection to
indicate their values relative to each other by clicking the data bar thumbnail.
With this conditional Formatting data Bars will appear in each cell.
 Color Scales − It opens a palette with different three- and two-colored scales that you can apply to the
cell selection to indicate their values relative to each other by clicking the color scale thumbnail.
See the below screenshot with Color Scales, conditional formatting applied.
 Icon Sets − It opens a palette with different sets of icons that you can apply to the cell selection to
indicate their values relative to each other by clicking the icon set.
See the below screenshot with Icon Sets conditional formatting applied.
 New Rule − It opens the New Formatting Rule dialog box, where you define a custom conditional
formatting rule to apply to the cell selection.
 Clear Rules − It opens a continuation menu, where you can remove the conditional formatting rules for
the cell selection by clicking the Selected Cells option, for the entire worksheet by clicking the Entire
Sheet option, or for just the current data table by clicking the This Table option.
 Manage Rules − It opens the Conditional Formatting Rules Manager dialog box, where you edit and
delete particular rules as well as adjust their rule precedence by moving them up or down in the Rules
list box.
Working With Formula

Formulas in MS Excel
Formulas are the Bread and butter of worksheet. Without formula, worksheet will be just simple tabular
representation of data. A formula consists of special code, which is entered into a cell. It performs some
calculations and returns a result, which is displayed in the cell.
Formulas use a variety of operators and worksheet functions to work with values and text. The values and text
used in formulas can be located in other cells, which makes changing data easy and gives worksheets their
dynamic nature. For example, you can quickly change the data in a worksheet and formulas works.
Elements of Formulas
A formula can consist of any of these elements −
 Mathematical operators, such as +(for addition) and *(for multiplication)
Example −
o =A1+A2 Adds the values in cells A1 and A2.
 Values or text
Example −
o =200*0.5 Multiplies 200 times 0.15. This formula uses only values, and it always returns the
same result as 100.
 Cell references (including named cells and ranges)
Example −
o =A1=C12 Compares cell A1 with cell C12. If the cells are identical, the formula returns TRUE;
otherwise, it returns FALSE.
 Worksheet functions (such as SUMor AVERAGE)
Example −
o =SUM(A1:A12) Adds the values in the range A1:A12.
Creating Formula
For creating a formula you need to type in the Formula Bar. Formula begins with '=' sign. When building
formulas manually, you can either type in the cell addresses or you can point to them in the worksheet. Using
the Pointing method to supply the cell addresses for formulas is often easier and more powerful method of
formula building. When you are using built-in functions, you click the cell or drag through the cell range that
you want to use when defining the function’s arguments in the Function Arguments dialog box. See the below
screen shot.
As soon as you complete a formula entry, Excel calculates the result, which is then displayed inside the cell
within the worksheet (the contents of the formula, however, continue to be visible on the Formula bar anytime
the cell is active). If you make an error in the formula that prevents Excel from being able to calculate the
formula at all, Excel displays an Alert dialog box suggesting how to fix the problem. Copying Formulas in MS
Excel
Copying formulas is one of the most common tasks that you do in a typical spreadsheet that relies primarily on
formulas. When a formula uses cell references rather than constant values, Excel makes the task of copying an
original formula to every place that requires a similar formula.
Relative Cell Addresses
MS Excel does it automatically adjusting the cell references in the original formula to suit the position of the
copies that you make. It does this through a system known as relative cell addresses, where by the column
references in the cell address in the formula change to suit their new column position and the row references
change to suit their new row position.
Let us see this with the help of example. Suppose we want the sum of all the rows at last, then we will write a
formula for first column i.e. B. We want sum of the rows from 3 to 8 in the 9th row.
After writing formula in the 9th row, we can drag it to remaining columns and the formula gets copied. After
dragging we can see the formula in the remaining columns as below.
 column C : =SUM(C3:C8)
 column D : =SUM(D3:D8)
 column E : =SUM(E3:E8)
 column F : =SUM(F3:F8)
 column G : =SUM(G3:G8)
Cell References in Formulas
Most formulas you create include references to cells or ranges. These references enable your formulas to work
dynamically with the data contained in those cells or ranges. For example, if your formula refers to cell C2 and
you change the value contained in C2, the formula result reflects new value automatically. If you didn’t use
references in your formulas, you would need to edit the formulas themselves in order to change the values used
in the formulas.
When you use a cell (or range) reference in a formula, you can use three types of references − relative,
absolute, and mixed references.
Relative Cell References
The row and column references can change when you copy the formula to another cell because the references
are actually offsets from the current row and column. By default, Excel creates relative cell references in
formulas.
Absolute Cell References
The row and column references do not change when you copy the formula because the reference is to an actual
cell address. An absolute reference uses two dollar signs in its address: one for the column letter and one for
the row number (for example, $A$5).
Mixed Cell References
Both the row or column reference is relative and the other is absolute. Only one of the address parts is absolute
(for example, $A5 or A$5).
Functions in Formula
Many formulas you create use available worksheet functions. These functions enable you to greatly enhance
the power of your formulas and perform calculations that are difficult if you use only the operators. For
example, you can use the LOG or SIN function to calculate the Logarithm or Sin ratio. You can’t do this
complicated calculation by using the mathematical operators alone.
Using Functions
When you type = sign and then type any alphabet you will see the searched functions as below.
Suppose you need to determine the largest value in a range. A formula can’t tell you the answer without using a
function. We will use formula that uses the MAX function to return the largest value in the range B3:B8
as =MAX(A1:D100). Another example of functions. Suppose you want to find if the cell of month is greater
than 1900 then we can give Bonus to Sales representative. The we can achieve it with writing formula with IF
functions as =IF(B9>1900,"Yes","No")
Function Arguments
In the above examples, you may have noticed that all the functions used parentheses. The information inside
the parentheses is the list of arguments.
Functions vary in how they use arguments. Depending on what it has to do, a function may use.
 No arguments − Examples − Now(), Date(), etc.
 One argument − UPPER(), LOWER(), etc.
 A fixed number of arguments − IF(), MAX(), MIN(), AVERGAGE(), etc.
 Infinite number of arguments
 Optional arguments
Built In Functions
MS Excel has many built in functions, which we can use in our formula. To see all the functions by category,
choose Formulas Tab » Insert Function. Then Insert function Dialog appears from which we can choose the
function.
Functions by Categories
Let us see some of the built in functions in MS Excel.
 Text Functions
o LOWER − Converts all characters in a supplied text string to lower case
o UPPER − Converts all characters in a supplied text string to upper case
o TRIM − Removes duplicate spaces, and spaces at the start and end of a text string
o CONCATENATE − Joins together two or more text strings.
o LEFT − Returns a specified number of characters from the start of a supplied text string.
o MID − Returns a specified number of characters from the middle of a supplied text string
o RIGHT − Returns a specified number of characters from the end of a supplied text string.
o LEN − Returns the length of a supplied text string
o FIND − Returns the position of a supplied character or text string from within a supplied text
string (case-sensitive).
 Date & Time
o DATE − Returns a date, from a user-supplied year, month and day.
o TIME − Returns a time, from a user-supplied hour, minute and second.
o DATEVALUE − Converts a text string showing a date, to an integer that represents the date in
Excel's date-time code.
o TIMEVALUE − Converts a text string showing a time, to a decimal that represents the time in
Excel.
o NOW − Returns the current date & time.
o TODAY − Returns today's date.
 Statistical
o MAX − Returns the largest value from a list of supplied numbers.
o MIN − Returns the smallest value from a list of supplied numbers.
o AVERAGE − Returns the Average of a list of supplied numbers.
o COUNT − Returns the number of numerical values in a supplied set of cells or values.
o COUNTIF − Returns the number of cells (of a supplied range), that satisfies a given criteria.
o SUM − Returns the sum of a supplied list of numbers
 Logical
o AND − Tests a number of user-defined conditions and returns TRUE if ALL of the conditions
evaluate to TRUE, or FALSE otherwise
o OR − Tests a number of user-defined conditions and returns TRUE if ANY of the conditions
evaluate to TRUE, or FALSE otherwise.
o NOT − Returns a logical value that is the opposite of a user supplied logical value or expression
i.e. returns FALSE if the supplied argument is TRUE and returns TRUE if the supplied
argument is FAL
 Math & Trig
o ABS − Returns the absolute value (i.e. the modulus) of a supplied number.
o SIGN − Returns the sign (+1, -1 or 0) of a supplied number.
o SQRT − Returns the positive square root of a given number.
o MOD − Returns the remainder from a division between two supplied numbers.
Printing a Spread Sheet
You can print entire or partial worksheets and workbooks, one at a time, or several at once. And if the data that
you want to print is in a Microsoft Excel table, you can print just the Excel table.
You can also print a workbook to a file instead of to a printer. This is useful when you need to print the
workbook on a different type of printer from the one that you originally used to print it.
Before you print
Before you print anything in Excel, do remember that there are many options available for an optimal print
experience. For more information, see Printing in Excel.
Print one or several worksheets
1. Select the worksheets that you want to print.
2. Click File > Print, or press CTRL+P.\
3. Click the Print button or adjust Settings before you click the Print button.
Print one or several workbooks
All workbook files that you want to print must be in the same folder.
1. Click File > Open.
2. Hold down CTRL click the name of each workbook to print, and then click Print.
3. Print all or part of a worksheet
4. Click the worksheet, and then select the range of data that you want to print.
5. Click File, and then click Print.
6. Under Settings, click the arrow next to Print Active Sheets and select the appropriate option.
7. Click Print.
Print an Excel table
1. Click a cell within the table to enable the table.
2. Click File, and then click Print.
3. Under Settings, click the arrow next to Print Active Sheets and select Print Selected Table
4. Click Print.
Print a workbook to a file
1. Click File, and then click Print, or press Ctrl+P.
2. Under Printer, select Print to File.
3. Click Print.
In the Save Print Output As dialog box, enter a file name and then click OK. The file will be saved in
your Documents folder
Basics of presentation software (MS PowerPoint / LibreOffice Impress) Preparation and

Presentation of Slides; Slide Show; How to make an effective presentation: Working with
Presentation Tools (Create, Edit, Move, Delete, Resize, Format text object), Working with
Graphics tools (Creating Tables, Organization Charts, Hyperlinks), Saving, editing and closing
presentation; Taking printouts of presentation / handouts.
Introduction
Microsoft PowerPoint is a commercial presentation application written and distributed by Microsoft for
Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. The current versions at the time of writing this tutorial are 2010 for
Microsoft Windows and 2011 for Mac OS X. Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation tool that supports text,
shapes, graphics, pictures and multimedia along with integration with other Microsoft Office products like
Excel. By default, documents saved in PowerPoint 2010 are saved with the .pptx extension whereas; the file
extension of the prior PowerPoint versions is .ppt.
Explore Window
The following screenshot shows the various areas in a standard PowerPoint file. It is important to familiarize
yourself with these areas as it makes learning and using PowerPoint easier.
File Tab
This tab opens the backstage view which basically allows you to manage the file and settings in PowerPoint.
You can save presentations, open existing ones and create new presentations based on blank or predefined
templates. The other file related operations can also be executed from this view.
Ribbon
The ribbon contains three components −

1. Tabs: they appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related
commands. Home, Insert, Page Layout is examples of ribbon tabs.
2. Groups: They organize related commands; each group name appears below the group on the Ribbon. For
example, a group of commands related to fonts or a group of commands related to alignment, etc.
3. Commands: Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.
Title Bar: This is the top section of the window. It shows the name of the file followed by the name of the
program which in this case is Microsoft PowerPoint.
Slide Area: This is the area where the actual slide is created and edited. You can add, edit and delete text,
images, shapes and multimedia in this section.
Zoom Options: The zoom control lets you zoom in for a closer look at your text. The zoom control consists of
a slider that you can slide left or right to zoom in or out, you can click on the - and + buttons to increase or
decrease the zoom factor. The maximum zoom supported by PowerPoint is 400% and the 100% is indicated by
the mark in the middle.
Slide Views: The group of four buttons located to the left of the Zoom control, near the bottom of the screen,
lets you switch between PowerPoint views.
1. Normal Layout view: this displays page in normal view with the slide on the right and a list of
thumbnails to the left. This view allows you to edit individual slides and also rearrange them.
2. Slide Sorter view: this displays all the slides as a matrix. This view only allows you to rearrange the
slides but not edit the contents of each slide.
3. Reading View: this view is like a slideshow with access to the Windows task bar in case you need to
switch windows. However, like the slideshow you cannot edit anything in this view.
Notes Section: These notes will not be displayed on the screen during the presentation; these are just quick
reference for the presenter.
Quick Access Toolbar: The Quick Access Toolbar is located just under the ribbon. This toolbar offers a
convenient place to group the most commonly used commands in PowerPoint. You can customize this toolbar
to suit your needs.
Slide Tab: This section is available only in the Normal view. It displays all the slides in sequence. You
can add, delete and reorder slides from this section.
Create Presentation: PowerPoint offers a host of tools that will aid you in creating a presentation. These tools
are organized logically into various ribbons in PowerPoint. The table below describes the various commands
you can access from the different menus.
Menu Category Ribbon Commands
Home Clipboard functions, manipulating slides, fonts, paragraph settings,

drawing objects and editing functions.
Insert Insert tables, pictures, images, shapes, charts, special texts,

multimedia and symbols.
Design Slide setup, slide orientation, presentation themes and background.
Transitions Commands related to slide transitions.
Animations Commands related to animation within the individual slides.
Slide Show Commands related to slideshow set up and previews.
Review Proofing content, language selection, comments and comparing

presentations.
View Commands related to presentation views, Master slides, color settings

and window arrangements.
Besides these depending on the objects selected in the slide, there are other menu tabs that get enabled.
Add New Slide: Here are the steps that allow you to insert a new slide in the deck −
1. Right-click in the Navigation Pane under any existing slide and click on the New Slide option.
2. The new slide is inserted. You can now change the layout of this slide to suit your design requirements.
3. To change the slide layout, right-click on the newly inserted slide and go to the Layout option where you
can choose from the existing layout styles available to you.
You can follow the same steps to insert a new slide in between existing slides or at the end on the slide list.
When we insert a new slide, it inherits the layout of its previous slide with one exception. If you are inserting a
new slide after the first slide (Title slide), the subsequent slide will have the Title and Content layout. You will
also notice that if you right-click in the first step without selecting any slide the menu options you get are
different, although you can insert a new slide from this menu too.
Text Boxes
PowerPoint allows users to add text to the slide in a well-defined manner to ensure the content is well
distributed and easy to read. The procedure to add the text in a PowerPoint slide is always the same - just click
in the text box and start typing. The text will follow the default formatting set for the text box, although this
formatting can be changed later as required.
Title Box: This is typically found on slides with the title layout and in all the slides that have a title box in them.
This box is indicated by "Click to add title".
Subtitle Box: This is found only in slides with the Title layout. This is indicated by "Click to add subtitle"
Content Box: This is found in most of the slides that have a placeholder for adding content. This is indicated by
"Click to add text". As you can see, this box allows you to add text as well as non-text content. To add text to
such a box, click anywhere on the box, except on one of the content icons in the center and start typing.
Text Only Box: This is not a default content box available in PowerPoint, but you can create it using Slide
Master, if required. This is also indicated by "Click to add text". The only difference between the Text Only
Box and the Content Box is that the former only supports text in the content area.
Here are the steps to add new text boxes in slide.
1. Click on the Text Box icon in the Home ribbon under the Drawing section.
2. You will get the insert text box cursor that looks like an inverted cross.
3. Click to insert a text box. You can now start typing directly into the text box.
Deleting Slide
Deleting from Normal View
1. Go to the Normal view.
2. Right-click on the slide to be deleted and select the Delete Slide option.
Alternately, you can select the slide and press the Delete button on your key board.
Deleting from Slide Sorter View
Let us now understand how to deleted slides from the Slide Sorter View.
1. Go to the Slide Sorter view.
2. Right-click on the slide to be deleted and select the Delete Slide option.
Alternately, you can select the slide and press the Delete button on your key board.
Rearranging Slide
Normal View
1. Select the slide to be moved.
2. Left click on the slide and drag it to the position in the sequence where you want to place it. PowerPoint
will indicate the insert position with a line in-between existing slides.
3. When you get to the right position release the left click button to insert the slide. Alternately you can
also cut the selected slide and paste it back in the sequence as shown below.
Slide Sorter View: let us now understand how the Slide Sorter View works.
1. Select the slide to be moved.
2. Left click on the slide and drag it to the position in the sequence where you want to place it. PowerPoint
will indicate the insert position with a line in-between existing slides.
3. When you get to the right position release the left click button to insert the slide. Alternately you can
also cut the selected slide and paste it back in the sequence as shown below.
Slide Notes: How to add slide notes to an existing presentation.
1. To locate the slide notes, set the view in Normal mode.
2. The Slide Notes section is indicated by "Click to add notes".
3. You can click on the top border and drag the section to increase its size to make it easier to type.
4. Type your text in this section as slide notes.
You can only use bullets, numbering and alignment functions in the Slide Notes section. All other functions can
be selected, but can be applied only to the selected slide, not the notes.
Section
Creating Sections:
The steps to create a new section are as follows. You can execute these steps from the Normal view or the Slide
Sorter view.
1. In the Normal view or the Slide Sorter view, right-click at the position where you want to add the
section and select add section.
2. The new section gets added to the presentation with all the subsequent slides being included in this
section.
3. By default, the new section is named "Untitled Section" but you can change the section name. Right-
click on the section and select "Rename Section".
4. In the Rename Section dialog box, enter the new section name. This accepts all the characters including
alphabets, numbers, special characters, punctuations, etc.
Rearranging Sections: One of the advantages of sections is that you can not only group slides together, but
also rearrange them as one set. Instead of having to move each slide individually, you can move the entire
section. Just like rearranging slides you can drag and move the sections. Alternately, you can right-click on the
section and move it up or down as shown below.
If there are many slides to work with, you can collapse them so you view just the sections. This makes
rearranging them less confusing too.
Deleting Sections: PowerPoint 2010 provides three options to delete sections. The table below explains the
function of each option.
1. Delete Option & Description
2. Remove Section: Deletes the selected section and merges slides with the previous section.
3. Remove Section & Slide: Deletes the selected section and all the slides in the section.
4. Remove All Sections: Deletes all the sections and merges all the slides into a presentation without
sections.
Slides Tab
This tab shows all the slides stacked vertically in a sequential manner. You can select individual slides from this
tab and also perform some tasks like changing slide layouts, reordering slides, inserting new slides, deleting
slides, etc. Although you cannot edit the slide contents from this tab, you can select the slide and make edits
from the slide displayed to the right.
Outline Tab
This is the tab right next to the Slides tab and as the name suggests, this provides the outline for the slide. This
section just displays all the textual content from every slide - this can be very useful if there is a lot of non-text
content in the slide and reviewing just the written part gets difficult. Unlike in the slides tab, you can edit the
text from this section.
PowerPoint Views
PowerPoint views can be accessed from two locations. Views can be accessed quickly from the bottom bar just
to the left of the zoom settings. Views can also be accessed from the Presentation Views section in the View
ribbon Here is a short description of the various views and their features.
Normal View
This is the default view in PowerPoint and this is primarily used to create and edit slides. You can create/
delete/ edit/ rearrange slides, add/ remove/ modify content and manipulate sections from this view.
Slide Sorter View
This view is primarily used to sort slides and rearrange them. This view is also ideal to add or remove sections
as it presents the slides in a more compact manner making it easier to rearrange them.
Reading View
This view is new to PowerPoint 2010 and it was created mainly to review the slideshow without losing access
to rest of the Windows applications. Typically, when you run the slideshow, the presentation takes up the entire
screen so other applications cannot be accessed from the taskbar. In the reading view the taskbar is still
available while viewing the slideshow which is convenient. You cannot make any modifications when on this
view.
Slides Show
This is the traditional slideshow view available in all the earlier versions of PowerPoint. This view is used to
run the slideshow during presentation.
Background and themes
Given below are the steps to apply backgrounds in PowerPoint.
1. In the Design ribbon, under the Background group, click the Background Styles command.
2. Select one of the background styles that suits your requirements.
3. To edit the background for a specific slide, right-click on the desired background slide and select "Apply
to Selected Slides". Step 4 − Selected slide(s) now have the new background.
The graphics in the slide background can distract you from the actual content, in such cases you can hide the
graphics and retain a plain background till you finish working on the content. To do this, select the slide and
check the "Hide Background Graphics" checkbox.
Orientation
Like most other applications PowerPoint supports two orientations: landscape and portrait.
The Landscape layout is the default PowerPoint layout and it is probably the more commonly used one. In the
landscape layout, the longer edge is horizontal so the slides align better with the screens and projectors.
The Portrait layout is where the shorter edge is horizontal. This is sometimes better for print depending on the
kind of content you want to present.
Saving the presentation
The following are the basic steps to save a presentation.
1. Click on the File tab to launch the Backstage view and select Save.
2. In the Save As dialog, type in the file name and click "Save".
3. The default file format is .pptx. If you want to save the file with a different name, choose one of the file
types from the "Save as type" dropdown list.
If you are working on an already saved file, the "Save" option in the backstage view will directly save the file in
the existing format with the existing name. If you want to change the format or filename of an existing file, use
the Save As option instead.
Review presentation
All the reviewing tools are grouped under the Review ribbon.
Review Section Functions
Proofing Spellchecking − Identify spelling and grammar based on selected

language preference
Research − Reference language related research tools based on specific
reference books and research sites
Thesaurus − Provide synonyms for selected text
Language Translate − Provides translation services for selected words for

multilingual support
Language − Sets the default language for the presentation - this will be
used as default language for proofing
Comments Show Marking − Show/hide the user comments in the slide

New Comment − Add new comment against the selected content
Edit Comment − Edit an existing comment
Delete Comment − Delete a selected comment, all comments in the
selected slide or all the comments in the presentation
Previous / Next Comment − Move to previous / next comments
Compare Compare − Compare the current presentation with another presentation

and identify the differences
Accept/ Reject − Accept or reject the differences to be incorporated into
the current presentation
Previous/ Next − Move to the previous or the next difference in the
comparison.
End Review − End the review and discard any unapplied changes
Adding Slide Number
Here are two ways you can add slide numbers to your presentation and this chapter will show you both those
techniques.
1. Under the Insert ribbon, Text group click on Slide Number command.
2. The Header and Footer dialog opens up. Step 3 − Check the Slide number check box.
3. The Preview shows the section where the slide number will be placed.
Instead of clicking on the Slide Number command, you can also click on the Header & Footer menu item to
launch the same dialog as in Step 2.
Adding header and footer
Here are the steps to add header and footer information to slides
1. In the Insert ribbon, click on the Header & Footer menu item.
2. The Header and Footer dialog has two tabs — the Slide tab and the Notes and Handouts tab.
3. You can add details to the slide footer from the Slide tab.
4. You can add the details to the handouts from the Notes and Handouts tab.
S.No Slide Footer Options & Description
1 Date and time

Add date and time to the footer
Specify the format of the date and time entered
Set up the footer to update automatically or use a fixed number
2 Slide Number
Insert Slide number in the footer
3 Footer
Add designated text to the footer - a good example of this is the confidentiality
clause or copyright clause
4 Don't show on title slide

Decide on whether the footer information should be displayed on the title slide or
not
S.No Notes and Handouts Options & Description
1 Date and time

Add date and time to the footer
Specify the format of the date and time entered
Set up the footer to update automatically or use a fixed number
2 Header
Add the header information for every page on the handout
3 Page Number
Insert page number in the footer
4 Footer
Add designated text to the footer - a good example of this is the confidentiality
clause or copyright clause
When you check any of the header and footer checkboxes in either tabs, you can see the location where the
detail is inserted in the preview section.
Slide Show
Most PowerPoint presentations are created to be run as a slideshow. Given all the advanced features available in
PowerPoint 2010, it is no surprise that there are many features related to running the slideshow that have been
included in this program too. Features related to running the slideshow are grouped under the Slideshow ribbon.
Section Menu Item Description
Start Slideshow From Beginning Starts slideshow from beginning
From Current Slide Starts slideshow from the current slide
Allows users to broadcast the slideshows using

Broadcast Slideshow
Microsoft's PowerPoint Broadcast Service
Builds a custom slideshow by picking the

Custom Slideshow
slides you want to run
Set Up Helps set up the slideshow including browser/

full screen display, show options with or
Set Up Slideshow without narration/ animation, pen and laser
color during the slideshow and the slides to be
presented during the show
Helps mark/ unmark the slide as hidden, so it

Hide Slide is skipped or shown during the slideshow
respectively
Allows users to rehearse the timing on each

Rehearse Timing
slide and the entire slideshow
Records the slideshow including narration and

Record Slideshow
animation
Helps set or avoid the use of narrative audio

Slideshow Checkboxes and rehearsed timings during the show.
Display media controls in the slideshow view
Monitors Resolution Defines resolution in slideshow view
Picks the monitor to display the presentation

Show Presentation on
one - in case of multiple monitors
Run presentation in Presenter view rather than

Use Presenter View
just slideshow view
Editing Presentation
Find and Replacement: Finding Content
The following steps will show you how to find content in PowerPoint.
1. In the Home tab, under the Editing section click on Find.
2. Type the text you want to search in the "Find what:" field. Step 3 − You can narrow your search by
selecting "Match Case" - to find exact case match - and "Find whole words only" - to find whole words
and not words where typed word is just a part of the word.
3. Press on "Find Next" to find the next occurrence of the search word.
4. The Find dialog does not disappear after finding the first instance, so you can keep pressing "Find
Next" multiple times till you reach the end of the search. At this point, you will receive a message from
PowerPoint indicating the end of the search.
Replacing Content
Here are the steps to replace content in PowerPoint.
1. In the Home tab, under the Editing section click on the Replace button.
2. Type the text you want to replace in the "Find what:" field and the replaced text in "Replace with:" field
3. You can narrow your search by selecting "Match Case" - to find the exact case match - and "Find
whole words only" - to find the whole words and not words where typed word is just a part of the word.
4. Press on "Find Next" to find the next occurrence of the search word. PowerPoint will show you the
next occurrence and you can then click on "Replace" to replace the word. If you want to skip the
occurrence, you can press "Find Next" again without pressing "Replace"
5. The Replace dialog does not disappear after finding the first instance, so you can keep pressing "Find
Next" multiple times till you reach the end of the search. At this point, you will receive a message from
PowerPoint indicating the end of the search.
Formatting Presentation
One of the key elements of any good presentation is the text, hence managing the fonts in PowerPoint is
vital to designing an impressive slideshow. PowerPoint offers extensive font management features to cover
various aspects of fonts. The font management can be accessed from the Home ribbon in the Font group. You
can also access font management features by selecting a text box, right-clicking and selecting Font. This opens
up the Font dialog which contains all the font management features available under the font section in the
Home ribbon. The table below describes various font management features available in PowerPoint.
S. No Features & Description
1 Font Type: Defines the font type like Arial, Verdana, etc.
2 Font Size: Defines the font size. Besides, there are icons to increase and decrease
the font size in steps in the Font group.
3 Font Style: Defines font styles like Regular, Bold, Italics or Underlined.
4 Font Color: Specifies the font color.
5 Font Effects: Defines effects like shadow, strikethrough, subscript, superscript,

etc.
6 Character Spacing: Specifies character spacing like loose, tight, normal, etc.
Setting text font
PowerPoint offers a wide range of pre-built fonts to choose from. Depending on the purpose of the presentation
you may want to choose a more casual font or a formal one. This section will look at the steps to set the text
fonts.
1. The default font in PowerPoint 2010 is Calibri.
2. To change the text font, select that portion of text the font of which needs to be changed. If you select
the entire text box or shape, the changes will apply to all the text in the selection. If you select specific
text, the changes will apply to selection only.
3. In the Font group, under the Home ribbon, click on the font face dropdown.
4. Scroll through the list of font faces to pick the one that suits your needs. As you move your cursor over
the fonts, the selection will change accordingly to give you a preview.
Text Decoration
PowerPoint offers many text decoration features and adds to the aesthetic sense of a presentation. These
features can be accessed from the Home ribbon under the Font group. Given below are the various font
decoration features and their functions in PowerPoint.
1. Makes the font face bold
2. Makes the font face italics (slanted font)
3. Underlines the font face
4. Adds shadow to the font face
5. Strikes through the font face
6. Adjusts the character spacing for the font. Predefined settings are very tight, tight, normal, loose and
very loose. There is a user defined space setting available too.
Besides these, there are some other font decoration features that can be accessed from the Font dialog. To open
the Font dialog, right-click on the selected text and select Font. The table below describes the additional text
decoration features in the Font dialog.
1. Double Strikethrough: Adds two strike lines over the text
2. Superscript: Raises the text above the normal text. For example, the use of "nd" in 2nd
3. Subscript: Shrinks the below the normal text. For example, the '2' in H2O the chemical formula of
water
4. Small Caps: Changes the entire text to small caps
5. All Caps: Changes the entire text to capital letters
6. Equalize Character height: Adjusts the characters so that all are of the same height regardless of the
caps setting
Text Case
The following steps will help you change the text case.
1. Select the text the case of which you want to change.
2. Go to the Font group under the Home ribbon.
3. From the Change Case dropdown, select the case you want to use for your text.
4. Click on your choice to change case for the selected text.
Text Size
The following steps will help you change the text size.
1. Select the text the case of which you want to change.
3. From the Font Size dropdown, select the size you want to use for your text.
4. Click on your choice to change the font size for the selected portion of text.
5. If you want to change the font size in steps you can also use the Increase/ Decrease Font Size options.
Text Color
The following are the steps to change text color.
1. Select the text the color of which needs to be changed.
3. From the Font Color dropdown, select the color you want to use for your text.
4. Click on your choice to change the font color for the selected portion of text.
If you want to choose from a wider range of colors than what's shown in the dropdown you can click on "More
Colors…" Here you can pick from a standard color palette for a greater choice of predefined colors or create
your own from the custom color palette.
Text Alignment
PowerPoint offers various text alignment options to create visually appealing designs and organizing the
content better. The table below describes the various text alignment options available in PowerPoint.
1. Aligns the text to the left of the shape/ text box.
2. Aligns the text in the middle of the shape/ text box.
3. Aligns the text to the right of the shape/ text box.
4. Justifies the alignment by adjusting the character spacing so the final text looks aligned from both left
and right.
Specifies text direction: horizontal (default), stacked (vertical), rotated by 90 or 270 degrees. You can also
customize the text direction to other angles.
Vertically aligns the text; top, bottom or middle of the text box/ shape.
Alignment can be done on selected portion of text in text boxes, shapes and even SmartArt. The following
steps will help you align text.
1. Select the portion of text that needs to be aligned. If you select a specific portion of text, the alignment
settings will apply to that portion of text alone. If you select the entire shape/ text box, the settings will
apply for the entire selection.
2. Go to the Paragraph group under the Home ribbon.
3. Select one of the alignment options described above to change the text alignment. Note that the default
alignment for text is usually Left.
4. As long as the text is selected, you can change the text alignment multiple times.
Indent Paragraph
Relatively long paragraphs can get monotonous to read and this effect is accentuated in slides where the area is
smaller and the contents are usually projected. Paragraph indentations can help ease the strain on eyes and also
help present the content in a visually appealing way.
1. Select the text content to be indented. Unlike most other settings, indentation works at a paragraph
level, so regardless of what text you select the indent settings will apply to the entire paragraph.
However, if the text box has multiple paragraphs you can have different indentations for different
paragraphs.
3. Select one of the indentation options. You will notice that by default the text is set at the lowest
indentation level, so you will not be able to decrease it further. You must increase indentation the first
time you use it.
4. Once you have increased the indent, the decrease indent option is enabled.
Set line spacing
While dealing with a lot of textual content, especially during projected presentations, it is a good idea to space
the lines further apart to improve the readability of the overall content. PowerPoint offers line spacing options
to help you change the spacing between lines in the text. Like the indentation, these settings apply at a
paragraph level. Given below are the steps to set the line spacing in PowerPoint.
1. Select the text content to be spaced. You can either select the entire paragraph or just place the cursor
within the paragraph.
3. Select one of the line spacing options from the dropdown list to apply one of predefined spacing
options.
4. To customize the spacing, you can click on "Line Spacing Options…" This will launch
the Paragraph dialog.
5. The spacing section in the Paragraph dialog has two settings. The Before and After are the spacing for
paragraph as a whole, while Line Spacing is the spacing for lines within the paragraph itself.
Border and shades
Applying Borders
The following are the steps that will help you apply borders in your presentation.
1. Select the object (text box, image, chart, picture, etc.) to which you want to apply the border.
2. Go to the Drawing group under the Home ribbon.
3. Click on the Shape Outline to choose the border settings.
4. Use the color palette to choose the border color. You can choose More Outline Colors to get access to
additional color choices
5. Use the Weight dropdown to define the thickness of the border.
6. Use the Dashes option to define the border style.
Applying Shades
The following steps will help you apply shades to your presentation.
1. Select the object (text box, shape, chart, etc.) to which you want to apply the shades.
2. Go to the Drawing group under the Home ribbon.
3. Click on the Shape Fill to choose the shade settings.
4. Use the color palette to choose the shade color. You can choose More Outline Colors to get access to a
choice of colors.
5. Use the Picture to add a picture as the background rather than a color.
6. Use the Gradient option to add color gradient in the background. You can use the pre-defined gradients
or click on "More Gradients…" to customize the shading with gradient colors.
7. Use the Texture option to add a pre-defined texture instead of a color shade.
Apply formatting
One of the most powerful tools in Microsoft Office is the application of formatting feature. This feature
basically lets you define the right format once and apply the same to a series of objects in the rest of the
presentation or any other file. While working with large presentations or just working on slides for a long time,
if you ever need to make a change in the style and want it applied across multiple content this is the tool to use.
The following are the steps to apply formatting to your presentation −
1. Select the content you want to copy the formatting from.
2. Go to the Clipboard group under the Home ribbon.
3. Click on the Format Painter icon.
4. Select the content you want to format.
Here are some key aspects about the Format Painter −
1. If you click on the Format Painter icon just once, the formatting will be copied just once.
2. If you click on the Format Painter icon twice quickly, you can copy the formatting multiple times.
3. If you want to copy just the text formatting and not the paragraph features, ensure that you select just
the sample text and not the entire paragraph.
4. If you want to copy paragraph and font formatting, you must select the entire paragraph.
Using slide master
Slide master is simple way of applying changes to the entire slide. Every presentation has at least one slide
master, but you can have more than one. Using features like copy/ paste and format painting you can make
changes to different sections within the presentation to make them look similar, however, if you want to use a
theme and background throughout the slide, using the slide master is a simpler and more graceful way of
approaching it. Given below are the steps to customize your slide master.
1. Go to the Master Views group under the View ribbon.
2. Click on Slide Master to open the Slide Master Ribbon. The top most slide in the left sidebar is
the Master slide. All the slides within this master template will follow the settings you add on this
master slide.
3. You can make changes to the master slide in terms of the theme, design, font properties, position and
size of the title and other content using the remaining ribbons which are still accessible.
4. While PowerPoint provides some default slide layouts, you can create your own layouts by clicking on
the "Insert Layout" in the Edit Master section of the Slide Master ribbon.
5. You can add content placeholders to the slide layouts using the "Insert Placeholder" in the Master
Layout group under the Slide Master ribbon. Under the Placeholder dropdown, you can either create a
generic content placeholder or specify the kind of content you want in that placeholder.
6. You can apply different themes, background and page setup settings to all the slides from the master
slide
7. You can also customize individual slide layouts to be different from the master slide using the menu
options available with the layouts.
Save design template
One of the best features of PowerPoint is that you can create slide masters and then save them as templates to
be reused later. There are different aspects of a design which can be created and saved to ensure you can reuse
the hard work you spent on creating the first copy. Given below are the steps to save design templates.
1. Create a new design template from the Slide Master view. Depending on your needs, this template can
have different colors, images, logos or symbols included in the master slide and the layout templates.
2. Go to the Edit Theme group under the Slide Master ribbon.
3. Navigate to Edit Themes > Themes > Save Current Theme…
4. In the Save Current Theme dialog, enter the Theme name and click Save.
5. This template is now saved and available on your PowerPoint design template view to be applied to any
presentation.
Working with Multimedia

PowerPoint supports multiple content types including images or pictures. With regards to pictures PowerPoint
classifies them into two categories −
1. Picture − Images and photos that are available on your computer or hard drive
2. Clip Art − Online picture collection that you can search from the clip art sidebar
Although their sources are different, both these types can be added and edited in similar fashion. Given below
are the steps to add picture to a slide.
1. Go to the Images group in the Insert ribbon.
2. Click on Picture to open the Insert Picture dialog and add a picture to the slide.
3. In this dialog, you have three sections: to the left corner, you have folders that can be browsed, the
section in the center shows the subfolders and files in the selected folder and to the right, you can have a
preview of the selected image.
4. Select the image you want and click Open to add the picture to the slide.
5. To add online pictures, click on Clip Art and search for keywords in the Clip Art sidebar.
6. Once you have the clipart you want to use, double-click on the image to add it to the slide.
PowerPoint supports images or pictures as content and offers some standard image editing features. The
picture editing features in PowerPoint can be accessed from the Format ribbon once the picture is selected. The
editing features are grouped under the Adjust and Picture Styles section in the Format ribbon.
Image Adjustments: The following table describes various picture adjustment features available in
PowerPoint.
S.No Feature & Description
1 Remove Background: Automatically removes the unwanted sections in the image. This is similar to
the magic tool in some of the other photo editing programs. You can click on different regions on the
image to define the area to be removed.
2 Correction: Allows you to change the brightness and contrast on the image and also change the image
sharpness.
3 Color: Allows you to change the color on the image by changing the saturation or tone. You can also
make the image monochromatic based on different hues to match the theme of your presentation.
4 Artistic Effects: Adds artistic effects to the image like plastic wrap, glowing edges, etc.
5 Compress Picture: This can change the image resolution to manage the file size.
6 Change Picture: Replaces the current picture with a different one.
7 Reset Picture: Removes all the adjustments done on the image.

Picture Styles: The following table describes various picture style features available in PowerPoint.
1 Picture Border: Manages the picture border - color, weight and style.
2 Picture Effects: Adds effects to the picture like reflection, shadow, etc.
3 Convert to SmartArt Graphic: Transforms the picture into the selected SmartArt.
4 Quick Styles: Pre-defined styles with different picture borders and effects.
PowerPoint offers many image formatting features that can help shape the image to suit your needs. The
picture formatting features in PowerPoint can be accessed from the Format ribbon once the picture is selected.
The formatting features are grouped under the Arrange and Size section in the Format ribbon.
Picture Arrangement Features: The following table describes various picture arrangement features available in
PowerPoint.
1 Bring Forward: Moves the picture layer up. Bring Forward moves the picture up by one layer, Bring
to Front makes the picture layer the topmost
2 Send Backward: Moves the picture layer down. Send Backward moves the picture down by one layer,
Send to Back makes the picture layer the bottommost
3 Selection Pane: This opens up the Selection Pane sidebar where you get a better idea of the layers and
can work with arrangements better.
4 Align: Aligns the picture with various references in the slide.
5 Group: Allows multiple images to be grouped together to create on single object or ungroup them to
split them into individual pictures.
6 Rotate: Rotate picture by a specific angle.

Picture Sizing Features: The following table describes various picture sizing features available in PowerPoint.
1 Crop: Allows you to crop the image. The cropping can be freehand, based on aspect ratio or any of the
predefined shapes.
2 Shape Height/ Width: Used to change the height and width of the image. When you edit these
parameters from the ribbon, the aspect ratio is always maintained.
One of the interesting features about PowerPoint is that you can insert a screenshot of one of your
applications into your presentation without having to use any other program. Given below are the steps to
insert a screenshot.
1. Go to the Images group in the Insert Ribbon.
2. Click on the Screenshot dropdown to look at full screen snaps of all the applications running on your
computer’s desktop.
3. Select one of the screenshots to add it directly on to your presentation.
4. If you do not want the entire screen and just a portion of it, you can use the Screen Clipping option.
The Screen Clipping option will automatically move the focus to the program immediately below
PowerPoint. So while using this option, ensure that you have the right screen behind the PowerPoint program.
PowerPoint supports the addition of shapes in presentations. It also includes Shapes like basic geometric
shapes, flowchart components, arrows, callouts, lines and other predefined special shapes. These shapes also
double up as text boxes as they support adding text to them directly. Besides, you can also use these shape to
crop pictures to shape. Given below are the steps to add a shape in PowerPoint.
1. Go to the Illustrations group under the Insert Tab.
2. Click on the Shapes dropdown to view the available shapes.
3. Select the shape you want to insert. This will change the cursor to a + sign.
4. Click and drag on the slide to create the shape. As you drag, the shape will show up on the slide.
Continue to drag and adjust the size and the symmetry of the shape.
Just like images and pictures, PowerPoint also supports editing of shapes inserted in the presentation. The
shape editing features in PowerPoint can be accessed from the Format ribbon once the shape is selected. The
editing features are grouped under the Insert Shapes and the Shape Styles section in the Format ribbon.
Insert Shape Features: The table below describes various insert shape features available in PowerPoint.
1 Shape List: Adds another shape to the slide.
2 Edit Shape: Replaces the shape completely, or use the edit points to change the existing shape.
3 Text Box: Inserts a text box anywhere in the slide.

Shape Styles Features: The table below describes various shape style features available in PowerPoint.
1 Shape Fill: Selects the shape fill color and style. You can add a single solid color from the palette, or a
picture, gradient or texture.
2 Shape Outline: Selects the shape border color, thickness and style.
3 Shape Effects: Adds special effects to the shape like reflection, 3D rotation, bevel, shadow, etc.
4 Predefined Styles: These are a combination of the style features that can be applied to the shape with a
single click.
PowerPoint offers formatting features for shapes along the same lines as pictures. This consistency in
the features makes it easy for people to grasp the functionality and also makes PowerPoint very versatile. The
shape formatting features in PowerPoint can be accessed from the Format ribbon once the shape is selected.
The formatting features are grouped under the Arrange and Size section in the Format ribbon.
Shape Arrangement Features: The table given below describes the various shape arrangement features available
in PowerPoint.
1 Bring Forward: Moves the shape layer up. Bring Forward moves the shape up by one layer, Bring to
Front makes the shape layer the topmost.
2 Send Backward: Moves the shape layer down. Send Backward moves the shape down by one
layer, Send to Back makes the shape layer the bottommost.
3 Selection Pane: This opens up the Selection Pane sidebar where you get a better idea of the layers and
can work with arrangements better.
4 Align: Aligns the shape with various references in the slide.
5 Group: Allows multiple shapes to be grouped together to create on single object or ungroup them to
split them into individual shapes.
6 Rotate: Rotates shape by a specific angle.

Shape Sizing Features: The table given below describes various shape sizing features available in PowerPoint.
1 Shape Height/ Width: Used to change the height and width of the shape. When you
edit these parameters from the ribbon, the aspect ratio is always maintained
One of the great aspects of PowerPoint is that you can treat the shapes as text boxes too. This becomes
useful when you want to type some text within a shape and ensure the text does not overflow the boundaries of
the shape. By being able to enter text within the shape, PowerPoint will ensure the text stays contained and you
do not have to worry about fixing it. The following steps will help you add text to the shapes in PowerPoint.
1. Right-click on the shape to which you want to add the text and select the Edit Text option.
2. Start typing the text into the shape. Once you are done, click the cursor anywhere outside the shape.
An alternative way of adding text to shape is to select the shape and start typing directly. Once you have the
text within the shape you can format the text using the font related features available in PowerPoint.
PowerPoint supports multiple content types and invariably different contents coexist in a slide. While it is
ideal to have each content standout separately, there are times when you cannot do that or when overlapping of
content is desirable. In such cases, it is important that you can determine which content stays on top of which
one. PowerPoint has arrangement features to help achieve this goal. While working with arrangement features,
you must think of each content as a separate layer and that these layers are laid over one another. To arrange
the content, you must basically play with these layers.
The following steps will help you arrange content in a presentation slide.
1. Select one of the contents and go the Arrange group under the Format ribbon.
2. Click on the Selection Pane to open the Selection and Visibility sidebar.
3. Select one of the rows in the sidebar to highlight the corresponding content in the slide.
4. Use the reordering arrows in the sidebar to move the content layer up or down.
5. Click on the eye next to each content in the sidebar to toggle its visibility on the slide.
Instead of using the Selection Pane option, you can also right-click on the content to move it up or down.
When you right-click, besides moving the layers by one step at a time using Bring Forward or Send Backward,
you can also move the content directly to the top or bottom using Bring to Front or Send to Back respectively.
While working with PowerPoint, you might need to carry out a set of actions on a bunch of objects.
PowerPoint allows you to group objects within a slide and apply the same action on all the objects
simultaneously. This feature in PowerPoint is called grouping. The following steps will help you group and
ungroup objects −
1. Select a set of shapes or objects together. To select the objects, press the Ctrl-key and select each object
individually. If the objects are together, you can also click and drag the cursor to select them; however
with the click and drag everything that falls within the selected area will be selected.
2. Go to the Arrange Group under the Format ribbon.
3. Click on Group under the Group menu item - this will group the objects and shapes into a single object.
4. Apply the common changes you want to make to these objects.
5. Even though the objects are grouped, you can still edit them individually if need be.
6. If you want to edit the shapes or objects individually, go back to the Group menu item and
select Ungroup.
7. After making changes, if you want to regroup the objects as per original grouping, you select one of the
objects and use the Regroup option under the Group menu.
PowerPoint supports multimedia in the slides. You can add audio or video clips to the slides which can be
played during the presentation. The following steps will help you add audio or video file to the slides.
1. Go to the Media group under the Insert ribbon
2. To insert video file select Video as media type and Video from File to insert a video from your
computer or hard drive.
3. In the Insert Video dialog, browse for a video file and click Insert.
4. You will now see that a Video file is added to the slide.
5. To insert audio file select Audio as media type and Audio from File to insert an Audio from your
computer or hard drive.
6. In the Insert Audio dialog, browse for an audio file and click Insert.
7. You will now see that an Audio file is added to the slide.
One of the most powerful data representation techniques is the use of tables. Table allows information to be
segregated making it easy to read. PowerPoint has features that let you add tables in slides and also format
them to enhance their visual effects. What's more, these tables are also compatible with Microsoft Excel, so
you can basically take a spreadsheet or a section of a spreadsheet and paste it into a slide as a table.
The following steps will help you add a table in PowerPoint.
1. Go to the Tables group under the Insert ribbon.
2. Click on the dropdown and select your table dimension from the matrix.
3. If you require more than 10 columns or 8 rows click on "Insert Table" to open the Insert Table dialog
where you can specify the column and row count.
PowerPoint table is a simple table that does not support the mathematical features of an Excel spreadsheet. If
you want to carry out some calculations, you can insert an Excel spreadsheet instead of a regular table. This
will insert the spreadsheet in the slide and as long as the spreadsheet is selected, the ribbon at the top will be
changed to an Excel ribbon instead of a PowerPoint one.
The PowerPoint table formatting features have been grouped under two ribbons: Design and Format.
The sections below discuss the features under each ribbon. To access these ribbons, you must select the table
first.
Table Design Features: We will now understand the table design features in PowerPoint.
Feature Sub Features Description
Table Style Options Header Row Adds a different shade to the first row to distinguish it.
Total Row Adds a different shade to the last row to distinguish it.
Banded Rows Shades alternate rows in the table with the same color.
First Column Adds a different shade to the first column to distinguish it.
Last Column Adds a different shade to the last row to distinguish it.
Banded Columns Shades alternate columns in the table with the same color.
Table Styles Offers different shades to be added to selected table/ row/ column/
Shading cell. You can pick from solid shade, texture, image or gradient
shading.
Offers different border options for the table. You can edit the border
Border
color, thickness and style
Offers the ability to create table shadow or reflection. You can also
Effects
create bevels for individual cells.
Word Art Styles Text Fill Allows you to change the color of the text within the table.
Text Outline Allows you to add an outline to the text within the table and change
the outline color, weight and style.
Allows you to add special effects (like reflection, shadow etc.) to the
Text Effects
text within the table.
Contains a list of pre-defined Word Art styles that can be applied to

Quick Styles
the selected text within the table with a single click.
Draw Borders Pen Style Defines the style of the table border when you draw it.
Pen Weight Defines the thickness of the table border when you draw it.
Pen Color Defines the color of the table border when you draw it.
Allows you to append new rows, columns, cells to existing table,

Draw Table
split existing rows, columns or cells and draw brand new tables.
Allows you to delete table borders and merge cells, rows or

Eraser
columns.
Table Format Features: We will now understand the various table format features in PowerPoint. The following
table shows the various table format features −
Table Allows you to select the entire table or the row(s) or column(s)
Select
depending on the position of your cursor.
View Gridlines Toggles the gridline display within the table.
Rows & Columns Allows you to delete selected row(s) or column(s) or the entire
Delete
table.
Inserts a row above the row where the cursor is currently. If you
Insert Above haven't placed the cursor within the table, it adds a new row at the
top of the table.
Inserts a row below the row where the cursor is currently. If you
Insert Below haven't placed the cursor within the table, it adds a new row at the
bottom of the table.
Inserts a column to the left of the column where the cursor is

Insert Left currently. If you haven't placed the cursor within the table, it adds
a new column to the left of the table.
Inserts a column to the right of the column where the cursor is

Insert Right currently. If you haven't placed the cursor within the table, it adds
a new column to the right of the table.
Merge Allows you to merge cells, rows or columns. This is enabled only
Merge
if you have selected more than one cell, row or column.
Split Cells Allows you to specify the number of rows and columns into
which the current section of cell(s) need to be split.
Cell Size Defines the height and width of the selected cell. Usually if you
Height/ Width change these aspects for a single cell, the change affects the entire
row or column too.
Distribute Rows Equalizes the height of all the rows to fit the current table height.
Equalizes the width of all the columns to fit the current table
Distribute Columns
width.
Alignment Allows you to align the selected text to the left, right or center of
Horizontal Alignment
the cell.
Allows you to align the selected text to the top, bottom or middle
Vertical Alignment
of the cell.
Allows you to change the direction of the selected text within the
Text Direction
cells.
Cell Margins Allows you to define the margins within the cell.
Table Size Allows you to adjust the table height - it retains the relative
Height heights of the individual rows while changing the overall table
height.
Allows you to adjust the table width - it retains the relative widths
Width
of the individual columns while changing the overall table width.
Checking this box will ensure the ratio between the table height
Lock Aspect Ratio
and width is maintained when one of these is changed.
Arrange Bring Forward Allows you to move the table up by one layer or right to the top.
Allows you to move the table down by one layer or right to the
Send Backward
bottom of the slide.
Selection Pane Toggles the Selection and Visibility sidebar.
Align Allows you to align the entire table with reference to the slide.
Charts are an effective way of representing data. Long list of confusing numbers can instantly become
trends which can be spotted when they are captured as charts. PowerPoint supports the addition and formatting
of charts. Given below are the steps to add a chart to PowerPoint.
1. Go to the Illustrations group under the Insert ribbon.
2. Click on the Chart option to open the Insert Chart dialog. You can choose the chart category and pick
individual chart types from the list.
3. Select the chart type and click OK or double-click on the chart type to insert the chart in the slide.
4. Along with the chart, an Excel spreadsheet is also launched. This spreadsheet is the source for your
chart. You can change the category names, series names and individual values to suit your needs.
As you edit the values and the table in Excel the chart gets modified accordingly.
The PowerPoint chart formatting features have been grouped under three
ribbons: Design, Layout and Format. The sections below discuss the features under each ribbon. To access
these ribbons you must select the chart first.
Chart Design Features: We will now understand the various chart design features in PowerPoint. The table
given below describes the various chart design features −
Type Change Chart Type Changes the chart type retaining the same data.
Save As Template Saves current chart type as a template.
Data Transposes current excel data - this is enabled when you have the
Switch Row/Column
source data excel sheet open.
Select Data Changes the data range covered in the chart.
Edit Data Changes the chart source data.
Refresh Data Refreshes the chart to show the latest data.
Chart Layouts Offers a list of predefined layouts which can be instantly applied to
Chart Layouts
current chart with a single click.
Chart Styles Offers a list of predefined styles which can be instantly applied to
Chart Styles
current chart with a single click.
Chart Layout Features: We will now understand the various chart layout features in PowerPoint. The following
table describes the various chart layout features in PowerPoint.
Current Selection Drop down Shows the currently selected chart element.
Format Selection Shows the selection format dialog to update the selection.
Discards all the chart customizations and matches the chart with
Reset to Match Style
the overall presentation theme.
Insert Picture Superimposes an image on top of the chart.
Shape Adds a shape to the slide.
Text Box Adds a text box to the slide.
Labels Chart Title Defines the visibility, position and style of the chart title.
Axis Titles Defines the visibility, position and style of the axis titles.
Legend Defines the visibility and position of the chart legend.
Data Labels Defines the visibility and position of the data labels.
Data Table Defines the visibility, position and format of the data table.
Axes Axes Defines the position and scale of axes.
Gridlines Defines the visibility and scale of axes.
Background Plot Area Toggles chart plot area - available only for 2D charts.
Chart Wall Toggles the chart wall - available only for 3D charts.
Chart Floor Toggles the chart floor - available only for 3D charts.
3-D Rotation Toggles the chart 3D rotation- available only for 3D charts.
Chart Format Features: We will now understand the various chart format features in PowerPoint. The following
table describes the various chart format features in PowerPoint.
Current Selection Drop down Shows the currently selected chart element.
Format Selection Shows the selection format dialog to update the selection.
Discards all the chart customizations and matches the chart with
Reset to Match Style
the overall presentation theme.
Shape Styles Offers different shades to be added to selected chart series item.
Shape Fill
You can pick from solid shade, texture, image or gradient shading.
Offers different border options for selected chart series item. You
Border
can edit the border color, thickness and style.
Offers the ability to add special effects to selected chart series

Effects
item.
Word Art Styles Text Fill Allows you to change the color of the text within the chart.
Allows you to add an outline to the text within the chart and
Text Outline
change the outline color, weight and style.
Allows you to add special effects (like reflection, shadow etc.) to

Text Effects
the text within the chart.
Contains a list of pre-defined Word Art styles that can be applied

Quick Styles
to the selected text within the chart with a single click.
Arrange Bring Forward Allows you to move the chart up by one layer or right to the top.
Allows you to move the chart down by one layer or right to the
Send Backward
Align Allows you to align the entire chart with reference to the slide.
Allows you to group multiple charts as one group object, or split a
Group
group object into individual charts.
Size Height Allows you to adjust the chart height.
Width Allows you to adjust the chart width.

PowerPoint offers a unique feature called SmartArt which allows users to add text to predefined art
designs. The advantage with SmartArt is that although each component of the SmartArt can be edited
individually, you can also modify the SmartArt as a whole while retaining the settings on each individual
component. The following steps will help you add a SmartArt to PowerPoint.
1. Go to the Illustrations group under the Insert ribbon.
2. Click on the SmartArt command to open the Choose a SmartArt Graphicdialog. You can choose the
SmartArt category and pick individual SmartArt types from the list. You also get a preview and a short
description of the graphic in the preview section.
3. Select the SmartArt type and click OK or double-click on the SmartArt type to insert the graphic in the
slide.
4. The graphic is inserted in the slide along with a text pane where you can enter/ modify the SmartArt
text.
5. Add the necessary details and close the text pane to complete the SmartArt insertion.
The PowerPoint SmartArt formatting features have been grouped under two ribbons: Design and Format.
The sections below discuss the features under each ribbon. To access these ribbons, you must select the
SmartArt first.
SmartArt Design Features: We will now understand the various SmartArt design features in PowerPoint. The
following table describes the various SmartArt design features in PowerPoint.
Create Graphic Adds another shape to the current SmartArt graphic; this also adds another
Add Shape
bullet in the text pane.
Adds another bullet in the text pane; this also adds another shape to the
Add Bullet
graphic.
Text Pane Toggles text pane visibility.
Indents bullet to higher level in text pane - useful only in multi-level

Promote
SmartArt.
Indents bullet to lower level in text pane - useful only in multi-level

Demote
SmartArt.
Right to Left Helps reverse the direction of the SmartArt flow.
Moves the bullet up in the text pane or the shape to the left in the
Move Up
graphics.
Moves the bullet down in the text pane or the shape to the right in the
Move Down
graphics.
Layouts Layouts Allows you to change the layout of SmartArt graphics to one from the list.
Smart Styles Change Colors Changes the color scheme for the SmartArt graphics.
Allows you to change the SmartArt graphics styles to one of the
SmartArt Styles
predefined ones from the list with one click.
Reset Reset Graphic Removes all the customization done on the SmartArt graphic.
Convert Converts SmartArt graphic to regular shapes or plain text.

SmartArt Format Features: We will now understand the various SmartArt format features in PowerPoint. The
following table describes the various SmartArt format features in PowerPoint.
Shapes Change Shape Changes the selected shape in the SmartArt to one of those in the list.
Larger Increases the size of the selected shape.
Smaller Decreases the size of the selected shape.
Shape Styles Offers different shades to be added to selected SmartArt graphics item.
Shape Fill
You can pick from solid shade, texture, image or gradient shading.
Offers different border options for selected SmartArt graphics item. You
Border
can edit the border color, thickness and style.
Offers the ability to add special effects to selected SmartArt graphics

Effects
item.
Word Art Styles Text Fill Allows you to change the color of the text within the SmartArt.
Allows you to add an outline to the text within the SmartArt and change
Text Outline
the outline color, weight and style.
Allows you to add special effects (like reflection, shadow etc.) to the text
Text Effects
within the SmartArt.
Contains a list of pre-defined Word Art styles that can be applied to the
Quick Styles
selected text within the SmartArt with a single click.
Arrange Bring Forward Allows you to move the SmartArt up by one layer or right to the top.
Allows you to move the SmartArt down by one layer or right to the
Send Backward
Align Allows you to align the entire SmartArt with reference to the slide.
Allows you to group multiple SmartArt as one group object, or split a

Group
group object into individual SmartArt.
Size Height Allows you to adjust the SmartArt height.
Width Allows you to adjust the SmartArt width.

PowerPoint offers animation support which can be used effectively to add some motion in a
monotonous presentation and make it more interesting. Animation can be applied to any object on the slide and
the motions can the automated, timed or trigger.
The following steps will help you add and preview animations in the slide.
1. Go to the Animation ribbon and click on the Animation Pane to display the animation sidebar.
2. Select one of the objects in the slide and click on the Add Animation menu option.
3. Choose from one of the Animation options.
a. Entrance will cause the object to appear in the screen.
b. Emphasis will cause the object to emphasis without appearing or leaving the screen.
c. Exit will cause the object to disappear from the screen.
4. Once you add the animation for an object, it will show up in the Animation pane.
5. By default, all the animations are initiated by a click, but you can change this. To change the trigger,
right-click on the animation object on the pane and choose an alternate trigger.
a. Start on Click will cause the animation to start when you click the mouse.
b. Start with Previous will cause the animation to begin with the previous animation; if this is the
first object, it will begin as soon as you reach the slide during the slide show.
c. Start after Previous will cause the animation to begin after the previous animation ends.
6. From the timing section, you can also manipulate the animation timings.
7. To preview the animation settings, just click Play on the animation pane.
PowerPoint supports slide transition feature which allows you to specify how should the slides transition
during the slide show. Given below are the steps to add and preview slide transitions.
1. Select the slide to which you want to apply the transition.
2. Go to the Transition Scheme under the Transitions ribbon.
3. Select one of the transition schemes from the list available. PowerPoint will instantly show you a
preview of the scheme. If you are not satisfied, you can pick an alternate scheme. The last selected
scheme will apply to the slide.
4. You can change the effects on the selected transition scheme from the Effect Options menu. Every
scheme has a unique set of effect options.
5. You can also modify the transition timing settings from the Timing section.
6. To preview the slide transition, click on Preview.
Printing Presentation
It is sometimes necessary that you share your slides with your audience in printed format before you begin
presenting them so they can take notes. There are other times when you want to give your audience handouts
with additional notes.
To print slides, you must go to the Backstage view under the File tab and click on the Print menu. The
following table describes the various printing options available in PowerPoint.
Main Settings Options Description
Printing Slides Print All Slides Prints all the slides in the presentation.
Print Selection Prints just the selected objects.
Print Current Prints just the selected slide.

Slide
Custom Range Defines the slides you want printed.
Slides This is same as the Custom Range.
Print Layout Full Page Slides One slide per page.

Slide and notes for every slide printed one below another - one slide
Notes Page
per page.
Outline Print Slide outline.
Prints 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 6 or 9 slides per page - aligned vertically or

Handouts horizontally. When you print handouts with 3 slides, you get the slide
and the notes printed next to each other.
Collation Prints slides in sequence or prints multiple copies of each slide one
Collating Options
after another.
Printing Color Selects color, grey scale or black & white printing options. Although
Color you can select any color settings, the output will depend on the kind of
printer you use. A non-color printer cannot print color slides.
Print your PowerPoint slides, handouts, or notes
PowerPoint for Office 365 PowerPoint for Office 365 for Mac More...
In PowerPoint, you can print your slides, your speaker notes, and create handouts for your audience.
Windows mac OS Web
Print your presentation
1. Select File > Print.
2. For Printer, select the printer you want to print to.
3. For Settings, select the options you want:
a. Slides: From the drop-down, choose to print all slides, selected slides, or the current slide. Or, in
the Slides box, type which slide numbers to print, separated by a comma.
b. Print Layout: Choose to print just the slides, just the speaker notes, an outline, or handouts. The
Outline prints only the text in the slides, without images. The Notes of a presentation show the
slide and the related speaker notes below it. If you choose to print Handouts, you can print everal
slides on one page using a variety of layouts, some with space for note-taking.
c. Collated: Choose whether you want the sheets collated or uncollated.
d. Color: Choose whether you want color, grayscale, or pure black and white.
e. Edit Header & Footer: Select to edit the header and footer before printing.
4. For Copies, select how many copies you want to print.
5. Select Print.
Unit IV: Computers and Communication
WWW and Web Browsers: Basic of Computer networks; LAN, WAN; Networking Devices,
Topologies, Cables and connectors, Connecting to internet; ISP; Basics of internet connectivity related
troubleshooting, Web Browsing software, Search Engines; URL; Domain Names; IP Addressing, Wi-
Fi and Bluetooth technology overview, Internet and Intranet: architecture, various file formats,
Applications of INTERNET: Electronic mailing systems (Google Mail features): Creating and
Managing mailing accounts, folders, Document collaboration, Instant Messaging, Netiquettes; Skype
calling and Messenger services; functioning and features of smart gadgets: Smart phones, 4K smart
television gadgets, kindle, gaming-gadgets, fitness gadgets and alike.
WWW and Web Browsers

WWW
"The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an embodiment of human
knowledge." Or Information retrieval service of the Internet (the worldwide computer network). The World
Wide Web is most often referred to simply as "the Web."
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is formatted in HTML and accessed
via HTTP. The term refers to all the interlinked HTML pages that can be accessed over the Internet. The
development of the World Wide Web was begun in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee and his colleagues at CERN, an
international scientific organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. They created a protocol, HyperText Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), which standardized communication between servers and clients. Their text-based Web
browser was made available for general release in January 1992.
The World Wide Web is what most people think of as the Internet. It is all the Web pages, pictures,
videos and other online content that can be accessed via a Web browser. The Internet, in contrast, is the
underlying network connection that allows us to send email and access the World Wide Web. The early Web
was a collection of text-based sites hosted by organizations that were technically gifted enough to set up a Web
server and learn HTML. It has continued to evolve since the original design, and it now includes interactive
(social) media and user-generated content that requires little to no technical skills.
Web Browser
A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software user agent for accessing information
on the World Wide Web. To connect to a website's server and display its pages, a user needs to have a web
browser program. This is the program that the user runs to download, format and display a web page on the
user's computer.
A web browser is a software program that allows a user to locate, access, and display web pages. In
common usage, a web browser is usually shortened to "browser." Browsers are used primarily for displaying
and accessing websites on the internet, as well as other content created using languages such as Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) and Extensible Markup Language (XML).
Browsers translate web pages and websites delivered using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) into
human-readable content. They also have the ability to display other protocols and prefixes, such as secure
HTTP (HTTPS), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), email handling (mailto:), and files (file:). In addition, most
browsers also support external plug-ins required to display active content, such as in-page video, audio and
game content.
A variety of web browsers are available with different features, and are designed to run on different
operating systems. Common browsers include Internet Explorer from Microsoft, Firefox from Mozilla, Google
Chrome, Safari from Apple, and Opera. All major browsers have mobile versions that are lightweight versions
for accessing the web on mobile devices.
Web browsers date back to the late 1980s when an English scientist, Tim Berners-Lee, first developed
the ideas that led to the World Wide Web (WWW). This consisted of a series of pages created using the HTML
language and joined or linked together with pointers called hyperlinks. Following this was the need for a
program that could access and display the HTML pages correctly – the browser.
Basic of Computer networks
Open system: A system which is connected to the network and is ready for communication.
Closed system: A system which is not connected to the network and can’t be communicated with.
Computer Network: It is the interconnection of multiple devices, generally termed as Hosts connected using
multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data or media.
There are also multiple devices or mediums which helps in the communication between two different
devices which are known as Network devices. Ex: Router, Switch, Hub, Bridge. The layout pattern using
which devices are interconnected is called as network topology. Such as Bus, Star, Mesh, Ring, Daisy chain.
OSI: OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies standards for
communications protocols and also the functionalities of each layer.
Protocol: A protocol is the set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two entities can communicate
across the network and there exists different protocol defined at each layer of the OSI model. Few of such
protocols are TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, FTP and so on.
UNIQUE IDENTIFIERS OF NETWORK
Host name: Each device in the network is associated with a unique device name known as Hostname.
Type “hostname” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this displays the hostname of your machine.
IP Address (Internet Protocol address): Also, known as the Logical Address, is the network address of the
system across the network.To identify each device in the world-wide-web, Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA) assigns IPV4 (Version 4) address as a unique identifier for each device on the
Internet.Length of the IP address is 32-bits. (Hence we have 232 IP addresses available.)
Type “ipconfig” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the IP address of the device.
MAC Address (Media Access Control address): Also known as physical address, is the unique identifier of each
host and is associated with the NIC (Network Interface Card).MAC address is assigned to the NIC at the time of
manufacturing. Length of the MAC address is : 12-nibble/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits
Type “ipconfig/all” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the MAC address.
Port: Port can be referred as a logical channel through which data can be sent/received to an application. Any
host may have multiple applications running, and each of this application is identified using the port number on
which they are running. Port number is a 16-bit integer, hence we have 216 ports available which are
categorized as shown below:
PORT TYPES RANGE
Well known Ports 0 – 1023
Registered Ports 1024 – 49151
Ephemeral Ports 49152 – 65535

Number of ports: 65,536, Range: 0 – 65535, Type “netstat -a” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this
lists all the ports being used.
Socket: The unique combination of IP address and Port number together are termed as Socket.
Few more concepts
DNS Server: DNS stands for Domain Name system. DNS is basically a server which translates web addresses
or URL (ex: www.google.com) into their corresponding IP addresses. We don’t have to remember all the IP
addresses of each and every website.
The command ‘nslookup’ gives you the IP address of the domain you are looking for. This also provides the
information of our DNS Server.
ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It is used to convert the IP address to its corresponding
Physical Address (i.e.MAC Address).ARP is used by the Data Link Layer to identify the MAC address of the
Receiver’s machine.
RARP: RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. As the name suggests, it provides the IP
address of the device given a physical address as input. But RARP has become obsolete since the time DHCP
has come into the picture.
LAN
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a limited area
such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building. Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two
most common technologies in use for local area networks. Historical technologies include ARCNET, Token
ring, and AppleTalk.
LANs are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data can be transmitted over a
telephone line; but the distances are limited and there is also a limit on the number of computers that can be
attached to a single LAN.
MAN
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a
geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area network (LAN) but smaller than
the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The term is applied to the interconnection of networks in a
city into a single larger network (which may then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network). It is
also used to mean the interconnection of several local area networks by bridging them with backbone lines. The
latter usage is also sometimes referred to as a campus network.
Examples of metropolitan area networks of various sizes can be found in the metropolitan areas of
London, England; Lodz, Poland; and Geneva, Switzerland. Large universities also sometimes use the term to
describe their networks. A recent trend is the installation of wireless MANs.
WAN
A wide area network (WAN) not only covers a larger geographic distance, but also generally
involves leased telecommunication circuits. A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that
extends over a large geographical area for the primary purpose of computer networking. Wide area networks are
often established with leased telecommunication circuits.
A wide area network (WAN) is a network that exists over a large-scale geographical area. A WAN
connects different smaller networks, including local area networks (LANs) and metro area networks (MANs).
This ensures that computers and users in one location can communicate with computers and users in other
locations. WAN implementation can be done either with the help of the public transmission system or a private
network. A WAN works in a similar fashion to a LAN, just on a larger scale. Typically, TCP/IP is the protocol
used for a WAN in combination with devices such as routers, switches, firewalls and modems.
Networking Devices
Different networking devices have different roles to play in a computer network. These network devices also
work at different segments of a computer network performing different works. In our new series after network
topology, we talk about different networking devices like a switch, router, hub, bridge etc.
Network Hub: Network Hub is a networking device which is used to connect multiple network hosts. A network
hub is also used to do data transfer.
Network Switch: Like a hub, a switch also works at the layer of LAN (Local Area Network) but you can say
that a switch is more intelligent than a hub. While hub just does the work of data forwarding, a switch does
'filter and forwarding' which is a more intelligent way of dealing with the data packets.
Modem: A Modem is somewhat a more interesting network device in our daily life. So if you have noticed
around, you get an internet connection through a wire (there are different types of wires) to your house. This
wire is used to carry our internet data outside to the internet world.
Network Router: A router is a network device which is responsible for routing traffic from one to another
network. These two networks could be a private company network to a public network. You can think of a
router as a traffic police who directs different network traffic to different directions.
Bridge: If a router connects two different types of networks, then a bridge connects two subnetworks as a part of
the same network. You can think of two different labs or two different floors connected by a bridge.
Repeater: A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. In other terms, you can think of
repeater as a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that the signal
can cover longer distances.
Topologies
Network topology is the arrangement of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a communication
network. Network topology can be used to define or describe the arrangement of various types of
telecommunication networks, including command and control radio networks, industrial field
busses and computer networks.
Network topology is the topological structure of a network and may be depicted physically or logically.
It is an application of graph theory wherein communicating devices are modeled as nodes and the connections
between the devices are modeled as links or lines between the nodes.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network which comprises of nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is
referred as network topology. The various network topologies
are:
a) Mesh Topology: In mesh topology, every device is connected
to another device via particular channel.
Advantages of this topology:
1. It is robust.
2. Fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is
transferred among the devices through dedicated
channels or links.
3. Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology:
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cost of cables are high as bulk wiring is required, hence
suitable for less number of devices.
3. Cost of maintenance is high.
b) Star Topology: In star topology, all the devices are connected
to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and
all others nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.e. not intelligent hub such as broadcasting
devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
active hubs. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
1. If N devices are connected to each other in star topology,
then the number of cables required to connect them is N.
So, it is easy to set up.
2. Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub.
1. If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology
relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
2. Cost of installation is high.
3. Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e.
hub.
c) Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and
network device is connected to single cable. It transmits the
data from one end to another in single direction. No bi-
directional feature is in bus topology.
1. If N devices are connected to each other in bus topology, then the number of cables required to connect
them is 1 which is known as backbone cable and N drop lines are required.
2. Cost of the cable is less as compared to other topology, but it is used to build small networks.
1. If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash
down.
2. If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the
network. To avoid this, various protocols are used in MAC layer
known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, and CSMA/CD etc.
d) Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with its exactly two
neighboring devices.
The following operations takes place in ring topology is:
One station is known as monitor station which takes all the
responsibility to perform the operations.
To transmit the data, station has to hold the token. After the transmission
is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in
the ring.
There are two types of token release techniques: Early token
release releases the token just after the transmitting the data
and Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgement is received from the receiver.
1. The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of
topology.
2. Cheap to install and expand.
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
2. Addition of stations in between or removal of stations can
disturb the whole topology.
e) Hybrid Topology:
This topology is a collection of two or more topologies which are
described above. This is a scalable topology which can be
expanded easily. It is reliable one but at the same it is a costly
topology.
Cables and connectors

Networking cables are networking hardware used to connect one network device to other network devices or to
connect two or more computers to share printers, scanners etc. Different types of network cables, such
as coaxial cable, optical fiber cable, and twisted pair cables, are used depending on the network's physical
layer, topology, and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited
distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).
Cables-
Thick Coaxial Cable
This type cable is usually yellow in color and used in what is called thicknets, and has two conductors. This
coax can be used in 500-meter lengths. The cable itself is made up of a solid center wire with a braided metal
shield and plastic sheathing protecting the rest of the wire.
Thin Coaxial Cable
As with the thick coaxial cable is used in thicknets the thin version is used in thinnets. This type cable is also
used called or referred to as RG-58. The cable is really just a cheaper version of the thick cable.
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optics are pretty darn cool and not cheap. This cable is smaller and can carry a vast amount of information
fast and over long distances.
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials. It
transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it
ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the
standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It
also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication
possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic
cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to
the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.
There are two common types of fiber cables — single mode and multimode. Multimode cable has a larger
diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single mode can provide more distance,
but it is more expensive.
Specification Cable Type
10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
10Base2 Thin Coaxial
10Base5 Thick Coaxial
100BaseFX Fiber Optic
100BaseBX Single mode Fiber
100BaseSX Multimode Fiber
1000BaseFX Fiber Optic
1000BaseBX Single mode Fiber
1000BaseSX Multimode Fiber
Twisted Pair Cables
These come in two flavors of unshielded and shielded.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Is more common in high-speed networks. The biggest difference you will
see in the UTP and STP is that the STP use’s metallic shield wrapping to
protect the wire from interference.
Something else to note about these cables is that they are defined in
numbers also. The bigger the number the better the protection from
interference. Most networks should go with no less than a CAT 3 and
CAT 5 is most recommended.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

This is the most popular form of cables in the network and the cheapest
form that you can go with. The UTP has four pairs of wires and all inside
plastic sheathing. The biggest reason that we call it Twisted Pair is to
protect the wires from interference from themselves. Each wire
is only protected with a thin plastic sheath.
Ethernet Cabling
Now to familiarize you with more on the Ethernet and it’s
cabling we need to look at the 10’s. 10Base2, is considered the
thin Ethernet, thinnet, and thinwire which uses light coaxial
cable to create a 10 Mbps network. The cable segments in this
network can’t be over 185 meters in length. These cables
connect with the BNC connector. Also as a note these unused
connection must have a terminator, which will be a 50-ohm
terminator.
10Base5, this is considered a thicknet and is used with coaxial
cable arrangement such as the BNC connector.
10BaseT, the “T” stands for twisted as in UTP (Unshielded
Twisted Pair) and uses this for 10Mbps of transfer.
100BaseT, is considered Fast Ethernet uses STP (Shielded
Twisted Pair) reaching data transfer of 100Mbps.
10BaseF, This arrangement is a little more complicated and uses
special connectors and NIC’s along with hubs to create its
network.
An important part of designing and installing an Ethernet is
selecting the appropriate Ethernet medium. There are four major
types of media in use today: Thickwire for 10BASE5 networks,
thin coax for 10BASE2 networks, unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
for 10BASE-T networks and fiber optic for 10BASE-FL or
Fiber-Optic Inter-Repeater Link (FOIRL) networks.
Category Speed Use
1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
2 4 Mbps LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet
5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
Connectors –
Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is
an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks
like a large telephone-style connector . A slot allows the RJ-
45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered
Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard
borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard
designates which wire goes with each pin inside the
connector.
Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is
the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector. Different types
of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-
connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the
cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid
problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors
that crimp, rather screw, onto the cable.
USB (Universal Serial Bus)
Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is a computer standard designed to eliminate the
guesswork in connecting peripherals to a PC. It is expected to replace serial
and parallel ports. A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127
peripheral devices, such as mice, modems, keyboards, digital camera's,
printers, scanners, MP3 players and many more. USB also supports Plug-and-
Play installation and hot plugging.
1. USB 1.1 standard supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.
2. USB 2.0 (Also referred to as Hi-Speed USB) specification defines a
new High-speed transfer rate of 480 Mb/sec.
RJ-11 (Registered Jack)

Standard telephone cable connectors, RJ-11 has 4 wires (and RJ-12 has 6
wires). RJ-11 is the acronym for Registered Jack-11, a four- or six-wire connector
primarily used to connect telephone equipment.
RJ-11 Pin with signal name

1. VCC (5 Voltage Regulated
2. Power Ground
3. One wire data
4. One wire ground
RJ 45 (Registered Jack)
The acronym for Registered Jack-45 is RJ-45. The RJ-45 connector is an
eight-wire connector that is commonly used to connect computers to a local
area network (LAN), particularly Ethernet LANs. Although they are slightly
larger than the more commonly used RJ-11 connectors, RJ-45s can be used to
connect some types of telephone equipment.
F-Type
The F connector is a type of RF connector commonly used for cable and
universally for satellite television. They are also used for the cable TV
connection in DOCSIS cable modems, usually with RG-6 tri-shield cable. The F
connector is inexpensive, yet has good performance up to 1 GHz. One reason for
its low cost is that it uses the center wire of the coaxial cable as the pin of the
male connector. The male connector body is typically crimped onto the exposed
outer braid. Female connectors have a 3/8-32 thread. Most male connectors have
a matching threaded connecting ring, though push-on versions are also available.
ST (Straight Tip) and SC (Subscriber Connector or Standard Connector)
Fiber network segments always require two fiber cables: one for transmitting data, and one for receiving. Each
end of a fiber cable is fitted with a plug that can be inserted into a network adapter, hub, or switch. In the North
America, most cables use a square SC connector (Subscriber Connector or Standard Connector) that slides and
locks into place when inserted into a node or
connected to another fiber cable, Europeans use
a round ST connector (Straight Tip) instead.
Fiber LC (Local Connector)
These connectors are used for single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. FC
connectors offer extremely precise positioning of the fiber-optic cable with respect
to the transmitter's optical source emitter and the receiver's optical detector. FC
connectors feature a position locatable notch and a threaded receptacle.
MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack)

MT-RJ connectors are used with single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables.
The MT-RJ connectors are constructed with a plastic housing and provide for accurate
alignment via their metal guide pins and plastic ferrules.
Used for Gigabit Ethernet. To connect to modules with MT-RJinterfaces, use multimode
fiber-optic cables.
Connecting to internet: ISP (Internet Service Provider)

Once you've set up your computer, you may want to purchase home Internet access so you can send and
receive email, browse the Web, stream videos, and more. You may even want to set up a home wireless
network, commonly known as Wi-Fi, so you can connect multiple devices to the Internet at the same time.
Types of Internet service
The type of Internet service you choose will largely depend on which Internet service providers (ISPs) serve
your area, along with the types of service they offer. Here are some common types of Internet service.
 Dial-up: This is generally the slowest type of Internet connection, and you should probably
avoid it unless it is the only service available in your area. Dial-up Internet uses your phone
line, so unless you have multiple phone lines you will not be able to use your landline and the
Internet at the same time.
 DSL: DSL service uses a broadband connection, which makes it much faster than dial-up.
DSL connects to the Internet via a phone line but does not require you to have a landline at
home. And unlike dial-up, you'll be able to use the Internet and your phone line at the same
time.
 Cable: Cable service connects to the Internet via cable TV, although you do not necessarily
need to have cable TV in order to get it. It uses a broadband connection and can be faster than
both dial-up and DSL service; however, it is only available where cable TV is available.
 Satellite: A satellite connection uses broadband but does not require cable or phone lines; it
connects to the Internet through satellites orbiting the Earth. As a result, it can be used almost
anywhere in the world, but the connection may be affected by weather patterns. Satellite
connections are also usually slower than DSL or cable.
 3G and 4G: 3G and 4G service is most commonly used with mobile phones, and it
connects wirelessly through your ISP's network. However, these types of connections aren't
always as fast as DSL or cable. They will also limit the amount of data you can use each
month, which isn't the case with most broadband plans.
Choosing an Internet service provider
Now that you know about the different types of Internet service, you can do some research to find out what ISPs
are available in your area. If you're having trouble getting started, we recommend talking to friends, family
members, and neighbors about the ISPs they use. This will usually give you a good idea of the types of Internet
service available in your area.
Most ISPs offer several tiers of service with different Internet speeds, usually measured in Mbps (short
for megabits per second). If you mainly want to use the Internet for email and social networking, a slower
connection (around 2 to 5 Mbps) might be all you need. However, if you want to download music or stream
videos, you'll want a faster connection (at least 5 Mbps or higher).
You'll also want to consider the cost of the service, including installation charges and monthly fees. Generally
speaking, the faster the connection, the more expensive it will be per month.
Although dial-up has traditionally been the least expensive option, many ISPs have raised dial-up prices to be
the same as broadband. This is intended to encourage people to switch to broadband. We do not recommend
dial-up Internet unless it's your only option.
Hardware needed
Modem
Once you have your computer, you really don't need much additional hardware to
connect to the Internet. The primary piece of hardware you need is a modem.
The type of Internet access you choose will determine the type of modem you
need. Dial-up access uses a telephone modem, DSL service uses a DSL
modem, cable access uses a cable modem, and satellite service uses a satellite
adapter. Your ISP may give you a modem—often for a fee—when you sign a contract,
which helps ensure that you have the right type of modem. However, if you would
prefer to shop for a better or less expensive modem, you can choose to buy one
separately.
Router
A router is a hardware device that allows you to connect several
computers and other devices to a single Internet connection, which is known as
a home network. Many routers are wireless, which allows you to create a home
wireless network, commonly known as a Wi-Fi network.
You don't necessarily need to buy a router to connect to the Internet. It's possible to
connect your computer directly to your modem using an Ethernet cable. Also, many
modems include a built-in router, so you have the option of creating a Wi-Fi network
without buying extra hardware.
Setting up your Internet connection
Once you've chosen an ISP, most providers will send a technician to your house to turn on the connection. If
not, you should be able to use the instructions provided by your ISP—or included with the modem—to set up
your Internet connection.
After you have everything set up, you can open your web browser and begin using the Internet. If you have any
problems with your Internet connection, you can call your ISP's technical support number.
Home networking
If you have multiple computers at home and want to use all of them to access the Internet, you may want to
create a home network, also known as a Wi-Fi network. In a home network, all of your devices connect to
your router, which is connected to the modem. This means everyone in your family can use the Internet at the
same time.
Your ISP technician may be able to set up a home Wi-Fi network when installing your Internet service. If not,
you can review our lesson on How to Set Up a Wi-Fi Network to learn more.
If you want to connect a computer that does not have built-in Wi-Fi connectivity, you can purchase a Wi-Fi
adapter that plugs into your computer's USB port.
Connecting to the Internet
A device has to be connected to the Internet before you can access it. If you plan to use the Internet at home,
you'll usually need to purchase an Internet connection from an Internet service provider, which will likely be a
phone company, Cable Company, or the government. Other devices usually connect through Wi-Fi or cellular
Internet connections. Sometimes libraries, cafes, and schools offer free Wi-Fi for their patrons, customers, and
students.
Basics of internet connectivity related troubleshooting

Troubleshooting Access Problems
There is No Internet Access
The following steps assume there is NO Internet access. Specific websites and ISPs can have outages that have
nothing to do with your computer or its settings. Troubleshooting Steps. Try the following series of steps, in
order, to see if this fixes your problem. You can stop when you resolve the issue(s) you are having.
1. Check the network icon (or wireless connection settings) to see if you have Internet access. Ensure that
your network adapter is not turned off.
2. Check for changes to proxy settings.
3. Check the network cables if your computer is wired to the router.
4. Reset your router.
5. Check your firewall or security software. There are specific troubleshooting steps for ZoneAlarm issues.
6. Check your browser access issues or email problems.
The next few sections will expand these steps into a series of instructions. Where Linux is indicated, I've based
these on Linux Mint, the version I'm currently working with.
Check the Network
Check the network connection on your computer. This connects other computers in your network as well as
providing access to the Internet via your ISP. Depending upon your operating system and your settings, there
may be a network icon at the top or bottom of the screen or it may be hidden. Your Internet connection can
include either or both wired and wireless connections (see terminology).
Whichever you're using, there is likely a router involved, whether it is your home network or a public network
such as at a coffee shop or a business network, or a community wireless network). If you're not using your own
network, you'll need to speak to the person responsible for that network for details on how to fix any issues.
Check the Wireless Settings
If you're connected wirelessly you'll see a listing of available wireless networks. The wireless network you're
currently logged into (if any) should be indicated. Most networks are protected by a security protocol and a
password.
 You'll need to verify that your connection is strong enough and that the settings don't indicate any
problems.
 If you're having difficulties connecting or if there is a problem with the connection, you'll need to
diagnose it.
 If you don't control the network, you'll need to ask for the password and may need additional help
diagnosing the problems.
 Some public networks are heavily used and can be very slow regardless of whether everything is
working fine.
Check the Wired Settings
If you're connected via CAT5 or CAT6 network cables, you should check the following:
 Check the cables to ensure that they aren't unplugged or damaged.
 Be sure that the network adapter isn't disabled.
 You may need to reset the router then reboot your computer.
Network Settings by Operating System
The following are specific to each operating system. If you're isn't listed, look for your computer or device
documentation.
Windows 7
Windows 7 users can click the network icon (you may need to click the little pyramid icon beside the clock to
see all the settings). The Windows 7 icon changes colour according to the condition of your network access:
 White is normal but you may only have access to the network (but not the Internet).
 Red indicates that there is no access to either the network or the Internet.
 Yellow indicates a problem.
Click on Open the Network and Sharing Center which should open a new window.
At the top is a diagram of your network. There should be solid lines between your computer, the network and
the Internet:
Check the Proxy Settings
Most users should not touch the proxy settings, leaving them at the default which is System Settings. However,
changing the proxy settings can disable Internet access and is something that many unwanted infections do to
maintain control of your computer.
Browser Proxy Settings: Each browser has proxy settings but most make the changes in the System settings.
System Proxy Settings: If you're in an office where your computer is provided by your employer you'll want to
verify the settings with whoever is responsible for the network).
It is generally not recommended that users change these, but it is possible your Internet connection isn't working
because something else changed the proxy settings such as malware or a program installed by a scammer (more
here…).
 Windows users will find these in the Internet Options. Click on the Connections tab then click the LAN
Settings button. Only Automatically detect settings should be checked. Uncheck Use a proxy server for
your LAN then verify that you have Internet access.
Check the Cables
The troubleshooter may prompt you to check the router settings, but first you'll need to ensure that the network
cables are firmly attached and that your modem is connected to either the cable outlet or the phone line
(depending upon which ISP's service you're using) and that the cables are not damaged.
 Check the connections at both ends of all the wires. This may sound silly, but things get pulled or
simply break.
 Check the connection to the cable jack or phone line as well as the CAT5 or CAT6 network cables
between the modem and/or router as well as the computers.
 On most systems there should be a green LED lit if the network cable connection is working.
Try replacing the cables. If the connector retainer (a small, springy plastic that holds the cable firmly in place) is
broken or has lost its ability to retain a firm connection then the connection may be weak or intermittent.
Reset the Router
If instructed by the network troubleshooter (or if you've completed the steps above) you'll need to ensure that
the problem isn't with your router.
Recycling Power to Your Router
Start by recycling the power to your router (and modem if they are separate):
1. Turn off the power to the modem (then the router), and wait for two minutes.
2. Turn the modem on and wait for the lights to settle (you should see a steady light on the modem) then
turn on the router.
3. Wait 30 seconds.
4. Turn your computer on.
This process will force a new IP lease from your ISP and everything should now work.
Recycling the power is necessary because your ISP (Shaw, Rogers, Telus, etc.) changes dynamic IP addresses
every so often, disabling those that have been running for too long.
Try Without the Router
If you continue to have problems and you have a separate modem you can try your modem without the router. If
the Internet is accessible, try to run it with the router again. If that fails, proceed to the next step in resetting and
setting up your router.
Resetting Your Router
If you continue to have problems, you should try resetting the router.
 Factory settings are the defaults that came with your router. Resetting your router will remove any
customized settings.
 Make a note of any existing settings before resetting your router (if possible). Many provide a method
of saving settings to your computer.
 Most have a recessed reset button. To restore factory settings, hold down the button for a minute or two
with the tip of a ball point pen or paper clip.
Configuring the Router
You will then have to configure your router to set up your network and connect to your ISP.
 Ensure that your computer is connected to the router with a network cableduring the setup process.
 Never alter your router settings while connected through a wireless connection — you will lose access to
the router when it reboots during the setup process.
You may wish to have some professional help to ensure you retain the maximum security and correct settings
for your network.
At the very least you should read the manual provided with your router so you understand the process and what
each of the settings will change.
 You can obtain the instructions for your particular router from the manufacturer's website or from the
documentation that came with your router.
 Never retain default settings as this compromises your network security.
 Change the default settings (especially the password) to protect your network from malicious attacks.
Web browsing software

A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for accessing information
on the World Wide Web. Each individual web page, image, and video is identified by a distinct Uniform
Resource Locator (URL), enabling browsers to retrieve these resources from a web server and display them on
a user's device.
A browser, short for web browser, is the software application (a program) that you're using right now to
search for, reach and explore websites. Whereas Excel is a program for spreadsheets and Word a program for
writing documents, a browser is a program for Internet exploring (which is where that name came from).
Browsers don't get talked about much. A lot of people simply click on the "icon" on our computers that
take us to the Internet—and that's as far as it goes. And in a way, that's enough. Most of us simply get in a car
and turn the key...we don't know what kind of engine we have or what features it has...it takes us where we want
to go. That's why when it comes to computers:
1. There are some computer users that can't name more than one or two browsers
2. Many of them don't know they can switch to another browser for free
3. There are some who go to Google's webpage to "Google" a topic and think that Google is their browser.
So for some basic browser education sake, let's cover a few points:
1. Know your browser. Look at the very far-upper-left corner of your screen. You'll see the name of your
browser.
2. Get the latest version. Browsers get updates and updated regularly, usually because computers and
technology change fast also. You can check what version of your browser you're currently using by
going to whatbrowser.org.
3. Try a different browser. You can switch to another browser at any time. It won't affect your computer
and it will give you an idea of how they are different.
4. Read browser reviews. You can compare features of the different browsers on websites like
http://internet-browser-review.toptenreviews.com.
The leading Internet Browsers are:
1. Google Chrome 5. Microsoft Edge
2. Mozilla Firefox 6. Opera
3. Apple Safari 7. Maxthon
4. Microsoft Internet Explorer
Features
The most popular browsers have a number of features in common. They allow users to set bookmarks and
browse in a private mode. They also can be customized with extensions, and some of them provide a sync
service. Most browsers have these user interface features:
1. Allow the user to open multiple pages at the same time, either in different browser windows or in
different tabs of the same window.
2. Back and forward buttons to go back to the previous page visited or forward to the next one.
3. A refresh or reload button to reload the current page.
4. A stop button to cancel loading the page. (In some browsers, the stop button is merged with the reload
button.)
5. A home button to return to the user's home page.
6. An address bar to input the URL of a page and display it.
7. A search bar to input terms into a search engine. (In some browsers, the search bar is merged with the
address bar.)
Security
Web browsers are popular targets for hackers, who exploit security holes to steal information,
destroy files, and other malicious activity. Browser vendors regularly patch these security holes, so users are
strongly encouraged to keep their browser software updated. Other protection measures are antivirus
software and avoiding known-malicious websites.
Search Engines
A web search engine or Internet search engine is a software system that is designed to carry out web
search (Internet search), which means to search the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular
information specified in a textual web search query. The search results are generally presented in a line of
results often referred to as search engine results pages (SERPs). The information may be a mix of links to web
pages, images, videos, info graphics, articles, research papers, and other types of files. Some search engines
also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories, which are maintained only by
human editors, search engines also maintain real-time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler.
Internet content that is not capable of being searched by a web search engine is generally described as the deep
web.
Search engine is a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the World Wide Web
(WWW). A user enters keywords or key phrases into a search engine and receives a list of Web content results
in the form of websites, images, videos or other online data. The list of content returned via a search engine to a
user is known as a search engine results page (SERP).
To simplify, think of a search engine as two components. First a spider/web crawler trolls the web for
content that is added to the search engine's index. Then, when a user queries a search engine, relevant results are
returned based on the search engine's algorithm. Early search engines were based largely on page content, but as
websites learned to game the system, algorithms have become much more complex and search results returned
can be based on literally hundreds of variables.
Different Types of Search Engines: Search engines are classified into the following three categories based on
how it works.
1. Crawler based search engines
2. Human powered directories
3. Hybrid search engines
4. Other special search engines
Crawler Based Search Engines: All crawler based search engines use a crawler or bot or spider for crawling and
indexing new content to the search database. There are four basic steps, every crawler based search engines
follow before displaying any sites in the search results.
1. Crawling: Search engines crawl the whole web to fetch the web pages available.
2. Indexing: Indexing is next step after crawling which is a process of identifying the words and
expressions that best describe the page. The identified words are referred as keywords and the
page is assigned to the identified keywords.
3. Calculating Relevancy: Search engine compares the search string in the search request with the
indexed pages from the database.
4. Retrieving Results: The last step in search engines’ activity is retrieving the results. Basically, it
is simply displaying them in the browser in an order. Search engines sort the endless pages of
search results in the order of most relevant to the least relevant sites.
Examples of Crawler Based Search Engines
1. Google 4. Baidu
2. Bing 5. Yandex
3. Yahoo!
Human Powered Directories: Human powered directories also referred as open directory system depends on
human based activities for listings. Below is how the indexing in human powered directories work:
1. Site owner submits a short description of the site to the directory along with category it is to be
listed.
2. Submitted site is then manually reviewed and added in the appropriate category or rejected for
listing.
3. Keywords entered in a search box will be matched with the description of the sites. This means
the changes made to the content of a web pages are not taken into consideration as it is only the
description that matters.
4. A good site with good content is more likely to be reviewed for free compared to a site with poor
content.
Yahoo! Directory and DMOZ were perfect examples of human powered directories. Unfortunately,
automated search engines like Google, wiped out all those human powered directory style search engines out of
the web.
Hybrid Search Engines: Hybrid Search Engines use both crawler based and manual indexing for listing the sites
in search results. Most of the crawler based search engines like Google basically uses crawlers as a primary
mechanism and human powered directories as secondary mechanism. For example, Google may take the
description of a webpage from human powered directories and show in the search results. As human powered
directories are disappearing, hybrid types are becoming more and more crawler based search engines.
Other Types of Search Engines: Besides the above three major types, search engines can be classified into many
other categories depending upon the usage. Below are some of the examples:
1. Search engines have different types of bots for exclusively displaying images, videos, news,
products and local listings. For example, Google News page can be used to search only news
from different newspapers.
2. Some of the search engines like Dogpile collect Meta information of the pages from other search
engines and directories to display in the search results. This type of search engines is called
metasearch engines.
3. Semantic search engines like Swoogle provide accurate search results on specific area by
understanding the contextual meaning of the search queries.
URL
A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), a web address, is a reference to a web resource that specifies its
location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform
Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably. URLs occur most
commonly to reference web pages (http), but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access
(JDBC), and many other applications.
Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL
could have the form http://www.example.com/index.html, which indicates a protocol (http),
a hostname (www.example.com), and a file name (index.html).
URL is also known as a web address, a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a form of URI and a
standardized naming convention for addressing documents accessible over the Internet and Intranet. An
example of a URL is https://www.computerhope.com, which is the URL for the Computer Hope website.
Overview of a URL
Below is additional information about each of the sections of the http URL for this page.
http:// or https://
The "http" stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol and is what enables the browser to know what protocol it is
going to use to access the information specified in the domain. An "https" protocol is short for "Hypertext
Transfer Protocol Secure" and indicates that information transmitted over HTTP is encrypted and secure. After
the http or https is the colon ( : ) and two forward slashes ( // ) that separate the protocol from the remainder of
the URL.
A URL is not explicit to an HTTP or HTTPS addresses; FTP, TFTP, Telnet, and other addresses are also
considered URLs and may not follow the same syntax as our example.
WWW
Next, "www" stands for World Wide Web and is used to distinguish the content. This portion of the URL is not
required and many times can be left out. For example, typing "http://computerhope.com" would still get you to
the Computer Hope website. This portion of the address can also be substituted for an important sub page
known as a subdomain.
computerhope.com
Next, "computerhope.com" is the domain name for the website. The last portion of the domain is known as the
domain suffix, or TLD, and is used to identify the type or location of the website. For example, ".com" is short
for commercial, ".org" is short for an organization, and ".co.uk" is the United Kingdom. There are dozens of
other domain suffixes available. To get a domain, you would register the name through a domain registrar.
/jargon/u/
Next, the "jargon" and "u" portions of the above URL are the directories of where on the server the web page is
located. In this example, the web page is two directories deep, so if you were trying to find the file on the
server, it would be in the /public_html/jargon/udirectory. With most servers, the public_html directory is the
default directory containing the HTML files.
url.htm
Finally, url.htm is the actual web page on the domain you're viewing. The trailing .htm is the file extension of
the web page that indicates the file is an HTML file. Other common file extensions on the Internet include
.html, .php, .asp, .cgi, .xml, .jpg, and .gif. Each of these file extensions performs a different function, like all the
different types of files on your computer.
Where is the URL located?
A URL is located at the top of the browser window in the address baror omnibox depending on your browser
window. On desktop computers and laptop, unless your browser is being displayed in fullscreen the URL is
always visible. In most smartphone and tabletbrowsers, the address bar containing the URL will disappear as
you scroll down and only show the domain when visible. When the address bar is not visible, scrolling up on
the page shows the address bar and if only the domain is shown tapping on the address bar shows the full
address.
How to open an URL
A URL can be opened by clicking on a hyperlink. For example, if you click on "hyperlink" in this paragraph it
will open a page describing hyperlinks.
If a URL is in printed material, e-mail, or other place that does not have the URL as a hyperlink it can be typed
in the browser address bar to open the page. If the URL is in an e-mail, it can also be copied and pasted into the
address bar.
What characters are not allowed in a URL?
Most people realize that a space is not allowed in a URL. However, it is also important to realize, as
documented in RFC 1738, the URL string can only contain alphanumeric characters and the !$-_+*'(),
characters. Any other characters that are needed in the URL must be encoded.
Understanding more complex URLs and parameters
When a URL points to a script that performs additional functions, such as a search engine pointing to a search
results page, additional information (parameters) is added to the end of the URL. Below is additional
information about a URL that points to the Computer Hope search page, with the search query of "example
search".
../../cgi-bin/search.cgi?q=example%20search
In this URL, the script file being pointed to is search.cgi in the cgi-bin directory. Because this file ends with
.cgi, it is assumed to be a Perlscript.
After the script file name is a ? (question mark). The question mark in a URL separates the URL from all the
parameters or variables that are being sent to the script. In the example above, the parameter being sent
is q=example%20search. The "q" is a variable name, and the "example%20search" is the value being sent to
that variable. Because no spaces are allowed in a URL, the space is encoded as %20. In many scripts, a + (plus)
is also used to represent a space.
Domain Names
A domain name is an identification string that defines an empire of administrative autonomy, authority
or control within the Internet. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for application-
specific naming and addressing purposes. In general, a domain name identifies a network domain, or it
represents an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, a server
computer hosting a web site, or the web site itself or any other service communicated via the Internet. In 2017,
330.6 million domain names had been registered.
Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System (DNS). Any name
registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain names are organized in subordinate levels (subdomains) of
the DNS root domain, which is nameless. The first-level set of domain names are the top-level domains (TLDs),
including the generic top-level domains(gTLDs), such as the prominent domains com, info, net, edu, and org,
and the country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Below these top-level domains in the DNS hierarchy are the
second-level and third-level domain names that are typically open for reservation by end-users who wish to
connect local area networks to the Internet, create other publicly accessible Internet resources or run web sites.
The registration of these domain names is usually administered by domain name registrars who sell their
services to the public.
A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is a domain name that is completely specified with all labels in the
hierarchy of the DNS, having no parts omitted. Labels in the Domain Name System are case-insensitive, and
may therefore be written in any desired capitalization method, but most commonly domain names are written in
lowercase in technical contexts.
DNS AND NAME SERVERS
Without the Domain Name System (DNS), the Internet would be a much less user-friendly place. Instead of
using easily remembered names such as a2hosting.com, we would have to use a sequence of numbers like
75.98.175.166 (also known as an IP address) every time we wanted to visit a web site or access a service on the
Internet. DNS translates human-readable domain names into numeric IP addresses that computers can
understand.
IP Addresses
In addition to the domain name, there is also another address for a Web site: the IP (Internet Protocol) number.
This is the actual address computers use to connect to the site through the Internet. It is directly linked to the
domain name and is regulated by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
The domain name and the IP address act in the same way. Each computer connected to the Internet is assigned a
unique number known as an IP address. Developed in the early 1970's, this number serves as the computer's
Internet address. An IP address can be either static (permanent) or dynamic (temporary). Most home computers
use a dynamic IP address while servers and many other computers use a static IP address. An IP address looks
like this: 12.129.147.10. If you were to enter that number in the address bar of your Web browser, you would
reach the Web site of the Washington Post.
Registering Domain Names
In order to use a domain name, it must be registered with a registry. ICANN maintains a current directory of
accredited registrars. The domain name is registered for a specified period of time. i.e. one year, up to a
maximum of ten years, and is renewable on an ongoing basis. When you purchase a domain name, it only
belongs to you for the specified time you stated, in this case, one year. As long as you continue to renew it in a
timely fashion, it will belong to you. It is important to keep track of the renewal period because if the domain
name is not renewed, it can be registered by anyone for their own use.
During the registration process you may be asked for information for different "contacts." i.e., technical,
administrative. Your domain name record will be available to the public in what is called a "who is" database (a
public database mandated by ICANN).
IP Addressing
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to
a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two main
functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing.
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number, this allows for a maximum
of 4,294,967,296 (232) unique addresses. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of
available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, which allows for 3.4 x
1038 (2128) unique addresses was developed in 1995, and standardized in December 1998. In July 2017, a final
definition of the protocol was published. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.
IP addresses are usually written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1 in
IPv4, and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 in IPv6. The size of the routing prefix of the address is designated
in CIDR notation by suffixing the address with the number of significant bits, e.g., 192.168.1.15/24, which is
equivalent to the historically used subnet mask 255.255.255.0.
The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by
five regional Internet registries (RIRs) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to end users
and local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers. IPv4 addresses have been distributed by IANA
to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each. Each ISP or private network administrator
assigns an IP address to each device connected to its network. Such assignments may be on a static (fixed or
permanent) or dynamic basis, depending on its software and practices.
SubNetworks
IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP address is
recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix in the high-order bits and the remaining bits called
the rest field, host identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6),
used for host numbering within a network.[1] The subnet
mask or CIDR notation determines how the IP address is
divided into network and host parts.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both
IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation. In
this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in
decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called
the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its
subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0,
respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and
subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP
address indicate the network and subnet.
IPv4
An IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits the address space to 4294967296 (232) addresses. Of
this number, some addresses are reserved for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses)
and multicast addressing (~270 million addresses).
IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four decimal numbers,
each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each part represents a group of 8 bits
(an octet) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, [specify] IPv4 addresses may be presented in
various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations.
Historical Classful Network Architecure
Reserved PrivateIPv4 Network Range
IPv6
In IPv6, the address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits, thus providing up to
2128 (approximately 3.403×1038) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future.
The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also redesign
routing in the Internet by allowing more efficient aggregation
of subnetwork routing prefixes. This resulted in slower
growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest possible
individual allocation is a subnet for 264 hosts, which is the
square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels,
actual address utilization ratios will be small on any IPv6
network segment. The new design also provides the
opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a
network segment, i.e. the local administration of the
segment's available space, from the addressing prefix used to
route traffic to and from external networks. IPv6 has
facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of
entire networks, should the global connectivity or the routing
policy change, without requiring internal redesign or manual
renumbering.
The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where
appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is no need to have complex
address conservation methods as used in CIDR.
All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol,
but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking routers, voice over IP (VoIP)
and multimedia equipment, and some networking hardware.
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth technology overview

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless
high-speed Internet and network connections. A common misconception is that the term Wi-Fi is short for
"wireless fidelity," however this is not the case. Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked phrase that means IEEE
802.11x.
How Wi-Fi Networks Works
Wi-Fi networks have no physical wired connection between sender and receiver by using radio
frequency (RF) technology -- a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave
propagation. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created that then is able
to propagate through space.
The cornerstone of any wireless network is an access point (AP). The primary job of an access point is
to broadcast a wireless signal that computers can detect and "tune" into. In order to connect to an access point
and join a wireless network, computers and devices must be equipped with wireless network adapters.
The Wi-Fi Alliance
The Wi-Fi Alliance, the organization that owns the Wi-Fi registered trademark term specifically defines
Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based on the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards."
Initially, Wi-Fi was used in place of only the 2.4GHz 802.11b standard, however the Wi-Fi Alliance has
expanded the generic use of the Wi-Fi term to include any type of network or WLAN product based on any of
the 802.11 standards, including 802.11b, 802.11a, dual-band and so on, in an attempt to stop confusion about
wireless LAN interoperability.
Wi-Fi Support in Applications and Devices
Wi-Fi is supported by many applications and devices including video game consoles,
home networks, PDAs, mobile phones, major operating systems, and other types of consumer electronics. Any
products that are tested and approved as "Wi-Fi Certified" (a registered trademark) by the Wi-Fi Alliance are
certified as interoperable with each other, even if they are from different manufacturers. For example, a user
with a Wi-Fi Certified product can use any brand of access point with any other brand of client hardware that
also is also "Wi-Fi Certified".
Products that pass this certification are required to carry an identifying seal on their packaging that states
"Wi-Fi Certified" and indicates the radio frequency band used (2.5GHz for 802.11b, 802.11g, or 802.11n, and
5GHz for 802.11a).
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over
short distances using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the industrial, scientific and medical radio bands,
from 2.400 to 2.485 GHz, and building personal area networks (PANs). It was originally conceived as a
wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.
Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 35,000
member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics.
The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG
oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the trademarks. A
manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply
to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices.
List of applications
1. Wireless control and communication between a mobile phone and a hands free headset.
2. Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible car
stereo system.
3. Wireless control of and communication with iOS and Android device phones, tablets and
portable wireless speakers.
4. Wireless Bluetooth headset and Intercom.
5. Wireless streaming of audio to headphones with or without communication capabilities.
6. Wireless streaming of data collected by Bluetooth-enabled fitness devices to phone or PC.
7. Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.
8. Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being
the mouse, keyboard and printer.
9. Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices
with OBEX.
10. For controls where infrared was often used.
11. Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other,
discoverable, Bluetooth devices.
12. Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., PROFINET) networks.
Bluetooth vs Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (Wi-Fi is the brand name for products using IEEE 802.11 standards) have some
similar applications: setting up networks, printing, or transferring files. Wi-Fi is intended as a replacement for
high-speed cabling for general local area network access in work areas or home. This category of applications is
sometimes called wireless local area networks(WLAN). Bluetooth was intended for portable equipment and its
applications. The category of applications is outlined as the wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth
is a replacement for cabling in a variety of personally carried applications in any setting, and also works for
fixed location applications such as smart energy functionality in the home (thermostats, etc.).
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary in their applications and usage. Wi-Fi is usually
access point-centered, with an asymmetrical client-server connection with all traffic routed through the access
point, while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between two Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth serves well in simple
applications where two devices need to connect with a minimal configuration like a button press, as in headsets
and remote controls, while Wi-Fi suits better in applications where some degree of client configuration is
possible and high speeds are required, especially for network access through an access node.
Versions of Bluetooth
Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B: Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems, and manufacturers had difficulty making
their products interoperable.
Bluetooth 1.1: Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2002[57]
Bluetooth 1.2: Major enhancements include: Faster Connection and Discovery
Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR: This version of the Bluetooth Core Specification was released before 2005. The main
difference is the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data transfer. The bit rate of EDR is
3 Mbit/s, although the maximum data transfer rate (allowing for inter-packet time and acknowledgements) is
2.1 Mbit/s.
Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR: Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 + EDR was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on
26 July 2007.
Bluetooth 3.0 + HS: Version 3.0 + HS of the Bluetooth Core Specification was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG
on 21 April 2009. Bluetooth] v3.0 + HS provides theoretical data transfer speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s, though not
over the Bluetooth link itself.
Bluetooth 4.0: Bluetooth SIG completed the Bluetooth Core Specification version 4.0 (called Bluetooth Smart)
and has been adopted as of 30 June 2010. It includes Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth high speed and Bluetooth
Low Energy (BLE) protocols. Bluetooth high speed is based on Wi-Fi, and Classic Bluetooth consists of legacy
Bluetooth protocols.
Bluetooth 4.1: The Bluetooth SIG announced formal adoption of the Bluetooth v4.1 specification on 4
December 2013. This specification is an incremental software update to Bluetooth Specification v4.0, and not a
hardware update.
Bluetooth 4.2: Released on December 2, 2014, it introduces features for the Internet of Things.
Bluetooth 5: The Bluetooth SIG presented Bluetooth 5 on 16 June 2016. Its new features are mainly focused on
new Internet of Things technology. The Samsung Galaxy S8 launched with Bluetooth 5 support in April 2017.
Internet and Intranet: architecture and various file formats

Intranet
An intranet is a private network accessible only to an organization's staff. Often, a wide range of
information and services are available on an organization's internal intranet that are unavailable to the public,
unlike the Internet. A company-wide intranet can constitute an important focal point of internal communication
and collaboration, and provide a single starting point to access internal and external resources. In its simplest
form, an intranet is established with the technologies for local area networks (LANs) and wide area
networks (WANs). Many modern intranets have search engines, user profiles, blogs, mobile apps with
notifications, and events planning within their infrastructure.
An intranet is a private network contained within an enterprise that is used to securely share company
information and computing resources among employees. An intranet can also be used to facilitate working in
groups and teleconferences.
Intranets increase communication within an organization by allowing employees to easily access
important information, links, applications and forms as well as databases that can provide company records.
Security can also be increased within the intranet by establishing a database that maintains all of the usernames
of people who are allowed access to the network.
Uses of the intranet: Potential uses of an intranet include:
1. Streamlining everyday activities by making repeated tasks more feasible.
2. Centralizing and managing important information and company data in a single database.
3. Making collaboration easier since information can be shared across the entire network.
4. Providing personalized content to employees based on their role within the company.
5. Improving internal communication by making employee directories, company news and
organization charts readily available.
6. Providing fast and easy access to information about company policies, benefits and updates.
How the intranet works
A secure and reliable intranet requires a web server that is responsible for managing all requests for files
hosted on the server, finding the requested file and delivering it to the appropriate computer. A content
management system (CMS) should also be set up to control the creation, publication and management of
content on the intranet.
An intranet may also consist of many interlinked local area networks (LANs) as well as leased lines in
the wide area network (WAN). It uses TCP/IP, HTTP, and other Internet protocols (IP). Typically, an intranet
includes connections through one or more gateway computers to the outside Internet.
An employee who wants to access the intranet must have a special network password and be connected
to the LAN. However, an employee working remotely can gain access to the intranet through a virtual private
network (VPN). The VPN allows users who are not actually connected to the required LAN to sign into the
intranet and access all the same information and functions that would be available had they been connected to
the LAN.
The intranet generally looks like a private version of the Internet. With tunneling, companies can send
private messages through the public network while using special encryption/decryption and other security
safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to
another.
Intranet Architecture and Application: Diagram
Benefits and challenges of the intranet: Some potential
benefits of using an intranet include:
1. Improved communication, information
sharing and collaboration within a
business.
2. An increased return on investment (ROI)
due to the low implementation and
operating costs.
3. The ability for human resources to
manage employee records and for
customer service representatives to track
help requests.
4. The use of the intranet as a testing
environment for new ideas before they are
implemented on the company's Internet
webpage.
5. An improved corporate culture within a
business through the use of a social
intranet that is built around people and
focused on enabling widespread
participation and interaction.
6. Workforce productivity: Intranets can
help users to locate and view information
faster and use applications relevant to
their roles and responsibilities.
7. Time: Intranets allow organizations to
distribute information to employees on
an as-needed basis.
8. Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization,
vertically strategic initiatives that have a global reach throughout the organization.
9. Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing
and deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across the
internetworked enterprise.
10. Workflow - a collective term that reduces delay, such as automating meeting scheduling and
vacation is planning.
11. Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than maintaining
physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms.
12. Enhance collaboration: Information is easily accessible by all authorised users, which enables
teamwork..
13. Cross-platform capability: Standards-compliant web browsers are available for Windows, Mac,
and UNIX.
14. Built for one audience: Many companies dictate computer specifications which, in turn, may
allow Intranet developers to write applications that only have to work on one browser (no cross-
browser compatibility issues).
15. Promote common corporate culture: Every user has the ability to view the same information
within the intranet.
16. Immediate updates: When dealing with the public in any capacity, laws, specifications, and
parameters can change. Intranets make it possible to provide your audience with "live" changes
so they are kept up-to-date, which can limit a company's liability.
17. Supports a distributed computing architecture: The intranet can also be linked to a company’s
management information system, for example a time keeping system.
18. Employee Engagement: Since "involvement in decision making" is one of the main drivers of
employee engagement, offering tools (like forums or surveys) that foster peer-to-peer
collaboration and employee participation can make employees feel more valued and involved.
Some challenges faced when using an intranet include:
1. A lack of intranet users and therefore a lack of the content, communications and documents that
is necessary to make the intranet beneficial.
2. A loss of interest amongst users after the initial excitement and novelty of the intranet has worn
off, also resulting in a lack of content.
3. Limited user support due to the high cost of adding a support team to the payroll. As a result,
when the inevitable software bugs or other issues arise, there is no one to resolve the problems.
4. Continuous examinations and maintenance checks are required to ensure the network is running
properly and does not become outdated with old and irrelevant content.
5. A lack of proper ownership or ownership being distributed amongst various departments. This
complicates the network and makes it difficult to place responsibility in one place.
Differences between the Internet and intranet
The biggest difference between the Internet and intranet is that the Internet can be accessed by anyone
from anywhere, whereas the intranet can only be accessed by a specific group of people who possess an
authenticated login and are connected to the required LAN or VPN. Beyond that, there are several more simple
distinctions, such as:
1. The Internet works on a public network while the intranet works on a private network.
2. The public Internet is not as safe as the private intranet.
3. The Internet can have unlimited users while the intranet has a limited amount.
4. Information on the Internet is unlimited and available to anyone while information on an intranet
is limited and only available to users with authorized access to the intranet network.
Internet
The Internet (interconnected network) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use
the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array
of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The
Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services,
such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of
the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file
sharing.
The terms internet and World Wide Web are often used
interchangeably, but they are not exactly the same thing; the internet
refers to the global communication system, including hardware and
infrastructure, while the web is one of the services communicated over
the internet.
As computing advanced, peer-to-peer (P2P) communication
was gradually delivered and enhanced. Since the 1990s, the internet
has greatly influenced and upgraded networking to global standards.
Billions of internet users rely on multiple application and networking
technologies, including:
Internet Protocol (IP): The internet’s primary component and
communications backbone. Because the internet is comprised of
hardware and software layers, the IP communication standard is used
to address schemes and identify unique connected devices. Prominent IP versions used for communications
include Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).
Internet basics
1. The Internet and the WWW are not the same.
2. The Internet is explored using a browser and the act of browsing the Internet is commonly referred to
as surfing.
3. Users browse websites and web pages by following hyperlinks that point to an address more commonly
referred to as a URL.
4. Finding information on the Internet is achieved by using a search engine.
5. Files, pictures, songs, and video can be shared by downloading (receiving) and uploading (sending).
6. The Internet utilizes the TCP/IP protocol and is accessed using a computer modem, broadband, 3G, 4G,
or network that is connected through an ISP.
7. With broadband, many computers and devices use Wi-Fi to connect to a router and share an Internet
connection.
8. The computer you're using to view this web page is considered a host and it's connected to our server to
view this page.
Communications: The internet is the most cost-effective communications method in the world, in which the
following services are instantly available:
1. Email 4. Social networking
2. Instant messaging 5. Online shopping
3. Internet forums 6. Financial services
7. Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
8. Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services
9. Online movies and gaming
Various file formats

In a computer, a file format is the layout of a file in terms of how the data within the file is organized. A
program that uses the data in a file must be able to recognize and possibly access data within the file. For
example, the program that we call a Web browser is able to process and display a file in the HTML file format
so that it appears as a Web page, but it cannot display a file in a format designed for Microsoft's Excel program.
A particular file format is often indicated as part of a file's name by a file name extension (suffix).
Conventionally, the extension is separated by a period from the name and contains three or four letters that
identify the format. A program that uses or recognizes a particular file format may or may not care whether the
file has the appropriate extension name since it can actually examine the bits in the file to see whether the
format (layout) is one it recognizes. There are as many different file formats as there are different programs to
process the files. A few of the more common file formats are:
1. Word documents (.doc)
2. Web text pages (.htm or .html)
3. Web page images (.gif and .jpg) Graphics Interchange Format AND Joint Photographic Experts Group
4. Adobe Postcript files (.ps) 9. TIFF - Tagged Image File
5. Adobe Acrobat files (.pdf) 10. EPS - Encapsulated Postscript
6. Executable programs (.exe) 11. AI - Adobe Illustrator Document
7. Multimedia files (.mp3 and others) 12. INDD - Adobe Indesign Document
8. PNG - Portable Network Graphics 13. RAW - Raw Image Formats
APPLICATIONS of INTERNET
The Internet has many important applications. Of the various services available via the Internet, the three most
important are e-mail, web browsing, and peer-to-peer services. E-mail, also known as electronic mail, is the
most widely used and successful of Internet applications. Web browsing is the application that had the greatest
influence in dramatic expansion of the Internet and its use during the 1990s. Peer-to-peer networking is the
newest of these three Internet applications, and also the most controversial, because its uses have created
problems related to the access and use of copyrighted materials.
Examples of Applications: An Internet application does something for end users. It is generally not concerned
with how data is actually transmitted between the hosts. Here are some distributed applications that require
well-defined application level protocols:
 Sending and receiving email
 Searching and browsing information archives
 Copying files between computers
 Conducting financial transactions
 Navigating (in your car, smart scooter, smart bike, or other)
 Playing interactive games
 Video and music streaming
 Chat or voice communication (direct messaging, video conferencing)
 Communication  Travel
 Job searches  Entertainment
 Finding books and study material  Shopping
 Health and medicine  Stock market updates
 Research
 Business use of internet: different ways by which internet can be used for business are
o Information about the product can be provided can be provided online to the customer.
o Provide market information to the business
o It help business to recruit talented people
o Help in locating suppliers of the product.
o Fast information regarding customers view about companies product
o Eliminate middle men and have a direct contact with contact with customer.
o Providing information to the investor by providing companies back ground and financial
information on web site.
In addition, there are a number of network services such as:
 Name servers
 Configuration servers
 Mail gateways, transfer agents, relays
 File and print servers
 Communication
 Data Transfer
 Information
Electronic mailing systems (Google Mail features): Creating and Managing mailing accounts,
folders.
EMAIL
Electronic mail (email or e-mail) is a method of exchanging messages ("mail") between people using electronic
devices. Invented by Ray Tomlinson, email first entered limited use in the 1960s and by the mid-1970s had
taken the form now recognized as email. Email operates across computer networks, which today is primarily
the Internet. Some early email systems required the author and the recipient to both is online at the same time,
in common with instant messaging. Today's email systems are based on a store-and-forward model.
Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Neither the users nor their computers are required to
be online simultaneously; they need to connect only briefly, typically to a mail server or a webmail interface for
as long as it takes to send or receive messages.
Short for electronic mail, email (or e-mail) is defined as the transmission of messages
over communications networks. Typically the messages are notes entered from the keyboard or
electronic files stored on disk. Most mainframes, minicomputers, and computer networks have an email system.
Massage Format
Internet email messages consist of two major sections, the message header and the message body, collectively
known as content. The header is structured into fields such as From, To, CC, Subject, Date, and other
information about the email. In the process of transporting email messages between systems, SMTP
communicates delivery parameters and information using message header fields. The body contains the
message, as unstructured text, sometimes containing a signature block at the end. The header is separated from
the body by a blank line.
Message header
Each email message has a header (the "header section" of the message, according to the specification),
comprising a number of fields ("header fields"). Each field has a name ("field name" or "header field name"),
which is followed by the separator character ":", and a value ("field body" or "header field body").
Each field name must start in the first character of a new line in the header section and begin with a non-
whitespace printable character. It ends with the separator character ":". The separator is then followed by the
field value (the "field body"). The value can continue onto subsequent lines if those lines have a space or tab as
their first character. Field names and, without SMTPUTF8, field bodies are restricted to 7-bit ASCII characters.
Some non-ASCII values may be represented using MIME encoded words.
Header fields
Email header fields can be multi-line, with each line recommended to be no more than 78 characters, although
the technical limit is 998 characters. In particular, this allows email addresses to use non-ASCII characters.
Such addresses are supported by Google and Microsoft products, and promoted by some governments.
The message header must include at least the following fields:
 From: The email address, and optionally the name of the author(s). In many email clients not changeable
except through changing account settings.
 Date: The local time and date when the message was written. Like the From: field, many email clients fill
this in automatically when sending. The recipient's client may then display the time in the format and time
zone local to them.
 To: The email address(es), and optionally name(s) of the message's recipient(s). Indicates primary recipients
(multiple allowed), for secondary recipients see Cc: and Bcc: below.
 Subject: A brief summary of the topic of the message. Certain abbreviations are commonly used in the
subject, including "RE:" and "FW:".
 Cc: Carbon copy; Many email clients will mark email in one's inbox differently depending on whether they
are in the To: or Cc: list. (Bcc: Blind carbon copy; addresses are usually only specified during SMTP
delivery, and not usually listed in the message header.)
 Content-Type: Information about how the message is to be displayed, usually a MIME type.
 Precedence: commonly with values "bulk", "junk", or "list"; used to indicate that automated "vacation" or
"out of office" responses should not be returned for this mail, e.g. to prevent vacation notices from being
sent to all other subscribers of a mailing list. Sendmail uses this field to affect prioritization of queued
email, with "Precedence: special-delivery" messages delivered sooner. With modern high-bandwidth
networks, delivery priority is less of an issue than it once was. Microsoft Exchange respects a fine-grained
automatic response suppression mechanism, the X-Auto-Response-Suppress field.[42]
 Message-ID: Also an automatically generated field; used to prevent multiple delivery and for reference in
In-Reply-To: (see below).
 In-Reply-To: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to. Used to link related messages together. This
field only applies for reply messages.
 References: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to, and the message-id of the message the
previous reply was a reply to, etc.
 Reply-To: Address that should be used to reply to the message.
 Sender: Address of the actual sender acting on behalf of the author listed in the From: field (secretary, list
manager, etc.).
 Archived-At: A direct link to the archived form of an individual email message.
SMTP defines the trace information of a message, which is also saved in the header using the following two
fields:
 Received: when an SMTP server accepts a message it inserts this trace record at the top of the header (last
to first).
 Return-Path: when the delivery SMTP server makes the final delivery of a message, it inserts this field at
the top of the header.
Other fields that are added on top of the header by the receiving server may be called trace fields, in a broader
sense.
 Authentication-Results: when a server carries out authentication checks, it can save the results in this field
for consumption by downstream agents.[45]
 Received-SPF: stores results of SPF checks in more detail than Authentication-Results.[46]
 Auto-Submitted: is used to mark automatically generated messages.[47]
 VBR-Info: claims VBR whitelisting[48]
Message body
Content encoding
Internet email was originally designed for 7-bit ASCII. Most email software is 8-bit clean but must assume it
will communicate with 7-bit servers and mail readers. The MIME standard introduced character set specifiers
and two content transfer encodings to enable transmission of non-ASCII data: quoted printable for mostly 7-bit
content with a few characters outside that range and base64 for arbitrary binary data.
Plain text and HTML
Most modern graphic email clients allow the use of either plain text or HTML for the message body at the
option of the user. HTML email messages often include an automatically generated plain text copy as well, for
compatibility reasons. Advantages of HTML include the ability to include in-line links and images, set apart
previous messages in block quotes, wrap naturally on any display, use emphasis such as underlines and italics,
and change font styles. Disadvantages include the increased size of the email, privacy concerns about web bugs,
abuse of HTML email as a vector for phishing attacks and the spread of malicious software.
What Is Gmail?
Gmail is a free email service run by Google. It integrates with other Google services like Google Docs, Google
Drive, and YouTube. Google also offers premium services to businesses through G Suite. There is also an
HTML version of Gmail called Gmail Basic and a Gmail mobile app.
If you've never had an email account before, Gmail is a good place to start. It is reliable and free, and it comes
with 15 GB of storage space for your messages. Your email is stored online, so you can access it from any
device that can connect to the internet.
How to Get a Gmail Account: To create a new Gmail account, you must first create a new Google account.
1. Go to Gmail.com and select Create account.
2. Select For myself.
3. Enter the requested information, then select Next.
4. You may be asked to provide a phone number to verify your identity. Enter your phone number and
select Next. Google will send you a text with a code that you must enter on the following page.
5. Enter the requested information, then select Next.
6. Read Google's privacy information and select I agree.
7. Select Next.
8. Choose a layout for your viewing your messages, then select OK.
You will automatically be taken to Gmail to set up your new account. You'll see a message from Google in your
inbox, which contains important information about using Gmail.
How to Set Up Gmail
After reviewing the introductory information, you can personalize your account. For example, select Change
profile image to add a photo that will be visible to other Gmail users. If you want to change the colors and
layout of the Gmail interface, select choose a theme. If you have another email account, select Import contacts
and mail to link it to your new Gmail account.
How to Use Gmail
1. To send a new Gmail message, select Compose.
2. Select the Star beside a message to mark it as important.
3. To remove messages from your inbox, select the checkbox beside the message, then select Archive (the
folder with a down-arrow) or Trash (the trashcan).
4. Sending a message to the trash in Gmail does not automatically delete it. To permanently delete a
message, select Trash from the left pane to open your trash folder, then select Empty Trash now.
5. To sign out of Gmail, select your profile icon (or image) in the top-right corner, then select Sign out.
How to Make Labels (Folder)
Gmail labels make it easier to manage your inbox. While viewing a message, select the Label icon and choose
from the options, or select Create new to make custom labels.
How to Find Emails in Gmail
In addition to using labels, you can search for the message using the search bar above your inbox. You can also use
your Gmail contacts to find all correspondence with certain people.
Document Collaboration
One of the first real-time collaborative editor tools can be found in “The Mother of All Demos,” presented by
Douglas Engelbart in 1968. The next major milestone for document collaboration appeared in 1991 with the
release of Instant Update for the Mac OS and Microsoft Windows.
Document collaboration has grown to cover tools that enable real-time access and updates for concurrent work
across the room or around the world. This practice (of multiple people working simultaneously on a single
document) is called co-authoring. Modern tools mitigate the challenges of non-real-time and un-automated
collaboration, such as paper trails and red-lining, unwieldy email chains, or overwriting original material.
What Is a Collaborative Document?
A collaborative document is a file that multiple people edit or contribute to, with the goal of creating single final
version through collaboration. Collaborative documents may be word processing or text documents,
spreadsheets, presentations, images, PDFs, videos, or maps.
Common Uses of Document Collaboration
Few documents, presentations, reports, spreadsheets, or projects are developed by just one person. At its core,
document collaboration involves designated shared access to files for editing by groups of any size – be it two
or 2,000.
Document collaboration goals will vary for each organization, so before you choose a tool, define your needs.
For example, a group building a social media campaign may require video, graphs, and pictures as part of
brainstorming or mind mapping. By contrast, a technical build for software values document integrity through
controlled revisions, so security and access may be more important. Consider your company’s functions and
needs when adopting a document collaboration solution.
Top Document Collaboration Tools
Document collaboration tools, like any other widely adopted software platform, are always growing and
improving. Here are the most popular solutions:
1. Google
2. Microsoft Office 365
3. Quip
4. Dropbox Paper
Google offers a suite of services through Google Drive, including the following:
1. Google Docs (initially developed as Writely)
2. Google Slides
3. Google Sheets
Google’s file collaboration platform is universally available and easy to use, as is Microsoft Office 365. Both
have functions that users are already familiar with and can quickly adapt.
Collaboration tools can be more document-centric, such as Google, Quip, and Microsoft Office 365, all of
which use familiar features that use notation to track who and when edits are made. These platforms and others,
such as Dropbox and Box, offer cloud storage-centric tools that enable easy document access from multiple
devices by multiple users, as well as integration with numerous applications. When shopping for a document
collaboration tool, consider these additional features:
1. Automatic save
2. Real-time comments and messaging
3. Version review
4. User permission controls
5. Update alerts
6. Participants list
7. External and internal access
8. Mobile device access (phone, tablet, and
platform support)
9. Offline and online access
10. Compliance
11. File synchronization
12. Historical audit trail (change history)
13. Large file capability
14. Large enterprise team support for
simultaneous access
15. Language/time-zone compatibility
How to Use Document Collaboration Tools
Upon entering a real conference room, you would instantly notice many details, such as who is present and what
they are working on. However, in the new collaborative digital space, much more is immediately evident,
including past and present conversations, project timeline, and next steps. You can easily identify the people in
attendance, meeting agendas, calendars, and revision history.
Most collaborative work is done online or through a proprietary and secure server. Depending upon security
setup, it can be accessed on mobile devices, too. While you typically access and synchronize the work online,
there will be times when team members need offline syncing capabilities, such as when traveling. As with all
tools, know how your document collaboration platform will be used and what features are important — this
information will guide your solution search.
How Do You Share a Document?
Collaboration revolves around sharing documents, and your method for doing so is dependent on the file type
and the tools available in the platform. Google Drive, Dropbox, and Box all have the same general sharing
steps: upload the document to a folder within the online solution, select the Share option, and enter the email
address of the person you would like to share the document with. You also have options to set view-only or edit
permissions.
Document Collaboration for Developers
Software developers depend on accurate version control, and they know both the benefits and the perils of
document collaboration. When choosing a version control platform, development teams should value
accessibility and sharing. Tools and solutions for development collaboration are available through IBM,
Microsoft, Subversion, and Helix.
Another popular platform choice is a distributed version-control (DVC) system, which allows numerous
working copies to be reconciled with the main document. Tools from Git and Mercurial provide some of the
best open source solutions for DVC.
Instant Messaging
Instant messaging (IM) technology is a type of online chat that offers real-time text transmission over
the Internet. A LAN messenger operates in a similar way over a local area network. Short messages are
typically transmitted between two parties, when each user chooses to complete a thought and select "send".
Some IM applications can use push technology to provide real-time text, which transmits messages character by
character, as they are composed. More advanced instant messaging can add file transfer,
clickable hyperlinks, Voice over IP, or video chat.
An instant message (IM) is a real-time, text-based communication similar to chat. IM uses a shared software
client between or among two or more people using personal computers, iPhones or other devices. The
communication is done over a network, often the Internet, and may include advanced modes with live voice or
video. File transfers are also sometimes allowed but are limited in size.
Although included in the online chat category of technologies, IM differs in that the communicating parties are
selected from a known list, called a “buddy list,” “friend list” or “contact list." Users are typically alerted when
someone on their list is online. However, online chat allows communication in a multiuser environment among
users that are usually anonymous.
Some IM systems permit messages to be sent when the recipient is not online. In these cases, IM is much like
email; in fact, the message may even be sent to the recipient's email address.
Features of instant messaging
The exchange of text has long been the chief function of instant messaging, but it is now one feature of many.
The ability to insert images and emojis into messages is now standard in many clients, as are file
transfers. Facebook Messenger even enables users to send money via IM. Numerous clients now support the
escalation from IM to other modes of communication, such as group chat, voice calls or video conferencing.
Presence enables users to see the availability of their contacts -- not only whether they are online or offline, but
also whether they have indicated their status is free or busy. Some clients also enable users to set an "away
message" providing more detail about their limited or lack of availability. Within an active session between two
users, most clients can also indicate to one user in real time when the other user is typing.
Popular instant messaging software: While some IM clients are distinctly consumer services or explicitly for
enterprises, some crossovers exist. The following is a list of popular consumer, prosumer and enterprise IM
clients:
1. Apple Messages (formerly iMessage) 9. Pidgin
2. Cisco Jabber (based on Jabber) 10. Slack
3. Google Hangouts (formerly Google Talk) 11. Telegram
4. Microsoft Skype (includes Skype for 12. Trillian
Business) 13. Viber
5. Facebook Messenger 14. WeChat
6. IBM Sametime 15. WhatsApp Messenger
7. ICQ 16. Windows Live Messenger
8. Line 17. Yahoo Messenger
Netiquettes
"Netiquette" refers to Internet etiquette. This simply means the use of good manners in online communication
such as e-mail, forums, blogs, and social networking sites to name a few. It is important to use netiquette
because communication online is non-verbal. Most often online communication consists of reading something
someone else has typed. This type of communication does not allow each person to see facial expressions, body
language, or hear intonation. Because of this, messages can often be misinterpreted. By following netiquette,
online communication becomes clearer. Especially in business and career related online communications
netiquette should be used to ensure that correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation are put in place to project
professionalism. Netiquette also includes the use of emoticons (such as :) :( ;) and others) to explain an emotion.
In e-mail, netiquette means not flooding someone's inbox with forwarded messages or spam mail. Following
netiquette will help you to maintain and establish positive online relationships as well as develop a positive
online reputation.
While there is no official list of netiquette rules or guidelines, the general idea is to respect others online. Below
are ten examples of rules to follow for good netiquette:
1. Avoid posting inflammatory or offensive comments online (a.k.a flaming).
2. Respect others' privacy by not sharing personal information, photos, or videos that another person may
not want published online.
3. Never spam others by sending large amounts of unsolicited email.
4. Show good sportsmanship when playing online games, whether you win or lose.
5. Don't troll people in web forums or website comments by repeatedly nagging or annoying them.
6. Stick to the topic when posting in online forums or when commenting on photos or videos, such
as YouTube or Facebook comments.
7. Don't swear or use offensive language.
8. Avoid replying to negative comments with more negative comments. Instead, break the cycle with a
positive post.
9. If someone asks a question and you know the answer, offer to help.
10. Thank others who help you online.
Skype calling and Messenger services

There are different ways of communicating and sharing through the Internet. Other than e- mail, the
Internet has many applications which allow instant communication with friends, family, business associates,
and co-workers. One such method is the use of Chat Messenger applications. You may also want to share your
documents and discuss your plans, publicity material, sales trends, and details of stock in hand with your
colleagues at different locations. This will help you make quick decisions based on sound information.
You can do it by using Skype for voice or video calling on the Internet. You can send your files to
your colleagues or share your screen so that they can see the files and participate in discussions. Skype is free
downloadable software. It is used for chatting, sharing information etc. on the Internet. While many services
in Skype are free, subscriptions need to be paid for a few. Advantages of using Skype:
 You can call across the world at very economical rates.
 You can work more flexibly with instant messaging and share large files at the click of a button.
 Customers can call your Online Number from anywhere in the world and you answer the call on
Skype.
 You can keep your travel and communication costs low, allows focus on growing business.
What you will require for these?
 Skype application downloaded and installed on your computer.
 A Skype ID and password.
 Skype ID of the other person with whom you want to communicate.
 Internet connectivity.
 External or built-in web cameras for video calls
How to create and use Skype
1. Download and install Skype.
2. You must download and install Skype if it is not already installed on your computer.
3. Start the web browser. (See, Help Guide, Web Technologies Skill 1.1 or 3.1)
4. Click to place your cursor in the Address or Location bar. Type http://www.skype.com
5. Press the Enter key on your keyboard or click the Go button. Then, wait as the web page loads on
your computer.
6. Search for the link “Download Now” on the page that appears.
7. Download the Skype Free application (SkypeSetup.exe) and save it at an appropriate location on
your computer.
8. Double click on the SkypeSetup.exe file and install Skype.
To create a Skype account

1. Double click on the Skype icon on your desktop to start Skype.
2. Click on “Create a new Account” which will take you to the registration page of Skype’s web site.
3. Enter the details required in the Registration form. First you should enter your name and e-mail
address.
4. Then enter your profile information e.g., Birth Date, Gender, Country, City, Language, and Mobile
Phone Number. These details would be helpful for your friends to locate you on Skype.
5. Next enter the purpose of using Skype. If you select “Mostly business conversations,” you
should provide company details.
6. Next Enter your Skype Name and Password. The Skype Name should be unique as you will be
recognized on Skype by this name. The web site suggests few unique names for you. You may select
one of them or choose to type one for yourself
7. Next enter the security words displayed in the box. This is just to verify that you’re a real person. Then,
click on “I agree – Continue.”
8. Your Skype account is created and it opens a page to introduce you to Skype credits which you need to
purchase if you wish to use the paid services only e.g.,
9. Video conferencing. Click on “No Thanks” and then “Continue
Sign in to Skype
1. Double click on the Skype icon on your desktop to start Skype.
2. Enter your Skype name and password and click on “Sign me in.”
3. When you sign in for the first time, it takes you through a 2 step process of testing your microphone
and webcam and selecting a profile picture. The profile picture can be uploaded from an existing
photo on your computer or you can capture your image using the webcam. You may also skip these
steps and do them later.
You are signed in and ready to use Skype.
Adding Contacts
1. You will need to add contacts before you can actually start communicating with Skype.
2. You may click on the “Add Contact” option in the “Contact” Menu or click on the “Add a contact”
link on the lower left corner of the window.
3. You will get the screen below to add contacts. The more details you provide in the add contacts
windows, the easier it becomes to locate your friend. Once you have located your friend by providing
details, click on “Add” to continue.
4. You will get the screen below. If you want to send a personal message, type in the message box and
click on “Send request.
5. A request will be sent to your friend and when he/she accepts the request, he/she will get added to your
contact list.
6. You may click on the “Add another contact” in the request sent confirmation screen to keep
adding contacts.
Accept Contact requests
1. You may also receive contact requests from others. You have to accept contact requests sent by others
to add them to your contact list. Ask a few participants to send you a contact request and accept those
contacts.
2. When someone adds you to his/her contact list you will get a message on top of your contact list as
given below. Click on the contact request
a. You will get the following buttons which can be used for various purposes.
b. To add a contact, click the Add to Contacts button. Note: Do not accept contacts of people
whom you do not know. Add only contacts of those people who you know personally or
professionally.
c. To view the profile of the person sending the contact, click View Profile. This will show you
the information regarding the person.
d. Click Ignore to reject the contact request.
e. Click Block if you wish to reject the contact request and block the person. Note: Blocking a
person will disable the person from sending you contact requests again.
Send instant messages: By sending instant messages or chatting online using Skype you can share your business
idea description with friends.
1. In your Skype window, go to the Contacts tab and click the name of the person or the group you
wish to start the chat conversation with. You will notice a chat window with the person’s or group’s
name will appear.
2. Click to place your cursor in the chat box and type your message. Then, click Send Message, or
press Enter on your keyboard.
3. Your message along with your contact’s reply to the message will be shown in the chat transcript
window.
4. To continue chatting, repeat steps 2-3.
5. If you wish to chat with another person, go to the Contacts tab, and choose the other person’s name.
The chat window for that person will be shown. Repeat steps 2-4 to start a chat.
6. You can have multiple chat conversations at the same time. To navigate between the different chat
windows, click on the contact, whose chat window you wish to see. Typically, there will be an
orange circle next to the contact that has sent you a message. You may also receive an audio beep.
Sign out of your Skype account
Once you have finished sharing your business idea with all the group members, sign out of your Skype
account. To sign out, in your Skype window, click Skype -> Sign Out in the Menu Bar
Functioning and features of smart gadgets

The gadget is a small electronics and technology based device that performs some specific
functions. A phone that is used to make calls, a watch that shows time is the gadgets. People move from one
place to another, wants to stay updated with everything that is happening in the whole world, so this is not
possible with an ordinary gadget. Now in a technical era, gadgets have become so advanced with the updated
technology and are called Smart Gadgets. Smart Gadgets are Smartphone, smart watches, smart TV and many
other smart devices. In today’s modern era, everybody from any age group has their own smart gadget either
it is a smartphone or smart watch or smart TV. These smart gadgets have made the human life much easier as
compared to before.
Smart Phone
Phone with an advanced mobile operating system is a smartphone. All the computer based
functions can also be done on this pocket-size device. It has many built-in applications and many paid and
free applications. Paid and free applications are available on a device’s respective app store. A smartphone
user can connect with a person who is in another country within seconds. Nothing much is required to do so.
Only internet connection is the primary need of the smartphone if you want to use it effectively. Built in apps
are calendar camera, phone book, email, weather, music player, etc. Countless applications are on Google
play store that can be downloaded easily. Application for any purpose is available but the condition is you
have to download that application.
Smart Watch
Smart watch is a wearable computerized wristwatch. While in the starting, some basic
functions were supported by these type of watches. Now, smart watch runs many apps using a mobile-based
operating system. It is like having a small smartphone on your wrist. You can connect your smart watch with
your smartphone, and then you will get all notifications on your smart watch that arrives on a
smartphone. Advantages of having smart watch are -getting directions while driving, connects with your
phone, voice search is also enabled on a smart watch, get alerts about what happening around the world. It
also measures how many steps you have followed in a day. Now, a smart watch is also acted like a
smartphone because, in the market, smart watches with sim card slot are also available.
Smart TV
TVs are better and advanced than ever. And now they are cheaper to use. TVs have become
so smart using the android based operating system. The smart remote control allows us to connect with the
internet and no extra boxes required to add with TV because Wi-Fi enabled system is built-in. Now, you can
enjoy the multiple apps that run on your smart TV. High-quality sound, HDMI ports, USB ports, ECO sensor
and Anynet+ technology are other features of the smart TV.
Smart phones
A smartphone is a cellular telephone with an integrated computer and other features not
originally associated with telephones, such as an operating system, web browsing and the ability to run
software applications.
Important features
One of the most important features of a smartphone is its connection to an app store. An app store is a
centralized portal where users can search for and download software applications to run on their phones. A
typical app store offers thousands of mobile apps for productivity, gaming, word processing, note-taking,
organization, social media and more. The following are some of the other key features of a smartphone:
1. internet connectivity;
2. a mobile browser;
3. the ability to sync more than one email account to a device;
4. embedded memory;
5. a hardware or software-based QWERTY keyboard;
6. wireless synchronization with other devices, such as laptop or desktop computers;
7. the ability to download applications and run them independently;
8. support for third-party applications;
9. the ability to run multiple applications simultaneously;
10. touchscreen;
11. Wi-Fi;
12. a digital camera, typically with video capability;
13. gaming;
14. unified messaging;
15. GPS -- global positioning system.
A smartphone also has the ability to support accessories, including Bluetooth headphones, power charging
cables and extra speakers. Because of the fragile outer casing of most smartphones, users often also purchase
screen protectors and more durable cases in which to put their phones.
Popular uses
Many consumers use their smartphones to engage with friends, family and brands on social media. Social
media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and LinkedIn all have mobile apps that a user can
download from their phone's app store. These apps make it easier for smartphone users to post personal
updates and photos while on the go rather than at their desktop.
Another common use for smartphones is health and wellness tracking. Third-party wearable devices, such as
smart watches, can connect with a smartphone to monitor an individual's health statistics, such as heart rate,
and send information to be aggregated on the phone.
Mobile payment is another popular use for smartphones. Wallet features allow users to save credit card
information on their phones to use when purchasing items at retail stores.
4K smart television gadgets

A smart TV, also known as a connected TV (CTV), is a traditional television set with integrated Internet and
interactive "Web 2.0" features which allows users to stream music and videos, browse the internet, and view
photos. Smart TV is a technological convergence of computers, television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the
traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional broadcasting media,
these devices can also provide Internet TV, online interactive media, over-the-top content (OTT), as well
as on-demand streaming media, and home networking access.
Smart TV should not be confused with Internet TV, IPTV or Web television. Internet TV refers to receiving
television content over the Internet instead of traditional systems (terrestrial, cable and satellite) (although
Internet itself is received by these methods). IPTV is one of the Internet television technology standards for
use by television broadcasters. Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of
companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
In smart TVs, the operating system is preloaded or is available through the set-top box. The software
applications or "apps" can be preloaded into the device, or updated or installed on demand via an app store or
marketplace, in a similar manner to how the apps are integrated in modern smartphones.
Features
Smart TV devices also provide access to user-generated content to interactive services and Internet
applications, such as YouTube, many using HTTP Live streaming adaptive streaming. Services offer users a
means to track and receive reminders about shows or sporting events, as well as the ability to change channels
for immediate viewing. Some devices feature additional interactive organic user interface / natural user
interface technologies for navigation controls and other human interaction with a Smart TV, with such
as second screen companion devices, spatial gestures input like with Xbox Kinect, and even for speech
recognition for natural language user interface. Smart TV develops new features to satisfy consumers and
companies, such as new payment processes.
Use
Social networking some smart TV platforms come prepackaged, or can be optionally extended, with social
networking technology capabilities. The addition of social networking synchronization to smart TV and
HTPC platforms may provide an interaction with both on-screen content and other viewers than is currently
available to most televisions, while simultaneously providing a much more cinematic experience of the
content than is currently available with most computers.
Advertising: Some smart TV platforms also support interactive advertising, addressable advertising with local
advertising insertion and targeted advertising and other advanced advertising features such as ad
telescoping[39] using VOD and DVR, enhanced TV for consumer call-to-action and audience
measurement solutions for ad campaign effectiveness.
Security: There is evidence that a smart TV is vulnerable to attacks. Some serious security bugs have been
discovered, and some successful attempts to run malicious code to get unauthorized access were documented
on video. There is evidence that it is possible to gain root access to the device, install malicious software,
access and modify configuration information for a remote control, remotely access and modify files on TV
and attached USB drives, access camera and microphone.
Restriction of access: Internet websites can block smart TV access to content at will, or tailor the content that
will be received by each platform.[50]Google TV-enabled devices were blocked by NBC, ABC, CBS,
and Hulu from accessing their Web content since the launch of Google TV in October 2010. Google TV
devices were also blocked from accessing any programs offered by Viacom’s subsidiaries.
Reliability: High-end Samsung Smart TVs stopped working for at least seven days after a software
update. Application providers are rarely upgrading Smart TV apps to the latest version; for example, Netflix
does not support older TV versions with new Netflix upgrades.
Kindle
Kindle is a line of Android-powered portable e-book reader devices developed by Amazon
that enable users to shop for, download and read electronic versions of books, newspapers, magazines,
websites, blogs and more. Amazon's basic Kindle devices primarily compete with similar e-book devices like
Barnes & Noble's Nook, while the more advanced Kindle Fire competes with mobile devices like Android-
powered tablet computers and Apple's iPad.
The entry-level Kindles' primary purpose is for reading books, and the devices utilize
Electronic Ink ("E Ink") technology called E Ink Pearl to improve the reading experience. Compared to
the LCDscreens utilized by most mobile devices, the Kindle's E Ink Pearl technology and monochrome matte
screen combine to provide sharp, clear text and reduced glare for extended reading with less eye
fatigue. Kindle devices also offer built-in Wi-Fi capabilities for downloading e-books and apps, as well as
basic Web browsing, and Kindle users can take advantage of free Wi-Fi access at AT&T hotspots.
The Kindle line consists of:
1. The original Kindle device, which is now in its fourth generation
2. The Kindle Touch, Kindle that offers a touch-sensitive screen
3. The Kindle Keyboard, which includes a built-in keyboard
4. The Kindle DX, a Kindle that features larger screen than the original device
5. The Kindle Fire, a tablet computer that offers a full color display.
Key benefits and features of a Kindle:
1. Stores up to 1,400 books.
2. Special high-contrast screen allows you to read even in bright sunshine with no glare.
3. Clear text and fonts, and a sharp display – what you see resembles a book page.
4. Adjustable text size.
5. Built-in wifi or 3G connection.
6. Battery life of at least a month if wifi is turned off.
7. Page-turning function so you feel as if you’re reading a real book.
8. Integrates with Facebook and Twitter and allows searching on Wikipedia.
9. Never heats up like a laptop.
10. Books can be categorised or stored as collections.
11. Automatic archive function: you can delete books and download them another time.
12. Screen can be rotated for better viewing of pictures, diagrams, maps, etc.
13. Also able to read newspapers, magazines and web pages.
14. In-built keyboard enables searching within a book, a library or online.
15. You can add your own annotations to the text.
16. Automatic bookmark.
17. Built-in Oxford English Dictionary.
18. Password protection.
Gaming-gadgets
The Game Gadget is an open source gaming handheld that supports music and video playback, open game
development, and some e-reader features. It was available in one colour (white). It was released on April 6,
2012. Specification
1. CPU MIPS Ingenic JZ4750 @ 433Mhz
2. RAM 64MB
3. Internal Storage 2GB flash
4. Additional Storage SD/SDHC
5. Input D-Pad, 2 shoulder, 4 face, Start & Select buttons, Mic.
6. Outputs Stereo Speakers, Headphone Jack & TV-out
7. I/O Micro USB
8. Display 3.5" LCD, 320x240 resolution
9. Audio Playback MP3, WMA, APE, FLAC, RA
10. Software Support Free official SDKs Available
Popular gaming gadgets
Steelseries Wireless Controller: This has been designed to work with your PC or Mac, which is pretty
standard – but it also works with mobile devices via Bluetooth. Just hook it up to your Android or iPhone and
bam, proper gaming on the go. Fully charged, it gives you 10 hours of non-stop playing time.
Razer destructor 2: The Destructor 2 is only 2.2mm thick and is pretty much the perfect mouse pad for
gamers. Its surface is micro-textured for easy sliding and works with both laser and optical mice.
WD My Passport Portable Hard Drive: Avoid the PC gamer's dilemma and get this two-terabyte external hard
drive and you'll never need to worry about those Steam games filling up your hard drive. It's USB powered
(2.0 and 3.0 compliant) and will run with a Mac or PC.
Logitech G19s gaming keyboard: The new keyboard from Logitech features a customisable display that
allows you to track your gaming stats even if you aren't currently in game. There are also 12 programmable
keys, with 36 different functions. Its two USB ports mean you don't have to worry about not having enough
slots for other kit, either.
Mad Catz Cyborg Fly 5 Joystick: An affordable joystick that doesn't compromise on features. It has 10
buttons, a dual-throttle lever and an adjustable handle height. There's no need for batteries either; it runs off
your USB port.
Fitness Gadgets and alike.

An activity tracker, also known as a fitness tracker, is a device or application for monitoring and
tracking fitness-related metrics such as distance walked or run, calorie consumption, and in some cases
heartbeat.
An activity tracker, also known as a fitness tracker, is a device or application for monitoring and
tracking fitness-related metrics such as distance walked or run, calorie consumption, and in some cases
heartbeat. It is a type of wearable computer. The term is now primarily used for smartwatches that are synced,
in many cases wirelessly, to a computer or smartphone for long-term data tracking. There are also
independent mobile and Facebook apps. Some evidence has found that the use of these types of devices
results in less weight loss rather than more. Sleep tracker devices have a tendency to under
detect wakefulness.
The advanced fitness technology we have now will allow you to analyze every aspect of your workout
performance and your body, allowing you to stabilize your strengths and improve upon your weaknesses. It
can be a pain trying to keep up with your fitness goals, especially when you factor in optimizing aspects like
hydration, heart rate, calorie intake, and other data to help you complete your objectives. Smart fitness
gadgets will help you crush your goals, maintain your health, and achieve your desired level of athleticism. If
you are a serious athlete or health nut, our list of carefully selected smart fitness gadgets will get you to the
next level and beyond. Most Common Features of a Fitness Band
1. Distance Tracker
2. Calorie Tracker
3. Sleep Monitor
4. Smartphone Integration
5. Heart Rate Monitor
6. BP Checker
7. Exercise Recognition
8. GPS Tracking
Unit V: Application Domains
Impact of computers in society: Computer applications in office automation, book publishing,
data analysis, accounting, investment, inventory control, graphics and multimedia, air and
railway ticket reservation sites, robotics, cyber security, Audio and Video-conferencing, social
networking, surveillance, Case Studies: Computer Literacy for banking, KYC, Insurance and
financial transactions, operating mobile banking, Nine Pillars of Mission Digital India (DI-
Initiatives) and their scheme highlights.
Impact of computers in society

Development of science and technology has a direct effect on our daily lives as well as our social life.
Computers and ICT have brought various changes in our lives and society. It has not only affected and reflected
on an individual but also organization and society. With rapid advance growth and development in technology
since the very first computer, we have seen a quantum leap in changes made that has affected us both in our
present lives and future. It is really important to understand the impact of computer technology on society.
The computer and Technology have been widely considered as one of the greatest inventions of
a 21st century, but it is also often blamed for many problems and even tragic events. The use of personal and
home computers has increased exponentially since the 1980s. Computers are used in wide range of fields, It is
almost impossible to find an office or an organization that doesn’t use computers. It is used in different fields
like education, hospitals, hotels, offices etc. Despite the positive, this technology brings, negative side effects do
exist. Positive Impact of computer Technology on Society
1. The work can be done in very less time
2. A Huge amount of information can be stored in relatively small space.
3. Greater access to resources
4. Document secrecy
5. Error free result
6. More information can be stored in small space.
7. Multitasking and multiprocessing capabilities of data.
8. Easy to access data.
9. Impartiality.
10. It can be used for various purposes. I.e. it can be used in any type of work.
Negative Impact of computer Technology on Society
1. Initial setup cost is highly expensive
2. Data piracy and accidents
3. Increased unemployment
4. Fast changing computer technology
5. Illiteracy of computing and computers
6. Computer crime
7. Huge data and information can be lost sometimes.
8. Service distribution.
9. Effect in Health
10. Environmental problem
11. Fraud
Computers are used in various fields as well as in teaching and learning. Some of the major computer
application fields are listed below.
1. Education: The education sector is one major area that computer is playing an important role. By using
computers teachers, students, researchers and school administration get benefits
2. An aid to management: The computer can also be used as a management tool to assist in solving
business problems.
3. Banking: Branches are equipped with terminals giving them an online accounting facility and enabling
them to information as such things as current balances, deposits, overdrafts and interest charges.
4. Industrial Application: In industry, production may be planned, coordinated and controlled with the aid
of a computer.
5. Engineering Design: Computer help in calculating that all the parts of a proposed design are satisfactory
and also assist in the designing.
6. Meteorology: Data is recorded at different levels of atmosphere at different places, using remote sensors
carried on a satellite.
7. Air Travel: Small computers are installed as a part of the plane's equipment.
8. Road Traffic Control: Computers assist with the control of traffic lights.
9. Telephones: Computerized telephone exchanges handle an ever increasing volume of calls very
efficiently.
10. Medicine: Computers are widely used in hospitals for such task as maintaining drugs, surgical
equipment’s and linen, for payroll and also for checkup and treatment of diseases.
Computer applications in office automation

Office automation refers to the varied computer machinery and software used to digitally create, collect,
store, manipulate, and relay office information needed for accomplishing basic tasks. Raw data storage,
electronic transfer, and the management of electronic business information comprise the basic activities of an
office automation system. Office automation helps in optimizing or automating existing office procedures.
The backbone of office automation is a LAN, which allows users to transfer data, mail and even voice
across the network. All office functions, including dictation, typing, filing, copying, fax, Telex, microfilm and
records management, telephone and telephone switchboard operations, fall into this category. Office automation
was a popular term in the 1970s and 1980s as the desktop computer exploded onto the scene. Advantages are:
1. Office automation can get many tasks accomplished faster.
2. It eliminates the need for a large staff.
3. Less storage is required to store data.
4. Multiple people can update data simultaneously in the event of changes in schedule.
Office automation refers to the integration of office functions usually related to managing information.
There are many tools used to automate office functions and the spread of electronic processors inside computers
as well as inside copiers and printers is at the center of most recent advances in office automation. Raw data
storage, electronic data transfer, and the management of electronic business information comprise the basic
activities of an office automation system.
Office automation is the process of automating office tasks using computers. Many types of tasks are
performed in an office. These tasks include:
1. Decision-making 3. Document handling
2. Data manipulation 4. Communication and storage
Many computer technologies are used to perform these activities in an office easily. Some computerized
systems used in an office are follows: Document Management system (DMS)
DSM consists of different applications like word processing, desktop publishing reprographic, image
processing and archival storage applications.
1. Word Processing: is used to create documents electronically. It is used to produce high-quality letters,
proposals, reports and brochures etc.
2. Desktop Publishing: is used to make these documents attractive with photos and graphics etc. it is used
to publish the documents.
3. Spreadsheet Application: is used to maintain records and calculate expenses, profits and losses. It is also
used to perform mathematical, statistical and logical processing. Reprographics: is a process of
reproducing multiple copies of a document.
4. Image processing: is used to scan and store an image in computer. It can also modify and improve the
quality of images.
5. Message Handling System: It is used to send messages or documents from one location to another.
Many techniques are used for this purpose such as facsimile (fax), email and voice mail etc.
6. Office Support System: It is used to coordinate and manage the activities of a workgroup. The members
of a workgroup can share their work and coordinate with one another. Groupware and desktop
organizers are examples of this system.
THE BASICS OF OFFICE AUTOMATION

Generally, there are three basic activities of an office automation system: storage of information, data
exchange, and data management. Within each broad application area, hardware and software combine to fulfill
basic functions.
Information Storage
The first area within office automation is information storage which is usually considered to include
office records and other primary office forms and documents. Data applications involve the capture and editing
of files, images, or spreadsheets. Word processing and desktop presentation packages accommodate raw textual
and graphical data, while spreadsheet applications provide users with the capacity to engage in the easy
manipulation and output of numbers. Image applications allow the capture and editing of visual images.
Text handling software and systems cover the whole field of word processing and desktop publishing.
Word processing, the most basic and common office automation activity, is the inputting (usually via keyboard)
and manipulation of text on a computer.
Desktop publishing adds another dimension to text manipulation. By combining the features of a word
processor with advanced page design and layout features, desktop publishing packages have emerged as
valuable tools in the creation of newsletters, brochures, and other documents that combine text and photographs,
charts, drawings and other graphic images.
Image handling software and systems are another facet of office automation. Examples of visual
information include pictures of documents, photographs, and graphics such as tables and charts.
Spreadsheet programs allow the manipulation of numeric data. Early popular spreadsheet programs such
as VisiCalc and Lotus 123 greatly simplified common business financial recordkeeping. Many businesses use
spreadsheets for financial management, financial projection, and accounting.
Data Exchange
While data storage and manipulation is one component of an office automation system, the exchange of
that information is another equally important component. Electronic transfer is a general application area that
highlights the exchange of information among multiple users. Electronic mail, voice mail, and facsimile are
examples of electronic transfer applications. Systems that allow instantaneous or "real time" transfer of
information are considered electronic sharing systems. Electronic sharing software illustrates the collaborative
nature of many office automation systems.
Electronic transfer software and systems allow for electronic transmission of office information.
Electronic mail uses computer-based storage and a common set of network communication protocols to forward
electronic messages from one user to another.
Data Management
Office automation systems are also often used to track both short-term and long-term data in the realms
of financial plans, workforce allocation plans, marketing expenditures, inventory purchases, and other aspects
of business. Task management or scheduling systems monitor and control various projects and activities within
the office. Electronic management systems monitor and control office activities and tasks through timelines,
resource equations, and electronic scheduling.
Applications of Office Automation
Microsoft office Tools like word, excel, PowerPoint and access etc.
Book Publishing
Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information. It is the activity of making
information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning
originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver and display their content. Also, the word
"publisher" can refer both to an individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint and to an individual
who owns/heads a magazine.
Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works, such as books (the "book trade")
and newspapers. With the advent of digital information systems and the Internet, the scope of publishing has
expanded to include electronic resources such as the electronic versions of books and periodicals, as well
as micropublishing, websites, blogs, video game publishers, and the like.
Publishing includes the following stages of development: acquisition, copy editing,
production, printing (and its electronic equivalents), marketing, and distribution.
Publication is also important as a legal concept: As the process of giving formal notice to the world of a
significant intention, for example, to marry or enter bankruptcy As the essential precondition of being able to
claim defamation; that is, the alleged libel must have been published For copyright purposes, where there is a
difference in the protection of published and unpublished works
There are two basic business models in book publishing:
1. Traditional or commercial publishers: Do not charge authors at all to publish their books, for certain
rights to publish the work and paying a royalty on books sold.
2. Self-publishing: The author has to meet the total expense to get the book published. The author should
retain full rights, also known as vanity publishing.
Electronic Publishing
Electronic publishing (also referred to as e-publishing or digital publishing or online publishing)
includes the digital publication of e-books, digital magazines, and the development of digital libraries and
catalogues. It also includes an editorial aspect that consists of editing books, journals or magazines that are
mostly destined to be read on a screen (computer, e-reader, tablet, smartphone).
Here’s how to publish a book step-by-step:
1. Decide Why You Want to Publish a Book
2. Write Your Book
3. Get Feedback Before Publishing Your Book
4. Choose a Book Title
5. Hire a Great Book Editor
6. Design a Book Cover that Converts
7. Create Your Kindle Direct Publishing Account
8. Format and Upload your Book
9. Self-Publish Your Book
10. Price Your Book
11. Form a Launch Team
12. Maximize Book Launch Exposure
13. Celebrate Publishing a Book!
Data Analysis
Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming and modeling data with the goal of
discovering useful information, informing conclusions and supporting decision-making. Data analysis has
multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, and is used in
different business, science, and social science domains. In today's business world, data analysis plays a role in
making decisions more scientific and helping businesses operate more effectively.
Data mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on modeling and knowledge discovery
for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes, while business intelligence covers data analysis that relies
heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business information.
Data integration is a precursor to data analysis, and data analysis is closely linked to data
visualization and data dissemination. The term data analysis is sometimes used as a synonym for data modeling.
The process of data analysis includes.
1. Data requirements 5. Exploratory data analysis
2. Data collection 6. Modeling and algorithms
3. Data processing 7. Data product
4. Data cleaning 8. Communication
Data analysis is a part of a larger process of deriving business intelligence. The process includes one or more
of the following steps:
1. Defining Objectives: Any study must begin with a set of clearly defined business objectives. Much of
the decisions made in the rest of the process depend on how clearly the objectives of the study have been
stated.
2. Posing Questions: An attempt is made to ask a question in the problem domain. For example, do red
sports cars get into accidents more often than others?
3. Data Collection: Data relevant to the question must be collected from the appropriate sources. In the
example above, data might be collected from a variety of sources including: DMV or police accident
reports, insurance claims and hospitalization details. When data is being collected using surveys, a
questionnaire to be presented to the subjects is needed. The questions should be appropriately modeled
for the statistical method being used.
4. Data Wrangling: Raw data may be collected in several different formats. The collected data must be
cleaned and converted so that data analysis tools can import it.
5. Data Analysis: This is the step where the cleaned and aggregated data is imported into analysis tools.
These tools allow you to explore the data, find patterns in it, and ask and answer what-if questions. This
is the process by which sense is made of data gathered in research by proper application of statistical
methods.
6. Drawing Conclusions and Making Predictions: This is the step where, after sufficient analysis,
conclusions can draw from the data and appropriate predictions can be made.
Let us now look in some detail at the methods of data analysis in particular.
Data Mining
Data mining is a method of data analysis for discovering patterns in large data sets using the methods of
statistics, artificial intelligence, machine learning and databases. The goal is to transform raw data into
understandable business information. These might include identifying groups of data records (also known as
cluster analysis), or identifying anomalies and dependencies between data groups. Applications of data mining:
1. Anomaly detection can process huge amounts of data (“big data”) and automatically identify outlier
cases, possibly for exclusion from decision making or detection of fraud (e.g. bank fraud).
2. Learning customer purchase habits. Machine learning techniques can be used to model customer
purchase habits and determine frequently bought items.
3. Clustering can identify previously unknown groups within the data.
4. Classification is used to automatically classify data entries into pre-specified bins.
Text Analytics
Text analytics is the process of deriving useful information from text. It is accomplished by processing
unstructured textual information, extract meaningful numerical indices from the information and make the
information available to statistical and machine learning algorithms for further processing. Text mining process
includes one or more of the following steps:
1. Collecting information from various sources including web, file system, database, etc.
2. Linguistic analysis including natural language processing.
3. Pattern recognition (e.g. recognizing phone numbers, email addresses, etc.)
4. Extracting summary information from the text, such as relative frequencies of the words, determining
similarities between documents, etc.
Examples of text analytics applications:
1. Analyzing open-ended survey responses.
2. Analysis of emails, documents, etc. to filter out “junk”. This also includes automatic classification of
messages into pre-defined bins for routing to different departments.
3. Investigate competitors by crawling their websites. This could be used to derive information about
competitors’ activities.
4. Security applications which can process log files for intrusion detection.
Business Intelligence
Business intelligence transforms data into actionable intelligence for business purposes and may be used in an
organization’s strategic and tactical business decision making. It offers a way for people to examine trends from
collected data and derive insights from it. Some examples of business intelligence in used today:
1. An organization’s operating decisions such as product placement and pricing.
2. Identifying new markets, assessing the demand and suitability of products for different market segments.
3. Budgeting and rolling forecasts.
4. Using visual tools such as heat maps, pivot tables and geographical mapping.
Data Visualization
Data visualization refers very simply to the visual representation of data. In the context of data analysis, it
means using the tools of statistics, probability, pivot tables and other artifacts to present data visually. It makes
complex data more understandable and usable.
Instantly Visualize Data & Information With Google Fusion Tables Increasing amounts of data are being
generated by a number of sensors in the environment. This data presents challenges in understanding which can
be eased by using the tools of Data visualization. Data visualization is used in the following applications.
1. Extracting summary data from the raw data of IOT.
2. Using a bar chart to represent sales performance over several quarters.
3. A histogram shows distribution of a variable such as income by dividing the range into bins.
Application of Data Analysis
Internet Search, Digital Advertisements (Targeted Advertising and re-targeting), Recommender Systems,
Image Recognition, Speech Recognition, Gaming, Price Comparison Websites, Airline Route Planning,
Fraud and Risk Detection, Delivery logistics
Accounting
An accounting application is a software program that captures and records all accounting transactions. It
often divides functions into modules such as accounts payable, accounts receivable, inventory, and more. An
accounting application may run on a locally managed set of hardware and networking equipment or rely on the
expertise of a third-party-managed cloud-based infrastructure.
Accounting provides companies with various pieces of information regarding business operations. It is
often conducted by a company's internal accounting department and reviewed by a public accounting firm.
Small businesses often have significantly less financial information recorded during the accounting process.
However, business owners often review this financial information to determine how well their business
is operating. Accounting information can also provide insight on growing or expanding current business
operations.
Business Performance Management: A common use of accounting information is measuring the performance of
various business operations.
Create Company Budgets: Business owners often use accounting information to create budgets for their
companies. Business owners often take this accounting information and develop future budgets to ensure they
have a financial road map for their businesses.
Making Business Decisions: Accounting information is commonly used to make business decisions. For
financial management, an income statement and accounting of expenses provides an important overview of the
business. Decisions may include expanding current operations, using different economic resources, purchasing
new equipment or facilities, estimating future sales or reviewing new business opportunities.
Informing Investment Decisions: External business stakeholders often use accounting information to make
investment decisions.
What is accounting software?
Accounting software is a fundamental application that allows an organization to record the flow of money for
internal and external review and auditing. It is the primary tool for assessing the financial health of the
organization and for meeting legal compliance through such core financial tools as general ledger, accounts
payable and receivable, purchase order, stock or inventory and billing. Modern implementation of the
application expands to payroll modules, electronic payment, timesheet and expenses among others in order to
gain a wider foothold in the market.
Features of Computerized Accounting System Accounting software is used to implement a computerized
accounting system. The computer accounting system is based on the concept of databases. It does away with the
concept of creating and maintaining journals, ledger, etc. which are essential while working with manual
accounting system. Typically computerized accounting system offers the following features:
1. Online input and storage of accounting data.
2. Printout of purchase and sales invoices.
3. Logical scheme for codification of accounts and transactions. Every account and transaction is assigned
a unique code.
4. Grouping of accounts is done from the very beginning.
5. Instant reports for management, for example – Aging Statement, Stock Statement, Trial Balance,
Trading and Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet, Stock Valuation, Value Added Tax (VAT),
Returns, Payroll Report, etc.
Some application of accounting is tally and tally ERP etc.
Investment
To invest is to allocate money in the expectation of some benefit in the future. In finance, the benefit
from an investment is called a return. The return may consist of a gain (or loss) realized from the sale of
property or an investment, unrealized capital appreciation (or depreciation), or investment income such
as dividends, interest, rental income etc., or a combination of capital gain and income. The return may also
include currency gains or losses due to changes in foreign currency exchange rates.
Investors generally expect higher returns from riskier investments. When a low risk investment is made, the
return is also generally low. Investors, particularly novices, are often advised to adopt a particular investment
strategy and diversify their portfolio. Diversification has the statistical effect of reducing overall risk.
Investment apps
1. Best for Free Stock Trades: Robinhood
2. Best for Automated Investing: Acorns
3. Best for Learning About Investing: Stash
4. Best for Retirement: Vault
5. Best for Stock Gifting: Stockpile
6. Best for Microinvesting: Clink
7. Best for Features: TD Ameritrade Mobile
8. Best for College Savings: Wealthfront
Inventory control
Inventory control or stock control can be broadly defined as "the activity of checking a shop’s
stock." However, a more focused definition takes into account the more science-based, methodical practice of
not only verifying a business' inventory but also focusing on the many related facets of inventory management
(such as forecasting future demand) "within an organization to meet the demand placed upon that business
economically." Other facets of inventory control include supply chain management, production control,
financial flexibility, and customer satisfaction. At the root of inventory control, however, is the inventory
control problem, which involves determining when to order, how much to order, and the logistics (where) of
those decisions.
An extension of inventory control is the inventory control system. This may come in the form of a
technological system and its programmed software used for managing various aspects of inventory problems, or
it may refer to a methodology (which may include the use of technological barriers) for handling loss
prevention in a business.
Inventory control system
An inventory control system is used to keep inventories in a desired state while continuing to adequately
supply customers, and its success depends on maintaining clear records on a periodic or perpetual basis.
Inventory management software often plays an important role in the modern inventory control system,
providing timely and accurate analytical, optimization, and forecasting techniques for complex inventory
management problems. Typical features of this type of software include:
1. inventory tracking and forecasting tools that use selectable algorithms and review cycles to
identify anomalies and other areas of concern
2. inventory optimization
3. purchase and replenishment tools that include automated and manual replenishment components,
inventory calculations, and lot size optimization
4. lead time variability management
5. safety stock calculation and forecasting
6. inventory cost management
7. shelf-life and slow-mover logic
8. multiple location support
Through this functionality, a business may better detail what has sold, how quickly, and at what price,
for example. Reports could be used to predict when to stock up on extra products around a holiday or to make
decisions about special offers, discontinuing products, and so on.
Inventory control techniques often rely upon barcodes and radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags to
provide automatic identification of inventory objects—including but not limited
to merchandise, consumables, fixed assets, circulating tools, library books, and capital equipment—which in
turn can be processed with inventory management software. Example of inventory management system.
1. Inventory for Local Application
2. Business Application Inventory Sample
3. Inventory for Application Interface
4. Enterprise Application Inventory Example
5. Simple Application Inventory
6. Server Application Inventory Example
7. Inventory for Software Application
Graphics and multimedia

A Multimedia Application is an application which uses a multiple media sources e.g. text, graphics,
images, sound/audio, animation and/or video. Multimedia conference covers the selected tools applied in
multimedia systems and key multimedia applications. It comprises of Audio, video processing, Virtual reality
and 3-D imaging, Virtual reality and 3-D imaging, Multimedia and Artificial Intelligence.
Multimedia Applications is the creation of exciting and innovative multimedia systems that
communicate information customized to the user in a non-linear interactive format. Multimedia
conference discusses the basic and novel characteristics of multimedia document handling, programming,
security, human computer interfaces, and multimedia application services.
1. Audio, video processing
2. Education and training
3. Multimedia analysis and Internet
4. Artificial Intelligence
5. Virtual reality and 3-D imaging
6. Wireless, Mobile Computing
7. Animation and Graphics
8. Visual Communication
Applications of computer graphics and multimedia:
There are a variety of fields where the applications of computer graphics and multimedia are being used
nowadays. This includes medical, engineering, education & training, entertainment, science etc. The
applications of computer graphics and multimedia are growing day by day. Let’s see the major applications of
computer graphics and multimedia which we are using in our daily life.
CAD (Computer-aided design): CAD is one of the major applications of computer graphics that occurs at the
top of the list. These methods or techniques are routinely used in designing of buildings, space crafts,
automobiles, computer textile, computer hardware, watercraft etc. The object designs are when completed and
nearly complete, realistic model and surface rendering are applied to produce displays that mean show the
appearance of the final product.
Presentation graphics: It is used to produce illustrations or repeat to generate 35mm slides used with a projector.
Presentation graphics are commonly used to summarize financial, statistical, mathematical and scientific data
for recharge report, managerial report and other types of data. Some examples of presentation graphics are bar
charts, line charts, surface graph and any type of pictorial representation of data.
Computer art: Computer graphics methods are widely used in both fine arts and commercial art applications. To
use a variety of computational methods including special purpose hardware, artist paint brush programs, other
paint packages, specially developed software, CAD packages, desktop publishing software, animation packages
that provide facilities for designing objects, shapes and specified object motions.
Entertainment: One of the prime applications of computer graphics and multimedia is that it is used for digital
entertainment purpose. Computer graphics techniques are also used in making motion pictures, music videos
and television shows. Sometimes the graphics scenes are displayed by this facility and sometimes the actors and
line scenes. However, it is seen that music videos nowadays are using graphics in a very complex way.
Education and training: Applications of computer graphics and multimedia are often used in educational
programs. They are used in the physical, financial and economic system as a computer-generated model.
Models of a physical system, psychological system, population trends and equipment such as the color-coded
diagram (CCD) can hold training to understand the operations of the system.
Visualization: Scientist, engineers, medical person, business analyzer and other workers often need to analyse a
large amount of information or to study the behavior of certain processes, numerical simulations, satellite
cameras and other sources of amazingly large data/ files faster than they can be interpreted. Scanning these
large set of numbers to determine trends and relationship is an ineffective process.
Image processing: Image processing applies the techniques to modify or interpret the existing pictures such as
photographs. The main principle application of image processing is improving the picture quality and machine
perception of visual information that used in the images. To apply image processing techniques a photograph or
other pictures are first digitalized onto an image file. Then the digital methods can be applied to be arranged to
enhance color separation or to improve the quality of shading.
Graphical User Interface (GUI): GUI is one of the vastly used applications of computer graphics and
multimedia. A major component of GUI is a window manager that allows a user to display multiple window
areas. Each window can contain a different process which contains graphical or non-graphical objects. To make
a particular window active, it is to be clicked in that window using an interacting pointing device. Interfaces
also display menus and icons for first selection for processing options or any particular person/object.
Air and railway ticket reservation sites

Some popular websites for booking train and air tickets are as follows.
1. IRCTC 4. Makemytrip
2. Goibibo 5. Cleartrip
3. Yatra
Steps to book train ticket
1. Login to URL https://www.irctc.co.in/mobile with your existing IRCTC user id and password.
2. Click on Book Ticket and fill in details for plan my travel.
3. Select the train and continue the booking.
4. Use existing passenger list or add passengers.
5. Confirm booking details and pay through Credit/debit card to get successful
Steps to book air ticket
1. Login to URL https://www.goibibo.co.in/mobile with your existing IRCTC user id and password.
2. Look for flights in advance
3. Enter your trip details on an aggregator site
4. Choose how many stops you want to make.
5. Click through to the airline’s website
6. Choose your seat.
7. Choose to make it a package deal or not
8. Request special accommodations.
9. Choose to add insurance or not.
10. Book your ticket!
11. Receive your confirmation and receipt.
Robotics
Robotics is the engineering science and technology which involves the conception, design, operation
and manufacture of robots. Electronics, mechanics and software are brought together by robotics.
An industrial robot is a robot system used for manufacturing. Industrial robots are automated,
programmable and capable of movement on three or more axis.Typical applications of robots include welding,
painting, assembly, pick and place for printed circuit boards, packaging and labeling, palletizing, product
inspection, and testing; all accomplished with high endurance, speed, and precision. They can assist in material
handling.
Robots are used for jobs that are dirty, dull and dangerous. Today robotics have many different application
areas. Some of those are:
Outer Space Applications: Robots are playing a very important role for outer space exploration. The robotic
unmanned spacecraft is used as the key of exploring the stars, planets...etc.
Military Applications: In today's modern army robotics is an important factor which is researched and
developed day by day. Already remarkable success has been achieved with unmanned aerial vehicles like the
Predator drone, which are capable of taking surveillance photographs, and even accurately launching missiles at
ground targets, without a pilot.
Intelligent Home Applications: We can monitor home security, environmental conditions and energy usage
with intelligent robotic home systems. Door and windows can be opened automatically and appliances such as
lighting and air conditioning can be pre programmed to activate. This assists occupants irrespective of their
state of mobility.
Industry: From the beginning of the industrial revolution robotics and automation becomes the most important
part of manufacturing. Robotic arms which are able to perform multiple tasks such as welding, cutting, lifting,
sorting and bending are used in fabrics.
he most commonly used configurations of the industrial robots are:
1. Articulated Robots: An articulated robot is one which uses rotary joints to access its work
space. Articulated robots can range from simple two-jointed structures to systems with 10 or more
interacting joints.
2. Cylindrical Coordinate Robots: These robots have three degrees of freedom and they moves linearly
only along the Y and Z axes with a cylindrical work envelope.
3. Scara Robots: It stands for Selective Compliant Assembly Robot Arm or Selective Compliant
Articulated Robot Arm. SCARA robots usually have four axes as any X-Y-Z coordinate within their
work envelope and a fourth axis of motion which is the wrist rotate (Theta-Z).
4. Spherical Coordinate Robots: The spherical arm, also known as polar coordinate robot arm, has one
sliding motion and two rotational, around the vertical post and around a shoulder joint.
5. Cartesian Coordinate Robots: Rectangular arms are sometimes called "Cartesian" because the arm´s
axes can be described by using the X, Y, and Z coordinate system. It is claimed that the Cartesian design
will produce the most accurate movements.
6. Delta Robots: A Delta robot consists of three arms connected to universal joints at the base. The key
design feature is the use of parallelograms in the arms, which maintains the orientation of the end
effector. The Delta robot has popular usage in picking and packaging in factories
Health Service: Under development is a robotic suit that will enable nurses to lift patients without damaging
their backs. Scientists in Japan have developed a power-assisted suit which will give nurses the extra muscle
they need to lift their patients - and avoid back injuries.
Top 6 Robotic Applications in Automotive Manufacturing: The following robotic applications are the most
common in the automotive industry:
1. Collaborative Robots: These collaborative robots are built to work together with other robots, on
enormous assembly lines. Robots must collaborate between handling and welding robots to make such
assembly lines function properly.
2. Robotic Painting: Professional painters are difficult to find and the job is a highly toxic one. This
makes it perfect for robots, because the paint job needs to be highly consistent over a large area of paint,
and reducing the amount of wasted material can add up to quite a bit of savings over time.
3. Robotic Welding: Robotic welding has been the top robotic application in the automotive sector for a
long time, as every car needs a high number of welds before it’s complete. Given the high value of the
finished product, productivity from automation is enormous.
4. Robotic Assembly: In many automotive plants, robots are assembling smaller components like pumps
and motors at high speeds. Often, robots are performing tasks like windshield installation and wheel
mounting to increase throughput.
5. Material Removal: High consistency and repeatability make robots perfect for material removal
processes like trimming and cutting. This could be in the form of cutting fabrics, trimming plastic
moldings and die castings or even polishing molds.
4. Part Transfer and Machine Tending: Pouring molten metal, transferring metal stamps, and loading
and unloading CNC machines are all best completed by a robot as they are dangerous. When completed
consistently with little downtime they can also be a source of major productivity.
Cyber security
Cyber security refers to the body of technologies, processes, and practices designed to protect networks,
devices, programs, and data from attack, damage, or unauthorized access. Cyber security may also be referred
to as information technology security.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CYBER SECURITY
Cyber security is important because government, military, corporate, financial, and medical
organizations collect, process, and store unprecedented amounts of data on computers and other devices. A
significant portion of that data can be sensitive information, whether that is intellectual property, financial data,
personal information, or other types of data for which unauthorized access or exposure could have negative
consequences.
Organizations transmit sensitive data across networks and to other devices in the course of doing
businesses, and cyber security describes the discipline dedicated to protecting that information and the systems
used to process or store it. As the volume and sophistication of cyber-attacks grow, companies and
organizations, especially those that are tasked with safeguarding information relating to national security,
health, or financial records, need to take steps to protect their sensitive business and personnel information.
CHALLENGES OF CYBER SECURITY
For an effective cyber security, an organization needs to coordinate its efforts throughout its entire information
system. Elements of cyber encompass all of the following:
1. Network security 5. Identity management
2. Application security 6. Cloud security
3. Endpoint security 7. Mobile security
4. Data security 8. End-user education
9. Disaster recovery/business continuity planning
10. Database and infrastructure security
The most difficult challenge in cyber security is the ever-evolving nature of security risks themselves.
Traditionally, organizations and the government have focused most of their cyber security resources on
perimeter security to protect only their most crucial system components and defend against known treats.
MANAGING CYBER SECURITY
The National Cyber Security Alliance, through SafeOnline.org, recommends a top-down approach to cyber
security in which corporate management leads the charge in prioritizing cyber security management across all
business practices. NCSA advises that companies must be prepared to “respond to the inevitable cyber incident,
restore normal operations, and ensure that company assets and the company’s reputation are protected.”
NCSA’s guidelines for conducting cyber risk assessments focus on three key areas: identifying your
organization’s “crown jewels,” or your most valuable information requiring protection; identifying the threats
and risks facing that information; and outlining the damage your organization would incur should that data be
lost or wrongfully exposed.
Cyber risk assessments should also consider any regulations that impact the way your company collects,
stores, and secures data, such as PCI-DSS, HIPAA, SOX, FISMA, and others. Following a cyber-risk
assessment, develop and implement a plan to mitigate cyber risk, protect the “crown jewels” outlined in your
assessment, and effectively detect and respond to security incidents. This plan should encompass both the
processes and technologies required to build a mature cyber security program.
An ever-evolving field, cyber security best practices must evolve to accommodate the increasingly
sophisticated attacks carried out by attackers. Combining sound cyber security measures with an educated and
security-minded employee base provides the best defense against cyber criminals attempting to gain access to
your company’s sensitive data. While it may seem like a daunting task, start small and focus on your most
sensitive data, scaling your efforts as your cyber program matures.
Types of cyber security threats
The process of keeping up with new technologies, security trends and threat intelligence is a challenging task.
However, it's necessary in order to protect information and other assets from cyber threats, which take many
forms.
1. Ransom ware is a type of malware that involves an attacker locking the victim's computer system files --
typically through encryption -- and demanding a payment to decrypt and unlock them.
2. Malware is any file or program used to harm a computer user, such as worms, computer viruses, Trojan
horses and spyware.
3. Social engineering is an attack that relies on human interaction to trick users into breaking security
procedures in order to gain sensitive information that is typically protected.
4. Phishing is a form of fraud where fraudulent emails are sent that resemble emails from reputable
sources; however, the intention of these emails is to steal sensitive data, such as credit card or login
information.
Benefits of cyber security
1. Benefits of utilizing cyber security includes:
2. Business protection against malware, ransomware, phishing and social engineering.
3. Protection for data and networks.
4. Prevention of unauthorized users.
5. Improves recovery time after a breach.
6. Protection for end-users.
7. Improved confidence in the product for both developers and customers.
Audio and Video-conferencing

Web Conferencing
Web conferencing involves sharing content live over the web between two or more locations. Visual
material is usually accompanied by an audio track. You can use web conferencing to do live presentations, team
meetings, or employee training. Typically, participants connect from their own devices to the conference via the
Internet. There are different types of web conferences, but the two most commonly used are webinars and
webcasts. A webinar is a one-way conference between one or more speakers. A webcast is a live streaming
event, broadcast over the Internet.
Video Conferencing
Video conferencing has been widely adopted and is fast becoming the most common form of digital
collaboration. Two people having a chat? You're good to go. But when more than two people are joining a
video conference, you will require a bridge device, usually a multipoint control unit, often found within a
company network. However, they are also available through a third-party provider.
This technology is gaining popularity because visual elements enrich conferencing. Additionally, it lets
organizations conduct meetings or pitches remotely, greatly reducing travel costs. Video conferencing also
offers audio-only capabilities, file sharing, and screen sharing options. To make video conferencing most
effective, it's important to have good lighting and stand/sit directly in front of the camera. This way, participants
appear to be in front of one another, giving users the feeling of a face-to-face meeting, despite being in different
locations.
Audio Conferencing
Audio conferencing has been around the longest and this method allows many people to participate in a
call by connecting through a conferencing bridge. With an ID and access number or unique code, you can log
into a group call. This may also be supplemented by individual PIN numbers to identify callers and/or for
security reasons.
Audio conferencing is slowly losing favor due to the popularity of video conferencing's more personal,
face-to-face interaction, though there are still some who prefer the more traditional method. Remember to invest
in a high-quality microphone to get the most out of your audio conferencing.
This is a very broad category of online tools, incorporating a range of options from free one-to-one audio
conferencing all the way to more sophisticated and expensive tools such as Polycom which allow multiple sites
with entire classes participating using video and audio.
Video and audio, or just audio connection between two computers communicating via the Internet.
Examples of free audio conferencing software: Gizmo, Skype (both cross platform) both enable users to
speak to other Gizmo/Skype users free of charge (although users can also pay a fee and make calls to landlines
using the computer). Examples of free video conferencing software: iVisit (cross platform), iChat (Mac
only), NetMeeting (Windows only). Breeze can also be used for video conferencing (but Breeze is more than
just a video/audio conferencing tool.).
Transmitted to & received from any computer in any location that has Internet connection (broadband
desirable for effective use). Teacher must have microphone, can have camera. Ideally end users have
microphone (camera not essential) for synchronous communication.
Technology requirements for video/audio conferencing:
1. Computer with access (ideally broadband) to the Internet.
2. Browser.
3. Speakers to hear audio.
4. Microphone (to contribute audio).
5. Web camera to contribute video
Why use video/audio conferencing?
Enables teacher or limited number of learners need to connect from different locations at the same time when
only video and/or audio connection is needed. Examples: guest speaker at remote location can talk to local
class; students in one class can engage in discussion with students at another location (such as a class in another
country); when a student is unable to attend face-to-face class, s/he can connect to class via VOIP; students can
take virtual field trips to remote locations.
Advantages video/audio conferencing
1. Free download of easy to use software that can be used via Internet to connect student, instructor, or
guest speaker to class and enable both sides to see & hear.
2. Enables individual (usually limited to one connection) to participate in synchronous learning
experiences from any location worldwide. Users can connect from home, work or other location easily
accessible to them.
3. Specifically useful for guest speaker who is far away from face-to-face class location, or student who
cannot be in face-to-face class.
4. Enables students to take virtual field trips to remote locations or engaging in an interactive lesson. This
is especially an advantage to students who attend schools in isolated communities, but is an advantage to
all students regardless of location or socio-economic factors.
5. Can be used to record vodcast or podcast and uploaded to course website.
6. As video conferencing technology improves, this can become a far cheaper alternative to ITV or systems
like PolyCom in enabling school districts to offer specialized subjects by having one teacher teach a
class to students at a number of schools.
Disadvantages of video/audio conferencing
1. Typically on free systems only one or a very limited number of users can connect to the host (instructor)
computers at a time, so video/audio conferencing can be used only for individual access rather than as a
larger scale tool and learning environment. However, newer systems such as Camfrog enable multi-user
video conferencing.
2. Depending on the stability of the connection, users may be disconnected during the class and have to
reconnect.
3. Difficult to see and hear people who are not close to the microphone/camera, especially when using one
of the low-cost systems (such as iSight camera). Thus difficult to have multiple people at one site,
sharing a computer to communicate with users at other sites.
Issues & problems related to video/audio conferencing
Works best with broad band connection, especially for video conferencing. Users report that after the
initial fascination with the video component has worn off, they realize that they really only need to use the
audio as this uses less bandwidth and results in higher quality audio than the video option. Because of the small
video window and low quality, the video image is of limited use.
If used for users connecting to face-to-face class, it is important to have good quality speakers so that
classroom-based students can hear the person who is calling in. Students speaking from classroom must identify
who they are before speaking.
Requires students connecting to class from remote site to be able to follow discussion relying just on
audio or audio with low quality video. This is also an accessibility issue.
Social networking
A social networking service (also social networking site or social media) is an online platform which people use
to build social networks or social relationship with other people who share similar personal or career interests,
activities, backgrounds or real-life connections.
What Is Social Networking?
Social networking is the use of Internet-based social media sites to stay connected with friends, family,
colleagues, customers, or clients. Social networking can have a social purpose, a business purpose, or both,
through sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Instagram, among others. Social networking has become
a significant base for marketers seeking to engage customers.
Despite some stiff competition, Facebook remains the most popular social network, with a reach 90% of U.S.
mobile users, as of October 2018, the most recent data available, as of early 2019. It was followed, in order of
popularity, by Instagram, Facebook Messenger, Twitter, and Pinterest, according to Statistica.com.
How Social Networking Works
Marketers use social networking for increasing brand recognition and encouraging brand loyalty. Since it makes
a company more accessible to new customers and more recognizable for existing customers, social networking
helps promote a brand’s voice and content.
For example, a frequent Twitter user may hear of a company for the first time through a news feed and decide to
buy a product or service. The more exposed people are to a company’s brand, the greater the company's chances
of finding and retaining new customers.
Marketers use social networking for improving conversion rates. Building a following provides access to and
interaction with new, recent and old customers. Sharing blog posts, images, videos or comments on social
media allows followers to react, visit the company’s website and become customers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Social Networking in Marketing
Customers may complement the company’s offerings and encourage others to buy the products or services. The
more customers are talking about a company on social networking, the more valuable the brand authority
becomes. As a brand grows stronger, more sales result. Increased company posts rank the company higher in
search engines. Social networking can help establish a brand as legitimate, credible, and trustworthy.
A company may use social networking to demonstrate its customer service level and enrich its relationships
with consumers. For example, if a customer complains about a product or service on Twitter, the company may
address the issue immediately, apologize, and take action to make it right. However, criticism of a brand can
spread very quickly on social media. This can create a virtual headache for a company's public relations
department.
Although social networking itself is free, building and maintaining a company profile takes hours each week.
Costs for those hours add up quickly. In addition, businesses need many followers before a social media
marketing campaign starts generating a positive return on investment (ROI). For example, submitting a post to
15 followers does not have the same effect as submitting the post to 15,000 followers.
Top social media sites are
Facebook
YouTube Pinterest
Instagram Fliker
Qzone Linkedin
Weibo whatsapp
Twitter
Surveillance
Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, activities, or information for the purpose of influencing, managing
or directing. This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as closed-
circuit television (CCTV), or interception of electronically transmitted information, such as Internet traffic. It
can also include simple technical methods, such as human intelligence gathering and postal interception.
Surveillance is used by governments for intelligence gathering, prevention of crime, the protection of a
process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by criminal organizations to plan
and commit crimes, and by businesses to gather intelligence on their competitors, suppliers or customers.
Surveillance can be viewed as a violation of privacy, and as such is often opposed by civil liberties activists.
A liberal democracy may have laws which restrict domestic government and private use of
surveillance. Authoritarian governments seldom have any domestic restrictions, and international espionage is
common among all types of countries.
Concerns have been raised about surveillance with regards to the Internet of things. Where surveillance
technology is used for identification, monitoring, location tracking or to gain access to buildings and networks.
Security Camera Applications: With their wide range of styles and features, security cameras are common in
most industries around the world. These applications can range from theft and vandalism deterrence to traffic
and weather monitoring and more.
By combining advanced camera features with sturdy outdoor housings or discreet camera design, an IP
camera can be installed in almost any location. This makes them ideal for monitoring inside and outside of
businesses and offices, recording in remote locations, or recording high quality video to identify suspicious
people.
Methods
Computer: The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data and traffic on
the Internet. In the United States for example, under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act,
all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) are required to be
available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by federal law enforcement agencies.
Telephones:
The official and unofficial tapping of telephone lines is widespread. In the United States for instance,
the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) requires that all telephone and VoIP
communications be available for real-time wiretapping by Federal law enforcement and intelligence
agencies. Two major telecommunications companies in the U.S.—AT&T Inc. and Verizon—have contracts
with the FBI, requiring them to keep their phone call records easily searchable and accessible for Federal
agencies, in return for $1.8 million per year. Between 2003 and 2005, the FBI sent out more than 140,000
"National Security Letters" ordering phone companies to hand over information about their customers' calling
and Internet histories. About half of these letters requested information on U.S. citizens.
Social Network analysis: One common form of surveillance is to create maps of social networks based on data
from social networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter as well as from traffic analysis information
from phone call records such as those in the NSA call database, and others. These social network "maps" are
then data mined to extract useful information such as personal interests, friendships & affiliations, wants,
beliefs, thoughts, and activities.
Biometric: Biometric surveillance is a technology that measures and analyzes human physical and/or behavioral
characteristics for authentication, identification, or screening purposes. Examples of physical characteristics
include fingerprints, DNA, and facial patterns. Examples of mostly behavioral characteristics include gait (a
person's manner of walking) or voice.
Aerial: Aerial surveillance is the gathering of surveillance, usually visual imagery or video, from an airborne
vehicle—such as an unmanned aerial vehicle, helicopter, or spy plane. Military surveillance aircraft use a range of
sensors (e.g. radar) to monitor the battlefield.
RFID and geolocation devices: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tagging is the use of very small electronic
devices (called "RFID tags") which are applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose
of identification and tracking using radio waves. The tags can be read from several meters away. They are
extremely inexpensive, costing a few cents per piece, so they can be inserted into many types of everyday products
without significantly increasing the price, and can be used to track and identify these objects for a variety of
purposes.
Case Studies: Computer Literacy for banking, KYC, Insurance and financial transactions,
operating mobile banking, Nine Pillars of Mission Digital India (DI-Initiatives) and their scheme
highlights.
Computer Literacy for banking

Banks and other financial institution are heavy users of computers in maintaining customer's accounts,
ledger, updating, electronic fund transfer and processing of huge amount of cheques, credit cards, and the major
transactions that takes place daily.
To pursue a career as Bank PO it is indeed needed to have some computer knowledge because everything once
maintained in files and papers have moved into word documents and excel sheet. So as a bank PO you must be
good in Basic Computer Skills like MS Word, MS Excel, MS Access etc.
It’s hard to imagine banks without technology. In fact, computers have been in use in banking since the 1950s,
when Bank of America introduced a computer designed specifically for processing checks. Each new decade
has brought innovations that change the way banks manage daily operations and serve customers. Today, you
may not even leave your house to do your banking. As much as technology has changed the use of the computer
in the banking sector, banks continue to adjust the way they do things.
Account Management
You may no longer get a free toaster when you open a new checking or savings account, but the process is
easier than ever. You can even open a new account online. On the banking side of things, this eliminates the
need to have someone on-site at each branch, manually processing and approving applications. Once an account
is open, the bank manages everything electronically. Still, many banks maintain local branches with full-time
account representatives to help nearby customers who want that personal touch.
Electronic Transactions
Those who hadn’t yet reached adulthood by the end of the last century may not remember the days of check
writing. Businesses often had to wait for a check to “clear,” which meant approval by the payer’s financial
institution, to access the funds they deposited. The use of computers have sped up that entire process, with
instant check authorizations. Checks have mostly become an afterthought, thanks to debit cards that take funds
automatically from a person’s account. Mobile payments will take that even further, letting customers pay with
a mobile device or wearable, eventually taking plastic out of the equation.
ATMs
As much as experts claim we’re heading toward a cashless society, it remains the most used payment method in
the U.S., according to PYMNTS.com. Getting cash from your bank account still requires a trip to an automatic
teller machine, known as an ATM. Since the first ATM was installed in 1969, the technology has evolved,
making it easier for customers to deposit money, as well as withdraw. Although human tellers are still
necessary, banks are aiming to have them focus on higher-level activities as ATM technology handles most
basic transactions.
Online Banking
Furthering the do-it-yourself banking model is online banking, which allows customers to pay bills, view
account balances, transfer funds from one account to another, pay friends and much more. Financial institutions
have also given consumers control over their own security by adding features like the ability to freeze a missing
credit card to avoid further charges. Over time, these controls will only increase as technologies like biometrics
and facial recognition keep accounts safe.
Insurance and financial transactions

A financial transaction is an agreement, or communication, carried out between a buyer and
a seller to exchange an asset for payment. It involves a change in the status of the finances of two or more
businesses or individuals. The buyer and seller are separate entities or objects, often involving the
exchange of items of value, such as information, goods, services, and money. It is still a transaction if the
goods are exchanged at one time, and the money at another. This is known as a two-part transaction: part
one is giving the money, part two is receiving the goods.
Operating mobile banking

Mobile banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution that allows its customers to
conduct financial transactions remotely using a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet. Unlike the
related internet banking it uses software, usually called an app, provided by the financial institution for
the purpose. Mobile banking is usually available on a 24-hour basis. Some financial institutions have
restrictions on which accounts may be accessed through mobile banking, as well as a limit on the amount
that can be transacted. Mobile banking is dependent on the availability of an internet or data connection
to the mobile device.
Most banks offer mobile banking services. Given that the mobile phone is the most easily accessible and
widely used device among customers, it is convenient for them to carry out banking transactions through
this medium. Follow these steps to activate mobile banking.
Registration: Some banks require the customer to register for mobile banking by filling up a registration
form and submitting an identity proof with the form to a bank branch.
Mobile banking app: The customer is required to download the bank’s mobile banking application from
the app store, based on the make and model of the mobile phone they use.
Activation process: The mobile banking application downloaded needs to be activated by following a
few simple steps. Some banks allow the customer to set a mobile banking PIN, others send a default MPIN
as an SMS. The mobile banking PIN must be entered each time the customer wi shes to access mobile
banking services.
Login: After activation and entering the mobile banking PIN, the customer needs to use his net banking
log-in id and password to access the account.
Security: Each bank has different security features to ensure that customers have a safe, secure and
hassle-free mobile banking experience. There may be added authentications such as OTP, grid-based
authentication, etc. to carry out mobile banking transactions.
Nine Pillars of Mission Digital India (DI-Initiatives) and their scheme highlights.
1. Broadband Highways
2. Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity
3. Public Internet Access Program
4. E-Governance: Reforming Government through Technology
5. E-Kranti - Electronic Delivery of Services
6. Information for All
7. Electronics Manufacturing
8. IT for Jobs
9. Early Harvest Programmes
Broadband highweays
1. This covers three sub components, namely Broadband for All Rural, Broadband for All Urban and
National Information Infrastructure.
2. Under Broadband for All Rural, 250 thousand village Panchayats would be covered by December, 2016.
DoT will be the Nodal Department and the project cost is estimated to be approximately Rs. 32,000 Cr.
3. Under Broadband for All Urban, Virtual Network Operators would be leveraged for service delivery and
communication infrastructure in new urban development and buildings would be mandated.
4. National Information Infrastructure would integrate the networks like SWAN, NKN and NOFN along
with cloud enabled National and State Data Centres. It will also have provision for horizontal
connectivity to 100, 50, 20 and 5 government offices/ service outlets at state, district, block and
panchayat levels respectively. DeitY will be the nodal department and the project cost is estimated to be
around Rs 15,686 Cr for implementation in 2 years and maintenance & support for 5 years.
Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity
1. The initiative is to focus on network penetration and fill the gaps in connectivity in the country.
2. All together 42,300 uncovered villages will be covered for providing universal mobile connectivity in
the country.
3. DoT will be the nodal department and project cost will be around Rs 16,000 Cr during FY 2014-18.
Public Internet Access Program
1. The two sub components of Public Internet Access Program are Common Service Centers and Post
Offices as multi-service centers.
2. Common Service Centers would be strengthened and its number would be increased from approximately
135,000 operational at present to 250,000 i.e. one CSC in each Gram Panchayat. CSCs would be made
viable, multi-functional end-points for delivery of government and business services. DeitY would be
the nodal department to implement the scheme.
3. A total of 150,000 Post Offices are proposed to be converted into multi service centres. Department of
Posts would be the nodal department to implement this scheme
E-Governance: Reforming Government through Technology
Government Business Process Re-engineering using IT to improve transactions is the most critical for
transformation across government and therefore needs to be implemented by all ministries/ departments.
The guiding principles for reforming government through technology are:
1. Form simplification and field reduction – Forms should be made simple and user friendly and only
minimum and necessary information should be collected.
2. Online applications, tracking of their status and interface between departments should be provided.
3. Use of online repositories e.g. school certificates, voter ID cards, etc. should be mandated so that
citizens are not required to submit these documents in physical form.
4. Integration of services and platforms, e.g. UIDAI, Payment Gateway, Mobile Platform, Electronic Data
Interchange (EDI) etc. should be mandated to facilitate integrated and interoperable service delivery to
citizens and businesses.
Electronic Databases – all databases and information should be electronic and not manual.
Workflow Automation Inside Government – The workflow inside government departments and agencies should
be automated to enable efficient government processes and also to allow visibility of these processes to the
citizens.
Public Grievance Redressal - IT should be used to automate, respond and analyze data to identify and resolve
persistent problems. These would be largely process improvements.
E-Kranti - Electronic Delivery of Services
There are 31 Mission Mode Projects under different stages of e-governance project lifecycle. Further, 10 new
MMPs have been added to e-Kranti by the Apex Committee on National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) headed by
the Cabinet Secretary in its meeting held on 18th March 2014.
1. Technology for Education – e-Education: All Schools will be connected with broadband. Free wifi will
be provided in all secondary and higher secondary schools (coverage would be around 250,000 schools).
A programme on digital literacy would be taken up at the national level. MOOCs –Massive Online Open
Courses shall be developed and leveraged for e-Education.
2. Technology for Health – e-Healthcare: E-Healthcare would cover online medical consultation, online
medical records, online medicine supply, pan-India exchange for patient information. Pilots shall be
undertaken in 2015 and full coverage would be provided in 3 years.
3. Technology for Farmers: This would facilitate farmers to get real time price information, online ordering
of inputs and online cash, loan and relief payment with mobile banking.
4. Technology for Security: Mobile based emergency services and disaster related services would be
provided to citizens on real time basis so as to take precautionary measures well in time and minimize
loss of lives and properties.
5. Technology for Financial Inclusion: Financial Inclusion shall be strengthened using Mobile Banking,
Micro-ATM program and CSCs/ Post Offices.
6. Technology for Justice: Interoperable Criminal Justice System shall be strengthened by leveraging e-
Courts, e-Police, e-Jails and e-Prosecution.
7. Technology for Planning: National GIS Mission Mode Project would be implemented to facilitate GIS
based decision making for project planning, conceptualization, design and development.
8. Technology for Cyber Security: National Cyber Security Co-ordination Center would be set up to ensure
safe and secure cyber-space within the country.
Information for All
1. Open Data platform and online hosting of information & documents would facilitate open and easy
access to information for citizens.
2. Government shall pro-actively engage through social media and web based platforms to inform
citizens. MyGov.in has already been launched as a medium to exchange ideas/ suggestions with
Government. It will facilitate 2-way communication between citizens and government.
3. Online messaging to citizens on special occasions/programs would be facilitated through emails and
SMSes.
4. The above would largely utilise existing infrastructure and would need limited additional resources.
Electronics Manufacturing
Target NET ZERO Imports is a striking demonstration of intent. This ambitious goal requires coordinated
action on many fronts
1. Taxation, incentives
2. Economies of scale, eliminate cost disadvantages
3. Focus areas – Big Ticket Items FABS, Fab-less design, Set top boxes, VSATs, Mobiles, Consumer &
Medical Electronics, Smart Energy meters, Smart cards, micro-ATMs
4. Incubators, clusters
5. Skill development
6. Government procurement
There are many ongoing programs which will be fine-tuned. Existing structures are inadequate to handle this
goal and need strengthening.
IT for Jobs
1. 1 Cr students from smaller towns & villages will be trained for IT sector jobs over 5 years. DeitY
would be the nodal department for this scheme.
2. BPOs would be set up in every north-eastern state to facilitate ICT enabled growth in these states. DeitY
would be the nodal department for this scheme.
3. 3 lakh service delivery agents would be trained as part of skill development to run viable businesses
delivering IT services. DeitY would be the nodal department for this scheme.
4. 5 lakh rural workforce would be trained by the Telecom Service Providers (TSPs) to cater to their own
needs. Department of Telecom (DoT) would be the nodal department for this scheme.
Early Harvest Programmes
1. IT Platform for Messages: A Mass Messaging Application has been developed by DeitY that will cover
elected representatives and all Government employees. 1.36 Cr mobiles and 22 Lakh emails are part of
the database.
2. Government Greetings to be e-Greetings: Basket of e-Greetings templates have been made available.
Crowd sourcing of e-Greetings through MyGov platform has been ensured. E-Greetings portal has
been made live on 14th August 2014.
3. Biometric attendance: It will cover all Central Govt. Offices in Delhi and is already operational in DeitY
and has been initiated in the Department of Urban Development. On-boarding has also started in other
departments.
4. Wi-Fi in All Universities: All universities on the National Knowledge Network (NKN) shall be covered
under this scheme. Ministry of HRD is the nodal ministry for implementing this scheme.
5. Secure Email within Government: Email would be the primary mode of communication.
6. Phase-I upgradation for 10 lakh employees has been completed. In Phase II, infrastructure would be
further upgraded to cover 50 lakh employees by March 2015 at a cost of Rs 98 Cr. DeitY is the nodal
department for this scheme.
7. Standardize Government Email Design: Standardised templates for Government email are under
preparation and would be ready by October 2014. This would be implemented by DeitY.
8. Public Wi-fi hotspots: Cities with population of over 1 million and tourist centres would be provided
with public wi-fi hotspots to promote digital cities. The scheme would be implemented by DoT and
MoUD.
9. School Books to be eBooks: All books shall be converted into eBooks. Min. of HRD/ DeitY would be
the nodal agencies for this scheme.
10. SMS based weather information, disaster alerts: SMS based weather information and disaster alerts
would be provided. DeitY’s Mobile Seva Platform is already ready and available for this purpose. MoES
(IMD) / MHA (NDMA) would be the nodal organizations for implementing this scheme.
11. National Portal for Lost & Found children: This would facilitate real time information gathering and
sharing on the lost and found children and would go a long way to check crime and improve timely
response and DeitY/ DoWCD would be the nodal departments for this project.

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Unit 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

S.No Generation & Description

The development of computer systems is normally discussed as the development over

• The first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of 0-

• The second generation computers were developed by using transistor technology.

• The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor

• By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it became

• It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.

• It became available for the common people as well.

Block Diagram of Computer

Dia:-Block Diagram of Computer

• CPU (Central Processing Unit)

• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Input Devices of Computer System

• Later it supplies the decipherable information to PC for additionally handling

• Keyboard and mouse are the prime examples of input devices.

Output Devices of Computer Systems

The prime examples of Output devices are Printer, Monitor,Projectors etc

Central Processing Unit (CPU) of Computer System

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

• Arithmetic Unit (AU)

• Logic Unit (LU)

Storage Unit of Computer

• It stores information or instruction

• It stores consequence of prepared data

There are mainly two types of storage Unit

Examples of Hardware are the following −

• Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.

• Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.

• Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.

• Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

• Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.

• Hardware is a one-time expense.

• Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.

• Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.

• A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A

There are two types of software −

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

• Close to the system

• Generally written in low-level language.

Examples of Application software are the following −

• Student Record Software

• Inventory Management Software

• Income Tax Software

• Railways Reservation Software

• Microsoft Office Suite Software

Features of application software are as follows −

• Close to the user

• Generally written in high-level language

• Easy to manipulate and use

• Bigger in size and requires large storage space

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

3. LED (Light-Emitting Diodes)