UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS

Governor Governor
Pack Road, Baguio City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Department of Natural Sciences

FIRST TRIMESTER (A.Y. 2022-2023)

FORENSIC 2F (HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY)
Instructor: Desieree A. De Aro

MODULE 9: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system consists of the blood, the heart, and blood vessels. In this module,
we will study the structure of these organs in the body.

Learning objectives:
a. Describe the structure and functions of the human heart.
b. Describe the structure and function of the blood.
The Cardiovascular System
- The cardiovascular system is sometimes called the blood-vascular, or simply the
circulatory, system.
- It consists of the heart, which is a muscular pumping device, and a closed system of vessels
called arteries, veins, and capillaries. As the name implies, the blood contained in
the circulatory system is pumped by the heart around a closed circle or circuit of vessels as it
passes again and again through the various "circulations" of the body.
- As in the adult, survival of the developing embryo depends on the circulation of blood to
maintain homeostasis and a favorable cellular environment. In response to this need, the
cardiovascular system makes its appearance early in development and reaches a
functional state long before any other major organ system. Incredible as it seems, the
primitive heart begins to beat regularly early in the fourth week following fertilization.
- The vital role of the cardiovascular system in maintaining homeostasis depends on the
continuous and controlled movement of blood through the thousands of miles of capillaries that
permeate every tissue and reach every cell in the body. It is in the microscopic capillaries that
blood performs its ultimate transport function. Nutrients and other essential materials pass
from capillary blood into fluids surrounding the cells as waste products are removed.
Structure and Functions of the Heart
- The heart is relatively small, roughly the same
size as a closed fist. It is about 12 cm long, 9
cm wide at the broadest point, and 6 cm
thick, with an average mass of 250 grams in
adult females and 300 grams in adult males.
- It rests on the diaphragm, near the midline
of the thoracic cavity. It lies in the
mediastinum.
- Apex – the pointed portion of the heart;
the tip of the left ventricle (a lower
chamber of the heart) and rests on the
diaphragm.
- Base- the posterior surface of the heart; it is
formed by the atria (upper chambers of
the heart, mostly the left atrium.
- Anterior surface – part deep to the sternum
and ribs Image source:pharmacy180.com

- Inferior surface – part of the heart between the

apex and right borders and resting mostly on the diaphragm
- Right border or the pulmonary border – faces the left lung and extends from the base to
the apex.
- The heart is a muscular pump that provides the force necessary to circulate the blood to all the
tissues in the body.
- Its function is vital because, to survive, the tissues need a continuous supply of oxygen and
nutrients, and metabolic waste products have to be removed.
- While blood is the transport medium, the heart is the organ that keeps the blood moving
through the vessels. The normal adult heart pumps about 5 liters of blood every minute
throughout life. If it loses its pumping effectiveness for even a few minutes, the individual's life
is jeopardized.
- It is located in the thoracic cavity, above the diaphragm, and in between the two lungs or
in the mediastinum.
The Structure of the Heart
Pericardium
- The membrane that surrounds and protects the heart
- Two main parts:
a. Fibrous pericardium – composed of tough, inelastic, dense irregular connective tissue;
it prevents overstretching of the heart provides protection, and anchors the heart in
the mediastinum
b. Serous pericardium – a thinner, more delicate membrane that forms a double layer around
the heart; the outer parietal layer is fused to the fibrous pericardium; the inner visceral
layer is also called the epicardium is one of the layers of the heart that is adhered
tightly to the surface of the heart.
- Pericardial fluid – found in between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium;
this reduces the friction between the layers of the serous pericardium as the heart moves.
- Pericardial cavity – the space where the pericardial fluid is found.
Layers of the Heart Wall
- Three layers of tissue form the heart wall.
a. Epicardium - the outer layer of the heart wall;
 Visceral layer of the serous membrane – a thin,
transparent layer of the heart; composed of
mesothelium and delicate connective tissue that
imparts a smooth, slippery texture to the outermost
surface of the heart.
b. Myocardium - the middle layer; the cardiac muscle
tissue that makes up about 95% of the heart and is
responsible for its pumping action
c. Endocardium - the inner layer; a thin layer of
connective tissue that provides a smooth lining for the
chambers of the
heart and covers the valves of the heart; it continues to Image source: pinterest.com

with the endothelial lining in the large blood vessels

attached to the heart, and it minimizes surface friction as
blood passes through the heart and blood vessels.
Chambers of the Heart
- The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers:
 Atria – two superior receiving chambers
a. Right atrium – forms the right border of the heart and
receives blood from the veins: superior vena cava,
inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus
 Interatrial septum – a tin partition between
the right and left atrium
 Fossa ovalis – an oval depression in the interatrial Image source: my.clevelandclinic.org
septum which is a remnant of the foramen ovale,
an opening in the interatrial septum of the fetal heart that normally closes
soon after birth
 Tricuspid valve or atrioventricular valve – a valve where the blood from the right
atrium passes into the right ventricle
b. Left atrium – it receives blood from the lungs through four pulmonary veins
 Bicuspid or mitral valve or left atrioventricular valve– a valve where blood passes
from the left atrium into the left ventricle
 Auricle – a wrinkled pouched like structure on the anterior surface of each
atrium; it slightly increases the capacity of an atrium so that it can hold a greater
volume of blood
 Sulci – series of grooves on the surface of the heart that contains coronary blood
vessels and a variable amount of fats.
 Ventricles – the two inferior pumping chambers
a. Right ventricle – it contains a series of ridges formed by raised bundles of cardiac
muscles called trabeculae carnae.
 Interventricular septum – a partition between the right and left ventricle
 Pulmonary valve or pulmonary semilunar valve – a valve where blood passes
from the right ventricle into a large artery called the pulmonary trunk, which
divides into right and left pulmonary arteries.
 Arteries always take blood from the heart
 Left ventricle – the thickest chamber of the heart;
 Aortic valve – a valve where blood from the left ventricle passes into the ascending aorta
  Coronary arteries – blood in the aorta passes which branches from the ascending aorta
and carries blood to the heart wall.
 Arch of the aorta and descending aorta (thoracic aorta and abdominal aorta) –
remaining blood passes; branches of this aorta carry blood throughout the body
 The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins.
 The two ventricles are thick-walled chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart.
 Differences in the thickness of the heart chamber walls are due to variations in the amount
of myocardium present, which reflects the amount of force each chamber is required to
generate.
 When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from
flowing back into the atria. When the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent
blood from flowing back into the ventricles.

Pathway of Blood through the Heart

- While it is convenient to describe the flow of blood through the right side of the heart and then
through the left side, it is important to realize that both atria and ventricles contract at the
same time.
- The heart works as two pumps, one on the right and one on the left, working simultaneously.
- Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, and then is pumped to the lungs
to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle.
From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation.
a. Blood from the upper body through the superior
vena cava.
Blood from the lower body will flow through the
inferior vena cava.
b. The blood will go into the right atrium.
c. It will flow through the right atrioventricular valve into
the right ventricle.
d. From the right ventricle, it will flow through the
pulmonary semilunar valve to the left pulmonary
artery to the lungs.
e. In the lungs, the blood will receive oxygen, and
then it will go back into the heart through the left
pulmonary veins.
f. The blood will then go to the left atrium then it will
flow to the left atrioventricular valve or bicuspid
valve.
g. The blood will go into the left ventricle which will pump the blood into the aortic semilunar
valve into the aorta.
h. From the aorta, the blood will be distributed to the different arteries in the different parts of
the body.

Physiology of the Heart

- The conduction system includes several
components.
a. The first part of the conduction system is
neural stimulation. Without any neural
stimulation, the sinoatrial node rhythmically
initiates impulses 70 to 80 times per
minute. Because it establishes the basic
rhythm of the heartbeat, it is called the
pacemaker of the heart.
 b. Other parts of the conduction system include the atrioventricular node, atrioventricular
bundle, bundle branches, and conduction myofibers. All of these components
coordinate the contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers.

Cardiac Cycle
- The cardiac cycle refers to the alternating contraction and relaxation of the myocardium in the
walls of the heart chambers, coordinated by
the conduction system, during one heartbeat.
- Systole is the contraction phase of the cardiac
cycle, and diastole is the relaxation phase. At a
normal heart rate, one cardiac cycle lasts for
0.8seconds.

Heart Sounds
- The sounds associated with the heartbeat are
due to vibrations in the tissues
and blood caused by the closure of
the valves. Abnormal heart sounds are called
murmurs. Image source: geeksforgeeks.org

- During each cardiac cycle, there are 4 heart sounds, but in a normal heart, only the first
and second sounds (S1 and S2) are loud enough to be heard from a stethoscope.
a. First sound (S1) – described as a lubb sound; louder and a bit longer than the
second sound; caused by the blood turbulence associated with the closure of the
atrioventricular valve (AV) valves after ventricular systole begins.
b. Second sound (S2) – shorter and not as loud as the first; described as dupp sound;
caused by the turbulence associated with the closure of SL (Semilunar) valves at the
beginning of ventricular systole.
 Although S1 and S2 are due to the turbulence associated with the closure of
valves, they are best heard at the surface of the chest in locations that are
slightly different from the locations of the valves. This is because the sound is
carried by the blood flow away from the valves.
c. Third sound (S3) – due to the blood turbulence during rapid ventricular filling
d. Fourth sound (S4) – due to blood turbulence during atrial systole (- the atria are
contracting and the ventricles are relaxing)
 Heart sounds provide valuable information about the mechanical operation of the heart.
BLOOD
Structure and Functions of the Blood

- Blood is a connective tissue composed of a liquid extracellular matrix called blood plasma that
dissolves and suspends various cells and cell fragments.
Functions:
 Transportation
- blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body and carbon dioxide
from the body cells to the lungs for exhalation.
- It carries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to body cells and hormones from
endocrine glands to other body cells.
- Blood also transports heat and waste products to various organs for elimination from the
body.
 Regulation
- Circulating blood helps maintain homeostasis of all body fluids.
- Blood helps regulate pH through the use of buffers.
- It also helps adjust body temperature through the heat absorbing and coolant properties
of the water in blood plasma and its variable rate of flow through the skin, where excess
heat can be lost from the blood to the environment.
- In addition, blood osmotic pressure influences the water content of cells, mainly through
interactions of dissolved ions and proteins.
 Protection
- Blood can clot, which protects against its excessive loss from the cardiovascular
system after an injury.
- In addition, its white blood cells protect against disease by carrying on phagocytosis.
- Several types of blood proteins, including antibodies, interferons, and complements, help
protect against disease in a variety of ways.
Physical Characteristics of Blood
- Blood is denser and more viscous (thicker) than water and feels slightly sticky.
- The temperature of the blood is 38°C (100.4°F)
- slightly alkaline pH ranging from 7.35 to 7.45
- The color of blood varies with its oxygen content. When it has a high oxygen content, it is
bright red. When it has a low oxygen content, it is dark red.
- Blood constitutes about 20% of extracellular fluid, amounting to 8% of the total body mass.
- The blood volume is 5 to 6 liters (1.5 gals) in an average-sized adult male and 4 to 5 liters (1.2
gals) in an average-sized adult female. The difference in volume is due to differences in body
size.

Formation of Blood Cells

- Hemopoiesis – the process by which the formed elements of blood (RBC, WBC, and platelets)
develop
- The red bone marrow becomes the primary site of hemopoiesis in the last three months before
birth and continues as the source of blood cells after birth and throughout life.
- Once blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow, they enter the bloodstream called
sinusoids (also called sinuses), enlarged and leaky capillaries that surround red bone marrow
cells and fibers. Except for lymphocytes, formed elements do not divide once they leave
the red bone marrow.
- To form blood cells, pluripotent stem cells in the red bone marrow produce two further types of
stem cells, which can develop into several types of cells. These stem cells are called
myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells.
- Myeloid stem cells - begin their development in the red bone marrow and give rise to red
blood cells, platelet, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
- Lymphoid stem cells – begin their development in red bone marrow but complete it in
lymphatic tissues; they give rise to lymphocytes.
- Progenitor cells – developed from some of the myeloid stem cells; give rise to more specific
elements of blood. Some progenitor cells are known as a colony- forming units (CFUs)
o CFU -E – produces erythrocytes (red blood cells)
o CFU-Meg – produces megakaryocytes, the source of platelets
o CFU-GM – produces granulocytes specifically neutrophils and monocytes
- Precursor cells or blasts – developed after several cell divisions of blood cells;
monoblasts developed into monocytes; eosinophilic myeloblasts develop into eosinophils
- Hemopoietic growth factors – regulate the differentiation and proliferation of particular
progenitor cells
o Erythropoietin or EPO – increases the number of red blood cell precursors;
produced primarily by cells in the kidneys that lie between the kidney tubules
(peritubular interstitial cells)
o Thrombopoietin or TPO – a hormone produced by the liver that stimulates the formation
of platelets (thrombocytes) from megakaryocytes
o Cytokines – small glycoproteins that are typically produced by the red bone
marrow, leukocytes, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells; they generally act as local
hormones; stimulate the proliferation of progenitor cells involved in the red bone
marrow, and regulate the activities of cells involved in nonspecific defenses such as
phagocytes and immune responses such as B cells and T cells
- Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins – cytokines that stimulate white blood cell
formation
Components of Blood
Blood plasma – a watery liquid extracellular matrix that contains dissolved substances
- is about 91.5% water and 8.5% solutes, most of which (7% by weight) are protein.
-Some of the proteins in blood plasma are also found elsewhere in the body, but those
confined to blood are called plasma proteins.
- Among other functions, these proteins play a role in maintaining proper blood osmotic
pressure, which is an important factor in the exchange of fluids across capillary walls.
- The plasma proteins, which include albumin, globulins, and fibrinogens are also called
antibodies or immunoglobulins because they are produced during certain immune responses.
An antibody binds specifically to an antigen that stimulated its production and thus disables the
invading antigen.

Red Blood Cells (RBCs) or Erythrocytes

- contain the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin, which is a pigment that gives whole blood its
red color.
 - a healthy adult male has 5.4 million RBC per microliter of blood and a healthy adult female has
about 4.8 million
- are biconcave discs with a diameter of 7/8 micrometer
- their plasma membrane is strong and flexible, which allows them to deform without rupturing
as they squeeze through narrow capillaries
- lack nucleus and other organelles and can neither reproduce nor carry on extensive metabolic
activities
- glycolipids in the plasma membrane if RBCs are antigens that account for the various
blood groups such as the ABO and Rh groups
o Hemoglobin - consist of the protein globin, and nonprotein heme; at the center of each
heme ring is an iron ion that can combine reversibly with one oxygen molecule, allowing
each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Each oxygen molecule
picked up from the lungs is bound to an iron ion. It releases oxygen, which diffuses into
the interstitial fluid and then into cells
- it transports about 23% of the total carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism
- regulates blood flow and blood pressure by releasing nitric oxide. The release of nitric
oxide causes vasodilation, an increase in blood vessel diameter that occurs when
the smooth muscle in the vessel wall relaxes. This process will improve blood flow
and enhances oxygen delivery to cells near the site of nitric oxide release.
- produced through the process called erythropoiesis with the precursor cell called a
proerythroblast
White Blood Cells or Leukocytes
- have nuclei and do not contain hemoglobin
- Major classification: granular leukocytes which include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils;
agranular leukocytes include lymphocytes and monocytes
- Combat pathogens and other foreign substances that enter the body
Types of WBC
a. Granular Leukocytes
o Neutrophils – composes 60-70% of all WBCs; functions in the destruction of bacteria
with lysozyme, defensins, and string oxidants, such as superoxide anion, hydrogen
peroxide, and hypochlorite anion.
o Eosinophils – composes of 2 to 4% of all WBCs; combat the effects of histamine
in allergic reactions, phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, and destroy
certain parasitic worms
o Basophils – composes 0.5 – 1% of all WBCs; liberate heparin, histamine, and serotonin
in allergic reactions that intensify the overall inflammatory response
b. Agranular Leukocytes
o Lymphocytes (T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells) – make about 20-25% of all WBCs;
mediate immune responses, including antigen-antibody reactions. B cells
develop into plasma cells, which secrete antibodies. T cells attack invading
viruses, cancer cells, and transplanted tissue cells. Natural killer cells attack a
wide variety of infectious microbes and certain spontaneously arising tumor cells.
o Monocytes - make about 3-8% of all WBCs; phagocytosis (after transforming into
fixed and wandering macrophages
- Fixed macrophages – reside in a particular tissue such as the alveolar macrophages
in the lungs, in the spleen, and Kupffer cells in the liver
-Wandering macrophages – roam the tissues and gather at sites of infection or
inflammation
- Leukocytosis – an increase in the number of WBCs above 10, 000 per microliter, is
a normal, protective response to stresses such as invading microbes, strenuous
activities, anesthesia, and surgery.
Platelets
- Developed from megakaryocytes that have transformed from megakaryoblasts
- It breaks off from megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow and then enters the blood circulation
- Helps stop blood loss from damaged blood vessels by forming a platelet plug
- Their granules also contain chemicals that once released promote vascular spasms and blood
clotting.
Classification & Structure of Blood Vessels
- Blood vessels are the channels or conduits through which blood is distributed to body tissues.
- The vessels make up two closed systems of tubes that begin and end at the heart.
a. One system, the pulmonary vessels, transports blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
and back to the left atrium.
 b. The other system, the systemic vessels, carries blood from the left ventricle to the tissues in all
parts of the body and then returns the blood to the right atrium. Based on their structure
and function, blood vessels are classified as arteries, capillaries, or veins.
Classifications of Blood Vessels
1. Arteries
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
- Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the right ventricle to the
lungs.
- Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues.
- Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into
smaller and smaller arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles.
The arterioles play a key role in regulating blood flow into the tissue capillaries.
- About 10 percent of the total blood volume is in the systemic arterial system at any given time.
Layers of the Artery Wall
 The innermost layer, the tunica intima (also called
tunica interna), is simple
squamous epithelium surrounded by a connective
tissue basement membrane with elastic fibers.
 The middle layer, the tunica media, is primarily
smooth muscle and is usually the thickest layer. It not
only provides support for the vessel but also
changes vessel diameter to regulate blood flow and
blood pressure.
 The outermost layer, which attaches the vessel to the
surrounding tissue, is the tunica externa or tunica adventitia. This layer is connective tissue with
varying amounts of elastic and collagenous fibers. The connective tissue in this layer is quite
dense where it is adjacent to the tunic media, but it changes to loose connective tissue near
the periphery of the vessel.
2. Capillaries
- Capillaries, the smallest and most numerous of the blood
vessels, form the connection between the vessels that carry
blood away from the heart (arteries) and the vessels that
return blood to the heart (veins).
- The primary function of capillaries is the exchange of materials
between the blood and tissue cells.
- Capillary distribution varies with the metabolic activity of body
tissues. Tissues such as skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney have extensive capillary networks
because they are metabolically active and require an abundant supply of oxygen and
nutrients.
- Other tissues, such as connective tissue, have a less abundant supply of capillaries.
The epidermis of the skin and the lens and cornea of the eye completely lack a capillary
network.
- About 5 percent of the total blood volume is in the systemic capillaries at any given time.
Another 10 percent is in the lungs.
- Smooth muscle cells in the arterioles where they branch to form capillaries regulate blood flow
from the arterioles into the capillaries.
3. Veins
- Veins carry blood toward the heart. After blood passes through the capillaries, it enters
the smallest veins, called venules.
- From the venules, it flows into progressively larger and larger veins until it reaches the heart.
- In the pulmonary circuit, the pulmonary veins transport blood from the lungs to the left atrium
of the heart. This blood has a high oxygen content because it has just been oxygenated in
the lungs.
- Systemic veins transport blood from the body tissue to the right atrium of the heart. This blood
has a reduced oxygen content because the oxygen has been used for metabolic activities
in the tissue cells.
Layers of the Veins
 The walls of veins have the same three layers
as the arteries. Although all the layers are
present, there is less smooth muscle and
connective tissue. This makes the walls of veins
thinner than those of arteries, which is related
to the fact that blood in the veins has less
pressure than in the arteries.
  Because the walls of the veins are thinner and less rigid than arteries, veins can hold more
blood. Almost 70 percent of the total blood volume is in the veins at any given time.
 Medium and large veins have venous valves, similar to the semilunar valves associated with
the heart, that help keep the blood flowing toward the heart.
 Venous valves are especially important in the arms and legs, where they prevent the
backflow of blood in response to the pull of gravity.
Physiology of Circulation
Roles of Capillaries
- In addition to forming the connection between
the arteries and veins, capillaries have a vital role in the
exchange of gases, nutrients, and metabolic waste products
between the blood and the tissue cells.
- Substances pass through the capillary wall by diffusion,
filtration, and osmosis.
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the capillary wall by
diffusion.
- Fluid movement across a capillary wall is determined by a
combination of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure. The net result
of the capillary microcirculation created by hydrostatic and osmotic pressure is that substances
leave the blood at one end of the capillary and return at the other end.
Blood Flow
- Blood flow refers to the movement of blood through the vessels from arteries to the capillaries
and then into the veins.
- Pressure is a measure of the force that the blood exerts against the vessel walls as it moves
the blood through the vessels. Like all fluids, blood flows from a high-pressure area to a region
with lower pressure.
- Blood flows in the same direction as the decreasing pressure gradient: arteries to capillaries to
veins.
- The rate, or velocity, of blood flow varies inversely with the total cross-sectional area of the
blood vessels. As the total cross-sectional area of the vessels increases, the velocity of flow
decreases. Blood flow is slowest in the capillaries, which allows time for the exchange of gases
and nutrients.
- Resistance is a force that opposes the flow of a fluid. In blood vessels, most of the resistance is
due to vessel diameter. As vessel diameter decreases, the resistance increases and blood flow
decreases.
- Very little pressure remains by the time blood leaves the capillaries and enters the venules.
Blood flow through the veins is not the direct result of ventricular contraction. Instead, venous
return depends on skeletal muscle action, respiratory movements, and constriction of smooth
muscle in venous walls.
Circulatory Pathways
The blood vessels of the body are functionally divided into two distinctive circuits: the pulmonary
circuit and the systemic circuit. The pump for the pulmonary circuit, which circulates blood through
the lungs, is the right ventricle. The left ventricle is the pump for
the systemic circuit, which provides the blood
supply for the tissue cells of the body.
a. Pulmonary Circuit
- Pulmonary circulation transports oxygen-poor
blood from the right ventricle to the lungs,
where the blood picks up a new blood supply.
Then it returns the oxygen-rich blood to the
left atrium.
b. Systemic Circuit
- systemic circulation provides the functional
blood supply to all body tissue.
- It carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells and
picks up carbon dioxide and waste products.
- Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from
the left ventricle, through the arteries, to
the capillaries in the tissues of the body. From the
tissue capillaries, the deoxygenated blood returns
through a system of veins to the right atrium of
the heart.
- The coronary arteries are the only vessels that
branch from the ascending aorta. The
brachiocephalic left common carotid and left
subclavian arteries branch from the aortic arch.
 - Blood supply for the brain is provided by the internal carotid and vertebral arteries.
- The subclavian arteries provide the blood supply for the upper extremity.
- The celiac, superior mesenteric, suprarenal, renal, gonadal, and inferior mesenteric arteries
branch from the abdominal aorta to supply the abdominal viscera.
- Lumbar arteries provide blood for the muscles and spinal cord.
- Branches of the external iliac artery provide the blood supply for the lower extremity.
- The internal iliac artery supplies the pelvic viscera.

References:
SEER Training Modules, Cardiovascular System, U. S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. 11
November 2022 <https://training.seer.cancer.gov/>.
TORTORA, G. J. and B. DERRICKSON. 2009. Principle of Physiology and Anatomy 12 th Edition. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.
Conduction of the heart. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=924uGXR6ReE. Accessed on November 7,
2022
Cardiac cycle. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IS9TD9fHFv0 . Accessed on November 7, 2022.
Overview of the CPS. URL: http://youtube.com/watch?v=nKuzzeCFXWc