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33,5/6
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International Journal of Social
Economics
Vol. 33 No. 5/6, 2006
pp. 386-398
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0306-8293
DOI 10.1108/03068290610660661
Corporate social responsibility:
the 3C-SR model
John Meehan, Karon Meehan and Adam Richards
The Management School, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
Abstract
Purpose – To develop a model that bridges the gap between CSR definitions and strategy and offers
guidance to managers on how to connect socially committed organisations with the growing numbers
of ethically aware consumers to simultaneously achieve economic and social objectives.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper offers a critical evaluation of the theoretical
foundations of corporate responsibility (CR) and proposes a new strategic approach to CR, which seeks
to overcome the limitations of normative definitions. To address this perceived issue, the authors
propose a new processual model of CR, which they refer to as the 3C-SR model.
Findings – The 3C-SR model can offer practical guidelines to managers on how to connect with the
growing numbers of ethically aware consumers to simultaneously achieve economic and social
objectives. It is argued that many of the redefinitions of CR for a contemporary audience are normative
exhortations (“calls to arms”) that fail to provide managers with the conceptual resources to move from
“ought” to “how”.
Originality/value – The 3C-SR model offers a novel approach to CR in so far as it addresses
strategy, operations and markets in a single framework.
Keywords Corporate social responsibility, Social capital, Corporate strategy
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
Business in society scholars have developed many theoretical frameworks intended to
map and measure business organisations’ roles and impacts in civil society. However,
over 50 years since Bowen (1953) published his seminal Social Responsibilities of the
Businessman, management practitioners in general still prefer the narrower economic
orientation of the Chicago School to a broader acceptance of social responsibilities.
Why does this view persist in the face of overwhelming evidence that its associated
externalities present clear and present dangers to society? In this paper, the authors
argue that adoption of corporate responsibility (CR) in the commercial world has been
limited, to those areas offering economic gains, because scholars have not provided
adequate conceptual resources to help managers integrate other aspects of CR into
their corporate strategies and operations.
To support this claim we first evaluate several well-known models of CR to
establish the overriding focus on definition, scope and measurement (at the expense of
implementation). This will establish the paucity of conceptual tools with which to
realise a strategic, operational and market relevant approach to CR. We will then
outline a processual model of CR that we term the 3C-SR model and explain how
it may help bridge the gap between academic exhortation and practitioner
actionability. Finally, we offer some initial ideas on how the model can be
implemented to deliver a competitive strategy built on social resources that offers triple
bottom line benefits.
 Literature review Corporate social
Leading scholars in the “business in society” field periodically bemoan the lack of responsibility
consensus regarding terminology and structural frameworks for discussing and
evaluating what, for need of a term, we will call “corporate social performance”. A few
examples from the past 30 years illustrate the point:
The phrase corporate social responsibility has been used in so many different contexts that it
has lost all meaning. Devoid of internal structure and content, it has come to mean all things 387
to all people (Sethi, 1975, p. 58).
Although milestones toward a theory of corporate social performance can be identified . . .
there is not yet such a theory. Conceptual developments have not been systematically
integrated with one another but usually have been treated as free-standing, implicitly
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competing ideas (Wood, 1991, p. 691).

The array of terminology that has been used over the years in the development of what
is now broadly called corporate citizenship, or corporate responsibility, highlights some
of the confusion in determining the progress of corporate citizenship (Waddock, 2004, p. 5).
Waddock (2004) illustrates the dilemma by cataloguing the terminology and ideas
currently in use:
(1) Corporate social responsibility (CSR-CSR1):
.
corporate social responsiveness (CSR2);
.
carroll’s pyramid of CRs;
.
corporate social rectitude/ethics (CSR3); and
.
corporate social religion (CSR4).
(2) Corporate social performance (CSP).
(3) Alternative CSR3s:
. corporate social relationships; and
. corporate social reputation.
(4) Corporate responsibility.
(5) Stakeholder approach/theory:
.
instrumental, descriptive, normative, narrative;
.
stakeholder management;
.
stakeholder relationships; and
.
stakeholder engagement.
(6) Business ethics and values, including nature-based values:
.
economizing;
.
power aggrandizing;
.
ecologizing; and
.
attunement.
(7) Boundary-spanning functions including:
.
issues management;
.
public affairs;
 IJSE .
employee relations;
33,5/6 .
investor relations;
.
public relations;
.
customer relations;
.
supplier relations;
388 .
corporate community relations (CCR); and
.
etc.
(8) Corporate community involvement (CCI).
(9) Corporate citizenship (CC):
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.
business citizenship.

Waddock (2004) argues this situation persists, in part, because distinct management
disciplines exist in parallel universes thus partly negating integration of the theoretical
advances to date. Similarly, the academy and the world of management practice exist
in parallel universes with limited (though noteworthy) crossover where business in
society debates are concerned (Waddock, 2004).
While accepting paradigm incommensurability as a contributory factor, this alone
does not explain the ongoing failure of advocates of CR to establish what are clearly
pressing social issues high on the agendas of the corporations whose practices they
derive from. This paper explores another important contributory factor. We contend
the lack of corporate buy-in is as much to do with the academy failing to provide
frameworks that go beyond defining CR than a lack of will (though this too is a factor
as will be illustrated later). To illustrate this point we now review the three key
perspectives in the CR literature via their most prominent frameworks.

Corporate social responsibility

Definitional issues regarding “corporate social responsibility” (CSR) have remained an
area of deliberation from the concepts very beginnings. Early models of CSR emerged
in the 1960s and typically held the “social” aspect of CSR as referring directly to those
responsibilities above and beyond economic and legal obligations (Carroll, 1979;
Waddock, 2004; Matten and Crane, 2005). Thus, for many, CSR was and still is
synonymous with voluntary and philanthropic acts by business organisations
designed to alleviate social ills or benefit a disadvantaged group chosen by the
corporation’s managers.
Carroll’s “pyramid of corporate social responsibility” is perhaps the most famous
example of the early models. This model’s graphical representation implied a hierarchy
of responsibilities moving from economic and legal through to more socially oriented
ones of ethical and philanthropic responsibilities (Carroll, 1991). Acknowledging the
problems inherent in the visual representation of this schema as an implicit hierarchy,
Schwarz and Carroll (2003) have replaced the pyramid with a Venn diagram and also
abandoned the philanthropic category as not justifiable as a “social responsibility” due
to its discretionary nature. This latter revision updates the model to correspond more
closely to contemporary notions of CSR as integral to (rather than imposed upon)
the business system and exemplified in concepts such as the triple bottom line and
social auditing.
 Another key dimension of early models was an emphasis on “responsibility” or Corporate social
obligation. For early revisionists in the 1970s, this was too static a notion of CSR. responsibility
They argued for a more proactive and dynamic orientation, which required
organisations to not only meet the expectations of a civil society to secure their
legitimacy, but also to anticipate and promote desirable changes in business-society
relationships. This changed emphasis became associated with the term “social
responsiveness” and is most famously articulated in Sethi’s three state schemas for 389
corporate behaviour as “social obligation”, “social responsibility” and “social
responsiveness” (Sethi, 1975).
Waddock (2004) traces the source of this shift to two key works published in the
mid-1970s. The work of Preston and Post (1975) emphasized the organisation’s wider
engagement in shaping and delivering public policy commitments. By contrast,
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Ackerman and Bauer (1976) stressed the development of internal management

processes for effecting social responsiveness by making the organisation more flexible
in responding to external change in the social environment.
These early models of CSR (often termed CSR1 and, when “responsiveness” is
emphasised, CSR2) are normative and descriptive in nature. They singularly fail to
provide any tools or guidance on how to operationalise the responsibilities they
would have managers embrace. Ackerman and Bauer acknowledge as much when they
state:
Responding to social demands is much more than deciding what to do. There remains the
management task of doing what one has decided to do, and this task is far from trivial
(quoted in Carroll, 1979).

Corporate social performance

The “corporate social performance” (CSP) model, as extended by Wood (1991), offered
conceptual synthesis of existing developments, in an attempt to allow academics to
locate CSR concepts within a broader overall understanding. However, the primary aim
of the CSP model is to address Ackerman and Bauer’s concerns by focusing attention
on outcomes: “the term performance speaks of actions and outcomes, not of interaction
and integration” (Wood, 1991, p. 692)
Building on an earlier attempt to devise an integrated CSP model by Wartick and
Cochran (1985) – itself with foundations in Carroll’s (1979) work cited above – Wood
(1991) suggests a CSP model consisting of three interacting elements in the form
of principles of CSR, processes of corporate social responsiveness and outcomes of
corporate behaviour. It is the focus on “social responsiveness” that is seen as the key to
breaking the perceived definitional impasse and achieving action.
In discussing each element of the model, Wood (1991) skilfully integrates various
theoretical perspectives into a coherent model of CSP. A brief exposition follows.
The “principles” of corporate social responsibility operate at three levels;
institutional, organisational and individual. These derive from earlier work on social
legitimacy (Davis, 1973), responsibility for organisational outcomes/impacts (Preston
and Post, 1975), and managerial discretion exercised by individual “moral actors” in
the manner of Carroll’s discretionary responsibilities (Carroll, 1979), respectively.
By “processes of corporate social responsiveness”, Wood means the processes by
which the organisation identifies and frames responses to threats and opportunities
 IJSE presented by environmental factors and the managerial processes that generate
33,5/6 internal coping mechanisms. Specifically, context includes environmental factors
(think, PESTEL, DEPICTS, etc.), stakeholder demands and ad hoc “issues” relating to
public relations, crises, political lobbying, etc. Internal coping mechanisms take the
form of internal policies, codes of conduct, ethics and values, etc.
The outcome of corporate behaviour is the only observable and assessable element
390 of the model, and is designed in conjunction with the principles and processes allowing
for improved pragmatic assessment of social impacts, programmes and policies.
Although the corporate social performance model does integrate much of the earlier
work into a coherent model for assessing an organisations social responsibility
standing, it does not fully consider the significance of stakeholder impacts (Waddock,
2004).
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Wood’s (1991) model is adapted by McAdam and Leonard (2003), to incorporate

the corporate social responsibility aspects within the business excellence model
(BEM-EFQM, 2002). Their desire is for corporate social responsibility to be
incorporated within established TQM systems as a tactic to advance understanding
and acceptance of a more ethically anchored approach to quality management. The
authors claim TQM has a foundation similar to that of corporate social responsibility,
in that they both have “ethical anchors” consistent with the previously discussed work
of Wood (1991). While arguing for this ethically grounded conception of a TQM/CSR
orientation, McAdam and Leonard acknowledge that for many organisations the more
defensive “instrumentalist perspective” is also prevalent whereby organisations
embrace CSR to maintain a positive corporate reputation and social legitimacy.
While Wood’s (1991) model represents a significant piece of scholarship, it
nevertheless failed to address the needs of practicing managers charged with
implementing CSR/CSP programmes and, crucially, measuring their impacts. This is
not unexpected. As Waddock (2004, p. 20) notes: “The framework was primarily
intended to advance theory and research in the field rather than to influence practice.”
The CSP model thus offers greater theoretical integration and more emphasis on
strategic and processual considerations but little guidance on how to actually develop
appropriate strategies and instruments for realising its stated aims.

Corporate citizenship
The term CC is a relatively new concept in the discourse surrounding business-society
relations. Its usage and meaning has been promulgated more by practitioners than
scholars. Indeed, many scholars early use of the term was as a restricted notion of
philanthropy (Carroll, 1991). Matten and Crane (2005) characterise this as the “limited
view of CC”. Alternatively, scholars have viewed CC as the latest catchall term to cover
business-society relations (Carroll, 1998; Waddock, 2004). Matten and Crane (2005)
terms this interpretation the “equivalent view of CC”.
By contrast, Matten and Crane (2005) argue that CC is a specific construct that sheds
new light on the role of business in society via its emphasis on the more politically
derived concept of citizenship. In arguing for an “extended theoretical
conceptualization of corporate citizenship” they draw upon the “dominant liberal
understanding of citizenship”, defining it as a set of rights vested in individuals.
Following Marshall (1965) (cited in Matten and Crane, 2005), they classify these rights
as social, civil and political.
 CC, as they define it, is seen as addressing the eroding effects of globalization on the Corporate social
role of nation states as guardians of individual rights through their loss of control over responsibility
the economic, social and political domains of civil society. It is at this juncture where
non-public bodies such as business organisations (and supra-national institutions such
as the EU) are supplementing the traditional guarantors of citizenship as providers of
social rights, enablers of civil rights and as a channel for political rights. As they
summarize it: “corporations” and “citizenship” come together in modern society at the 391
point where the state ceases to be the only guarantor of citizenship (Matten and Crane,
2005, p. 171).
Waddock (2004, p. 32), in a bid to bridge what she sees as the parallel universes of
academia and management practice, suggests two “essential elements for making
corporate citizenship real”. First, internal “Responsibility Management Systems,”
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acknowledging the importance of stakeholder involvement and environmental

consideration. Second, external “Responsibility Assurance Systems,” using globally
accepted principles endorsed by credible organisations to produce externally verifiable
triple bottom line accounts. She cites the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), AA1000,
SA8000 and ISO14000 as moves in the right direction in terms of the desired
management systems. Similarly, the principles promoted by the Global Compact, the
Sullivan Principles, OECD Guidelines on MNCs, ILO Conventions, etc. also offer
potential for a synthesized and integrated set of principles. However, neither currently
offers the necessary integration and holistic perspective required by her two part
system.
Unfortunately, Waddock (2004) offers no practical advice on how to develop the
desired components she identifies as crucial to the success of CC. Thus, leaving us, like
many before, with a new framework with a lack of attention to the organisational
realities associated with implementation.

The 3C-SR model – competitive advantage through “social resources”

The primary reason for the limited take up of CR is that business in society scholars
have typically presented CR as either in opposition to the profit motive or, at least, an
adjunct to it. Casting CR as an add-on to existing methods of conducting business
(a trap set by Friedman, 1971) rather than as a strategy for achieving profits, at worst,
suggests it is viable to ignore these demands, and may also antagonise practitioners
who, consequently, resist demands for change. In this regard business in society
scholars can learn much from the strategies employed by management gurus seeking
to promote the latest management ideas. Habituation of the latest fad using familiar
language and schema that encourage evolution through adapting existing practices
seems more palatable than outright philosophical attack and confrontation.
It is our view that CR can equally well be framed as a competitive resource
and habituated to the normal processes of strategy development and measurement
(albeit with broadened reference points) that are so well embedded in many leading
organisations. In this way CR becomes a means to, rather than drain on, business
success (measured in terms of the triple bottom line). To illustrate this argument we
offer the concept of “social resources” and suggest a model that integrates previous
perspectives on CR into a strategy to implement a CC orientation.
Social resources are made up of three inter-related components whose
simultaneous presence underwrites the credibility of a product/service offer targeted
 IJSE at the “ethical consumer”. The model is shown in Figure 1 and explained in detail
33,5/6 below. Components of the model are:
.
ethical and social commitments;
.
connections with partners in the value network; and
.
consistency of behaviour over time to build trust.
392 These latter two elements refer to the space and time dimensions of the model and are
very closely inter-related. In practice, it is impossible to separate the three elements of
the 3C-SR model and claim to be a “good corporate citizen”.

Ethical and social commitments

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Ethical and social commitments represent the values element of social resources.
They comprise the ethical standards and social objectives the organisation subscribes
to and are manifested in its mission, strategic objectives, strategy programmes,
organisational policies and corporate culture. These commitments should be
broadly based to encompass the legal, economic and ethical dimensions of Schwarz
and Carroll (2003) as well as the rights associated with citizenship suggested by

Need to understand each “C” in the paper

- not from dictionary
- the context

what is the outcome? if can do this model

- an effective CC (Corporate citizen)

what about missing some C

- CSR deficit
- with causes

Figure 1.
The 3C-SR model
 Matten and Crane (2005). The societal validity of such commitments will be greater Corporate social
where they align with emerging (but, as yet, not globally accepted) external responsibility
frameworks for ethical and social values. For example, candidates for such verification
would currently include: the UN’s Global Compact; the Global Reporting Initiative;
Account Ability’s AA1000; Social Accountability International’s SA8000; OECD
Principles for MNCs, and (more specifically) Fair Trade Labelling Organisation (FLO)
Standards. 393
When organisation-wide commitment to robust ethical standards is deficient, due to
a consistent focus on short-term profits across the value network, corporate legitimacy
will likely decline. This can occur for two reasons. Firstly, as a reputation for narrow
self-interest develops, consumers will vote with their spending. The internet and
growing corporate activism serve to highlight those companies who lack the strategic
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approach to CR needed to maintain long-term legitimacy. Witness the online chorus of

disapproval of supermarket retailers, corporate intrusions into schools and
universities, corporate manipulation of news media, exploitation of workers in
apparel sweatshops, etc. Secondly, other firms participating in the supply chain will,
wherever practical, seek other contracts where economic returns are more favourable
and relationships mutually respectful.
Toy makers Mattel and Hasbro tried and failed to resist the shift to improved ethical
standards in their industry. The voluntary code of business practices (COBP)
developed by the International Council of Toy Industries (ICTI) in 1996, had been
accepted by some 150 European and US toy manufacturers. Like many codes of
practice, COBP embodies the ILO labour standards and reflects the OECD guidelines
for multinationals. However, industry leaders Mattel and Hasbro had resisted the
strictures of the code until both acquiesced in 2004. Their legitimacy within their own
industry was being called into question, forcing them to concede and adopt improved
commitments on pay, working hours, health and safety, training and a range of other
supplier related issues. Mattel in particular is now hoping to reduce persistent criticism
of practices in its supply chain. Both companies recognise the damage to their
businesses of failing to embrace externally agreed social commitments and hope for
greater credibility from their acceptance of the code of practice.
While the code of practice developed by ICTI is a step forward, it is not as
rigorously audited as schemes such as SA8000 and AS1000. Pioneers in the area of
social business models such as Café Direct, the Day Chocolate Company and Coop
Italia all prefer to use independently audited standards as a measure of their
commitment to transparency and ethically defensible practices.

Connections with partners in the value network

Normann and Ramirez (1993, p. 69) argue, “value occurs not in sequential chains but in
complex constellations”. They point out that “value” in a business network results
from a:
. . . value creating system, within which different economic actors – suppliers, business
partners, allies, customers – work together to co-produce value. Their key strategic task is the
reconfiguration of roles and relationships among this constellation of actors in order to
mobilize the creation of value in new forms by new players. And their underlying strategic
goal is to create an ever-improving fit between competencies and customers (Normann and
Ramirez, 1993, p. 66) (Italics in original).
 IJSE It follows from this contemporary approach to “value” creation that any commitment
33,5/6 to a socially oriented business model is doomed to failure if a strategic approach across
the value constellation is not embraced.
The structure of relationships within the value network is the means through which
a joint implementation of a socially oriented value network is achieved. We refer to
these structural elements of social resources as value connections. This implies a
394 stakeholder approach to ensure mutuality of interests and uniform commitment to
shared values across the value network. Thus, upstream and downstream partnerships
are required rather than a narrow operational focus on an organisation’s own
short-term efficiency and profits.
The other organisations any individual organisation chooses to contract or
associate with, and the nature of those relationships, is key to its perceived credibility.
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For example, a commitment to Fairtrade entails non-exploitative relationships with

suppliers and adherence to equitable labour relations, which in turn is central to the
organisations credibility in the eyes of ethically aware consumers. The integrity of this
structure of relationships is only as strong as the commitment of the weakest member.
Where an individual organisation espouses a commitment to particular social
values, but fails to work towards their dissemination within the wider value network a
stakeholder deficit will exist. That is to say, the organisation will be perceived as
acting narrowly to protect its own reputation by deploying internal policies and
communications to engender the perception of a social orientation without acting to
realise that commitment across its wider business activities. Such an approach is
common and belies a cynical reputation management strategy rather than a real
commitment.
The case of WalMart illustrates this situation. Multi-stakeholder Initiatives (MSIs)
such as the Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI) in the UK and Fair Labour Association
(FLA) in the USA, covering sectors such as consumer goods, footwear and apparel
have received much support from NGOs, trade unions, the United Nations and other
concerned groups. However, WalMart has been steadfast in its reluctance to engage
with such MSIs preferring instead the less restrictive standards of their internal
WalMart Certification System. Consequently, the company has been heavily criticised
for its failure to embrace more socially acceptable labour practices (at home in the USA
as well as among its overseas suppliers). As Bavaria (2005) has observed: “For years,
Wal-Marts business model has seemed to be about reducing costs at all costs, whatever
the social and environmental consequences”. The scale of this criticism and the energy
activists are putting into the effort to highlight Wal-Mart’s poor practices is evidenced
by the results of a simple Google search of the company’s name. A majority of the sites
in the results represent dissenting voices or groups pursuing legal actions for labour
rights violations. Whilst Wal-Mart’s packed stores may enable it to resist this criticism,
their CSR deficit will not be sustainable over the long term in the face of shifting
consumer attitudes towards CR.
By contrast, Bologna-based services group Coop Italia, has wholeheartedly
embraced Social Accountability International’s SA8000 standards for its entire
business network. Coop Italia is a group of cooperatives with interests in banking,
insurance and retail (where it provides purchasing, marketing and quality
management services to members of Italy’s cooperative movement). Retail suppliers
are carefully evaluated prior to the issue of contracts and once incorporated into the
 value network are given access to an interactive (web-based) management system and Corporate social
encouraged to develop their own CSR management systems to ensure compliance to responsibility
the SA800 standards across the value network. Suppliers (or stakeholders as Coop
Italia prefers) who violate the standards are supported with intensive training to
ensure they eliminate undesirable practices.

Consistency of behaviour 395

Consistency refers to the behavioural element of social resources over time and across
all facets of an organisations operation. Adherence to stated values and careful
selection (and development) of business partners, who have matched social
commitments, is the litmus test of an organisation’s own credibility. Failure to
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“walk the talk” is a common source of criticism of many companies claiming to be

socially responsible. Consumers are adept at seeing through a veneer of credibility and
demand long-term consistency of behaviour from organisations purporting to be
socially responsible. Lafferty et al. (2002) point to a growing body of evidence strongly
supporting the view that positive corporate image is positively correlated to purchase
intention and that consumers discriminate between firms and their product/service
offerings.
Doherty and Meehan (2004) stress that this research has significant implications,
not only for how a company interacts with its customers, but also for the behavioural
standards reflected in internal policies, upstream relationships with suppliers and the
governance structures of the firm. Hence, development of social resources requires
organisations to take a holistic or strategic view of their values and the management
policies they underpin. This in turn implies consistent adherence to externally
recognised and accredited standards. Failure to consistently behave in line with the
stated value commitments, using externally assured social auditing systems, will
result in the kind of corporate social performance deficit highlighted by Wood (1991).
That is to say espousing social commitments within ones own organisation and
promulgating codes of conduct across the value network will be seen as a public
relations strategy if not seen to direct behaviour (action in Wood’s model) over time.
Ethical and social commitments developed across a value network comprising
business partners sharing these commitments, are thus necessary but not sufficient
conditions for the development of social resources. Continually demonstrating that all
facets of the network reflect these commitments are also necessary. In the “network”
economy consumers are not only savvy about product market offerings, they are
switched on to a wider set of business performance metrics of a social and ethical
nature. Consequently, securing consumer purchases involves more than price-quality
relationships. It requires long-term consistency and credibility of the value network.
Inconsistencies in social performance naturally attract critical attention. While
companies frequently argue that such inconsistencies are a product of a gradual
roll-out of a new policy commitment it may be more likely that these inconsistencies
reflect the fact that firms locate operations to exploit local economic conditions to
ensure cheap supplies, rather than making a consistent commitment to credible
international standards of operation (irrespective of local conditions). Nike illustrates
the point. At the same time as it is expanding its worker empowerment programmes in
China, it is simultaneously shifting supply from Indonesia because labour costs have
gotten too high following the introduction of such policies to empower workers.
 IJSE Many consumers place primary emphasis on company social performance in
33,5/6 deciding whom to favour with their spending. Environics International’s Corporate
Social Responsibility Monitor 2001 (a survey of 26,000 people across 20 countries)
found that CSR-related factors accounted for 49 per cent of a company’s image while
brands and financial management accounted for only 35 and 10 per cent, respectively ,
(Environics International, 2001).
396 It follows that any strategy seeking competitive advantage by leveraging social
resources will not succeed unless those resources are the product of a coherent and
sustained commitment to widely accredited socially oriented business practices. It is
this consistency in action or behaviour that proponents of the CSP approach to CR
maintain is essential (Wood, 1991). Failure to maintain this performance focus will
therefore result in a CSP deficit unless robust management systems are put in place to
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bring about the required behaviours that ensure consistent achievement of stated
commitments (Figure 1).
GAP Inc. has made much of its efforts to reduce persistent criticism of its use of
sweatshops. In 2003 its first social responsibility report received a mixed reception.
One of the main areas of criticism was that, for all of its positive statements about
workers and their contribution to GAPs success, trade union involvement in its
factories was conspicuously absent. The 2003 social responsibility report contains just
one reference to trade unions (in a glossary explaining the composition of the ETI). By
contrast, the 2004 report contains 14 references to trade unions. In every case though,
the reference is to trade union participation in various multi-stakeholder consultation
processes rather than their activity as recognised labour representatives in GAP
factories. GAP claims to be socially responsible, and cites GRI external standards as
guiding benchmark standards, while seeming to ignore inconvenient elements of the
social responsibility metrics of the GRI standards such as trade union recognition.
GAP Inc’s persistent exclusion of trade union recognition (i.e. recorded as
“Not reported” in its 2004 CSR Report), from its social performance audits, suggests an
instrumentalism to GAPs approach: wanting to reduce the damage to its reputation
without fundamentally changing its labour relations economically. This lack of
consistency in its behaviour – adopting low cost measures of social responsibility and
ignoring others – does little to convince observers of GAP’s real commitment.

From social resources to competitive strategy

Strategically astute organisations are today aware of significant changes in consumer
attitudes to organisations themselves and the brands they seek to develop. The work of
Lafferty et al. (cited above) illustrates this discrimination between organisations and
their brands. Where negative perceptions of organisations prevail, brand boycotts
often follow as consumers, particularly in wealthy industrialised countries, seek to
punish parent organisations. But herein lies an opportunity for a new approach
to competitive strategy based around social resources.
To the extent that an organisation embraces the tri-partite CR orientation discussed
above as the 3C-SR model, an organisation will develop a positive reputation among
the growing ranks of ethical consumers. This positive corporate image translates into
enhanced sales revenue as more and more aware consumers favour the organisation
with their expenditures. Doherty and Meehan (2004) cite the case of the UK Cooperative
Retail Group (CRG):
 The new Co-op Fairtrade chocolate range, launched in 2002, is 15-20% more expensive than Corporate social
the previous CRG chocolate range. Co-op own-label Fairtrade block Chocolate sales in 2003
increased by 21% despite a decline in branded sales of 1.1%. In the first 16 weeks of 2004 this responsibility
trend continued with a growth in Fairtrade own-label of 36% compared to a decline in
branded products of 15%.
It follows, that an organisation that commits to widely recognised standards of social
performance and seeks to promulgate them across its entire value network will, if the 397
effort is perceived to be genuine (i.e. consistently maintained over the long term), benefit
from enhanced competitive resources deriving directly from its social orientation. In
effect, CR orientation becomes a meaningful basis for marketplace differentiation.
It is this wholehearted social orientation that helps to explain the success of recent UK
start-ups such as Café Direct and the Day Chocolate Company. Their consistent
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adherence to FLO standards has generated positive corporate images and enabled them
to circumvent the physical resource advantages and greater marketplace power of
global rivals within the food sector. The identity of their brands is developed around
their social commitments to Fairtrade. Indeed, the Day Chocolate Company’s reputation
for excellent social performance has been a significant factor in its being selected as the
sole supplier of own-label Fair trade chocolate by the Co-Operative Group in the UK.

Conclusions
This paper has sought to highlight the overly theoretical nature of many previous
approaches to CR. Through a review of the three main approaches to CR – CSR, CSP
and CC – we have shown that each of these approaches fails to provide the kind of
practical tools that managers need to embed a CR orientation in their organisations.
To counter these deficiencies we have offered the 3C-SR model that suggests that a
CR/CC orientation requires three simultaneous elements. These are commitments,
connections and consistency. Weakness in one of these three areas will result in a failure
to adequately achieve a real CR orientation due to the resulting failure to address one of
the three key perspectives present in the existing literature (and reviewed above). We
have sought to suggest that long-term legitimacy and the development of a competitive
resource can stem from the simultaneous presence of the three C’s of the model.
It is the author’s view that the simultaneous presence of the three “Cs” of our model
is the foundation for building competitive strategies around social resources. Ethical
consumers as suggested above particularly welcome such strategies. However, ethical
concerns are becoming mainstream in an increasing range of markets. Companies that
fail to recognise the seismic changes taking place in business society relations will fall
victim to equally significant restructuring of competitive positions within their own
industries.

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Corresponding author
John Meehan can be contacted at: j.p.meehan@livjm.ac.uk

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