Nav Arch Rohan Dsouza Phase 2

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NAV-ARCH - II INDEX
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE – II (THEORY TOPICS)

(CHIEF MATE - PHASE II)
(Prepared by Rohan D’souza)
Sr. No CONTENTS Page Nos.

1. Shipyard Practices 01-10
2. Ship-building materials and tests 11-24
3. Fire Integrity 25-33
4. Load Line and Tonnage Conventions 34-44
5. Passenger Ship Sub-division 45-50
6. Intact Stability (including Inclining Test) 51-63
7. Damage Stability 64-70
8. Heel due to turn 71-78
9. Rolling Period 79-81
10. Construction Theory 82-87
11. Misc. Topics 88-95
COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA (i)
Downloaded by Vinay Kadyan (vkadyan22@gmail.com)

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES
SHIPYARD PRACTICES
(A) LINES PLAN
 The lines plan (lines drawing) consists of projections of the intersections of

the hull with a series of planes. The planes are equally spaced in each of the
three dimensions and mutually perpendicular in nature.
 The point of intersection of these planes with the hull results in a series of
lines that are projected on a single plane located on the front, top or side of
the ship. This results in three separate projections, or views, called the Body
Plan, half breadth plan and sheer or profile plan respectively.
 In other words, a lines plan is a drawing, to a suitable scale, of the moulded

lines of the vessel in plan, profile, and section. Thus, a lines plan consists of
1. Half breadth Plan – Plan View (Top projection)
2. Sheer or Profile Plan – Side Elevation (Side projection)
3. Body Plan – Cross-section (Front projection)
 These plans collectively or individually lend form to the vessel. Usually ten
equally spaced sections are selected with half ordinates at the ends where a
greater change of shape occurs.
 These 2-D plans used to be then converted into full scale outline models
with wood and plastic. This process was called lofting. Fairing was a part of
this process whereby the hull was shaped to reduce drag. These full scale
models were replaced by mathematical models with Computer Aided
Design (CAD).
 Preliminary body plans are drawn initially to give the correct displacement,
trim, capacity, etc., and must be laid off in ‘plan’ (view from top) and
‘elevation’ (view from front / back / side) to ensure fairness of the hull form.
 When the final faired body plan is available, the full lines plan is completed
showing also the profile or sheer plan of the vessel and the plan of the
water-line shapes at different heights above the base.
COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 1
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Only For Understanding
Referring to the picture above, and for the sake of visualization, place the ship in
an ‘imaginary rectangular box’ whose sides touch the keel and the sides of the
ship. The bottom, side and the front of the box will serve as the basis for three
orthogonal projection screens on which lines will be projected onto. The lines to
be projected result from the intersection of the hull with planes parallel to each of
the three planes mentioned.
SHEER OR PROFILE PLAN:

A plane that runs from bow to stern directly through the center of the ship and
parallel to the sides of the imaginary box is called the ‘centre line plane’. A series
of planes parallel to one side of the centre line plane are imagined at regular
intervals from the centre line. Each plane will intersect the ship’s hull and form a
curved line at the points of intersection. These lines form the ‘sheer plan’ and are
referred to as ‘bow lines’ forward and ‘buttock lines’ aft. These lines show the true
shape of the hull from the side view for some distance from the centre line of the
ship. Hence, they are also known as ‘profile plan’ as they reflect the profile of the
ship.
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HALF-BREADTH PLAN
The bottom of the imaginary box is a reference plane called the ‘base plane’. The
base plane is usually level with the keel. A series of planes parallel and above the
base plane are imagined at regular intervals. Each plane will intersect the ship’s
hull and form a line at the points of intersection. These lines are called ‘waterlines’
and all are projected onto a single plane called the ‘Half-Breadth plan’. Each of
these waterlines shows the true shape of the hull form from the top view for
some elevation above the base plane. Since ships are symmetrical about their
centre line, they only need to be drawn for the starboard or port side, thus the
name ‘Half Breadth plan’.
BODY PLAN:
Planes parallel to the front and back of the imaginary box are called ‘stations’.
There are three important stations. The intersection of the ship’s stem at the
design water line known as the Forward Perpendicular (FP), the intersection of
the stern at the design waterline (immersed transom) or the rudder stock called
the Aft Perpendicular (AP) and the station midway between the perpendiculars
called the midship station. Each station plane will intersect the ship’s hull and form
a curved line at the point of intersection. These lines are called ‘sectional lines’ and
are all projected onto a single plane called the ‘Body Plan’. The body plan takes
advantage of the ship’s symmetry. Hence, only half sections are shown. The
sections forward of amidships are shown on the right side, and the sections aft of
amidships are shown on the left side. The amidships section is generally shown on
both sides of the body plan.
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Body Plan
(B) SHELL EXPANSION PLAN

 The arrangement of the shell plating taken from a 3-D model may be
represented on a 2-D drawing referred to as a shell expansion plan.
 All vertical dimensions in this drawing are taken around the girth of the
vessel rather than their being a direct vertical projection. This technique
illustrates both the side and bottom plating as a continuous whole.
 This plan also shows the numbering of plates, and lettering of plate strakes.
 This drawing was often subsequently retained by the shipowner to identify
plates damaged in service. Single plates were often marked in sequence to
aid ordering and production identification.
METHOD OF SHIPBUILDING: ‘WIRE FRAME METHOD’ / COMPUTER

AIDED DESIGN (CAD) / COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)
 In recent times, a ship’s hull and its subsequent fairing for production
purposes is accomplished without committing any plan on paper.
 Software systems are used which are based on the concept of the ‘Ship
Product Model’ in which the geometry and the attributes of all elements of
the ship derived from the contract design and classification society
structural requirements are stored. This model can be visualized at all stages
and can be exploited to obtain information for production of the ship.
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 Data is input into the CAD software which in turn produces wire frame
models. Wire frame images are extensively used in the animation industry.
 Both lofting and fairing which were previously done manually, are now done
using the software to produce 3-D images which can be manipulated by the
software to produce the required design parameters. With this technique,
effects of load on the hull structure can be reproduced on the screen.
 The model can be worked on interactively with other stored shipyard
standards and practices to produce detailed arrangement and working
drawings.
 The precision of the structural drawings generated enables them to be used
with greater confidence than was possible with manual drawings. Also, the
materials requisitioning information can be stored on the computer to be
interfaced with the shipyard’s commercial systems for purchasing and
material control.
 A 3-D steel assembly can be rotated by the draughtsman on screen to assess
the best orientation for maximum down-hand welding.
 The use of 3-D drawings is particularly valuable in the area of outfit drawings
where items like pipe work and ventilation/air-conditioning trunking can be
‘sighted’ in the 3-D mode and more accurately measured before being
created in the 2-D drawing.
PLATE NESTING
 From the wire frame model, nesting software is used to produce the
Nesting plan. It is a plan which indicates where a particular plate will fit. It is
according to the nesting plan that the plates are scanned and marked ready
for cutting.
 For a numerically controlled profiling machine, the piece parts to be cut are
‘nested’, i.e. fitted into the most economic plate which can be handled by
the machine with minimum wastage.
 In this way, the shipowner reduces the cost by minimizing the wastage of
material and saving time at the cutting workshop. However, some parts
may have to be stowed in a suitable identified location till it is required at
the prefabrication workshop.
 The order in which the parts are to be marked and cut can be defined by
drawing the tool head around the parts on the graphics screen.
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Plate Nesting
PREFABRICATION
 During the Second World War, a large number of merchant and war ships
were required to be built in a short period of time. These requirements led
to the rise of Prefabrication of ship units i.e. the construction of individual
sections of the ship’s structure prior to erection. Today all vessels are
prefabricated to varying degrees.
 In prefabrication, various units are manufactured at a location remote from
the shipyard, and erection is carried out in the shipyards. This also makes
the process of shipbuilding faster, thus saving time.
 Another reason for the rise of prefabrication is the increase in size of ships
like bulk carriers and tankers where some shipyards with restricted facilities,
building berth or dock size have to resort to prefabrication. In such a case,
the ship is built in two halves and joined using a caisson. (Caisson is a large
watertight chamber, open at the bottom, from which water is kept out by
air pressure & in which construction work may be carried out under water.)
 With prefabrication, it is possible to turn units over to allow downhand
welding which is easier to perform and likely to provide better results. There
is great advantage in keeping vertical and overhead welding to a minimum.
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 Some units have to be prepared under cover for better weld condition.
Prefabrication makes this possible.
 Prefabrication sequence is carefully planned in order to fit the time allowed
at berth or in the building dock.
SHIP BUILDING – BLOCK DIAGRAMS
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NOTE:
 Draughtsman – is a person who makes detailed technical plans or drawings
 Loftsman – is a person who draws up full-size outlines from the drawing or

plans for parts of a ship
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MMD QUESTIONS:
1. What is a ‘wire frame model’?

2. Write short notes on (a) Plate Nesting (b) Pre-fabrication.
3. In what way is prefabrication different from the earlier methods used?
4. What are the advantages of prefabrication?
5. Discuss with aid of block diagram the flow of information and
sequences of ship construction in a modern shipyard.
6. Describe the sequence of events that take place in a shipyard during
construction of a new ship.
7. Sketch and describe the sheer plan and body plan.
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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS
SHIP-BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

MALLEABILITY
 Malleability is a physical property of a metal that defines its ability to be
hammered, pressed or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
 A metal’s malleability can be measured by how much pressure (compressive
stress) it can withstand without breaking.
 Difference in malleability amongst various metals is due to variation in their
crystal structure.
 When a large amount of stress is put on a malleable metal, the atoms roll
over each other, permanently staying in their new position.
 Many metals with high malleability also have high ductility.
 This property is not seen in non-metals.
 Non-malleable metals may break apart when struck by a hammer.
 Malleable metals usually bend and twist in various shapes.
 Examples of malleable metals are gold, iron, aluminum, copper, silver, etc.
DUCTILITY
 Ductility is a measure of a metal’s ability to withstand tensile stress – any
force that pulls the two ends of a material away from each other.
 Ductility is the plastic deformation that occurs as a result of each type of
strain. The term ductile literally means that a metal substance is capable of
being stretched out into a thin wire, and it does not become weak or brittle
in the process.
 Platinum, Gold, copper, aluminium, and steel have high ductility.
ELASTICITY
 Elasticity is a physical property of an object or material which will restore it
to its original shape after distortion.
 Solid objects without elasticity will deform when adequate forces are
applied on them. If the material is elastic, the object will return to its initial
shape and size when these forces are removed.
 A spring is an example of an elastic object. When stretched, it exerts an
restoring force which tends to bring it back to its original length. This
restoring force in general is proportional to the stretching.
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‘Plasticity’ is the quality of being easily shaped or moulded. Both properties of

malleability and ductility are aspects of plasticity. Plasticity is how far a solid
material can be deformed without fracture.
Tensile Strength: It is the property of a material to resist tearing when subject to

elongative stresses i.e. along its neutral axis. The stresses may be opposing or only
in one direction. It is the opposite of compressive stress. It is measured as the
quantity of stress the material can bear before tearing.
Hardness: It is the measure of resistance to change in shape and form under

compressive (opposite of tensile) stresses. Diamond is a very hard material as
opposed to say rubber. It may also be said to be ‘how easy or hand it is to scratch
the material’, the scratching forcing being the compressive force.
Toughness: It is the ability of a material to absorb energy (impact), undergo a

permanent change in shape / deformation without rupturing or fracturing. Metals
known for their toughness are stainless steel and titanium.
Yield Point: It is the load at which a material under tensile stress begins to deform
permanently (plastic deformation). It is the beginning of the plastic range on a
stress/strain diagram. Prior to yield point the material will deform but regain its
shape (elastic deformation). The point at which the yield point occurs determines
the resilience of the material.
Stress/Brittle Fracture/ Fatigue:

 When a material is subject to stress, it will deform through the elastic range,
followed by the plastic range and then finally fracture i.e. separation of the
material into two or more parts.
 Brittle fractures occur in materials with low ductility. In ductile materials, a
fracture occurs after a period of plastic deformation and is called the ductile
fracture. This is a slow process leading to final fracture. On the contrary, a
brittle fracture occurs suddenly with little or no plastic deformation. The
speed of the brittle fractures have found to exceed 340 m/s i.e. speed of
sound and are called supersonic fractures.
 Fatigue failures are caused by repeated and cyclical application of stress.
Initially, micro-cracks are formed. (Initiation stage) This stage is followed by
the propagation stage, when the crack enlarges. The final stage is when the
fracture spreads rapidly.
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MILD STEEL:
 This material is the most common metal used in ship building. It is produced
by alloying steel with carbon and manganese. Sulphur and phosphorus are
kept to a minimum since they are not good for welding and rolling process.
 Mild Steel has the following properties that are suitable for shipbuilding:
1. Ability to overcome brittle fracture and fatigue.
2. Comparatively good mechanical properties. (Good tensile strength, yield
strength, etc).
3. Works well with automated welding processes.
4. Economical.
5. Castings and forgings are comparatively easy.
6. It has ability to be heat treated.
 It is available in various grades such as;
1. Grade A: used in majority ship structures of less than 20mm thickness.
2. Grade B: Better quality than Grade A, used for members of 20-25mm
thickness.
3. Grade C: American Bureau of shipping (ABS) standard
4. Grade D: Notch-tough steel for thickness more than 25mm. Arctic D is
used for extreme low temperature conditions.
5. Grade E: Extra-notch-tough steel. It is heat treated grade D steel used for
structures of thickness 50mm or over. It is used for sheer strake, bilge
strakes, keels and all other high stress regions of the ship.
STRAIN:
 Strain may be defined as the relative deformation of an object due to
application of stress.
 Stress is directly proportional to strain. Stress is the precursor to strain.
 When a material is loaded with a force (stress) it results in deformation
which might not be visible at first (strain).
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:
 Every metal and its alloy has its unique stress-strain curve.
 It provides data in the form of a snapshot of its mechanical properties.
 Stresses are plotted on the y-axis and strain on the x-axis.
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A typical curve (say of mild steel)

will have the following stages –
(1) Proportional Limit
(2) Elastic Limit
(3) Yield point
(4) Ultimate stress point
(5) Fracture point
Shown in the diagram above is a
tensile stress/strain curve.
Compressive stress/strain curves
are also made.
The diagram alongside shows the

Stress-Strain curve of Mild Steel.
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SHIPBUILDING STEEL
Mild Steel: Steel for hull construction purposes is usually mild steel containing 0.15
to 0.23 per cent carbon, and a reasonably high manganese content. Both sulphur
and phosphorus in the mild steel are kept to a minimum (less than 0.05 per cent).
Higher concentrations of both are detrimental to the welding properties of the
steel, and cracks can develop during the rolling process if the sulphur content is
high.
High Tensile Steel: These are steels having a higher strength than mild steel. They
are employed in the more highly stressed regions of large tankers, container ships
and bulk carriers. Use of higher strength steels allows reductions in thickness of
deck, bottom shell, and framing where fitted in the midship portion of larger
vessels. The weldability of higher tensile steels is an important consideration in
their application in ship structures and reduced fatigue life with these steels has
been suggested. Also, the effects of corrosion with lesser thicknesses of plate and
section may require more vigilant inspection.
Corrosion Resistant Steels: Steels with alloying elements that give them good
corrosion resistance and commonly referred to as stainless steels are not
commonly used in ship structures, primarily because of their higher initial and
fabrication costs. Only in the fabrication of cargo tanks containing highly corrosive
cargoes might such steels be found. (for example, SS tanks of chemical tankers)
TESTING OF SHIP BUILDING MATERIAL
Both mild steel and higher tensile steel plates and sections to be used for ship
building are to be produced at works approved by the appropriate classification
society. During production, proper analysis and tests are carried out for the
material. These are required even for steel forgings and steel castings, in order to
maintain an approved quality. Destructive tests are made on specimens obtained
from the same product as the finished material as per Class Rules. These tests
usually take the form of a tensile test, and impact test.
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TENSILE TEST:
 Tensile test, also known as tension test, is one of the most common tests
for steel. Tensile tests are simple and relatively inexpensive. It involves
straining a test piece by tensile force, generally to fracture, for the purpose
of determining tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, etc.
 In this test, a specimen of given dimensions is subject to an axial pull and a
minimum specified yield stress, ultimate tensile stress, and elongation must
be obtained. In order to make comparisons between the elongations of
tensile test pieces of the same material, the test pieces must have the same
proportions of sectional area and gauge length. Therefore, gauge length
and cross sectional area must be as per Rules of the classification society.
 The specimen to be tested in gripped firmly by the holding grips of the
testing machine. A simple and basic testing machine is shown in the figure
below. The base and the lower holding grip is fixed whereas the upper
holding grip and the crosshead to which it is connected is free to movable.
 Tensile (elongative) stress is applied by moving the movable clamp with the
load being displayed on a tension gauge fixed to the moving part. As the
load increases, test piece elongates through its elastic (yield point) and
plastic range (ultimate yield point) and then it would finally thin out (neck
out) before fracturing. Data obtained allows us to check the linear strain,
yield point and modulus of elasticity of the material.
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IMPACT TEST
 There are several forms of impact test, but the most common one is the
Charpy V-notch test or Charpy U-notch test. It measures the material’s
toughness i.e. its ability to withstand fracture under shock loading.
 In a Charpy V notch test, a vee notch is cut out of the test sample as shown
below. The dimensions of the test piece are standard. The test piece rests
on the anvil while the hammer is dropped on it from a standard rest
position. The hammer hits the side opposite to the v-notch.
 Energy absorbed by the material while breaking is automatically recorded
by the machine.
BEND TEST
 It is a simple and inexpensive qualitative test that can be used to evaluate
both the ductility and soundness of a material. It is used to evaluate the
quality of materials by their ability to resist cracking or other surface
irregularities during one continuous bend.
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 A sample is pressed by a radiused piece and measurements are taken which

determine the materials ductility, bend strength and fracture strength.
 The pressure is applied to the midpoint in order to bend / deform the
specimen and cause a concave surface to form, without the occurrence of
fracture. It also tells how resistant that material is to fracture.
 It is mainly used to check the areas of weld, to make sure that the weld has
properly fused to the parent metal and that the weld itself does not contain
any defects that may cause it to fail when it experiences bending stresses.
 Following a bend tend, the sample is inspected for crack and weld defects.
 The bend tests are of three types: Guided, semi-guided and free.
HARDNESS TEST:
 Hardness Testing measures a material’s strength by determining resistance
to penetration. The Hardness Test is extremely useful in material selection
because it provides a hardness value which indicates how easily a material
can be machined and how well it will wear.
 Hardness Testing is generally performed using test machines equipped with
an indenter (load) that is forced into the test material over a certain amount
of time.
 The shape of the indenter varies by type of hardness test and includes
shapes like diamond cone, ball, etc. Each test machine also uses a different
force or load application system and records an indentation hardness value
in kilograms-force according to their individual hardness scales.
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HARDNESS TESTS
CONNECTING ALUMINIUM SUPERSTRUCTURE TO STEEL DECK:

While connecting aluminium superstructure to steel deck, bimetallic corrosion is
an issue that needs to be tackled. This is done in various ways:
Bimetallic Transition Inserts –
A transition sheet comprising pure
aluminium and mild steel is separated by
polystyrene and is explosively bonded
together. These sheets are used to separate
the aluminium section from the steel plate
and ‘weld nugget process’ is used to weld
this sheet to the aluminium and steel
section. The nugget is steel to steel on one
side and aluminium to aluminium on the
other side. The latter is welded first.
Adhesive Bonding –
This technique is used mainly by car makers, but
now making its way in shipbuilding industry as well.
An electrically inert adhesive agent is used to bond
the aluminium and steel surfaces together, while a
sealant keeps out electrolyte from seeping into the
joint.
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Mechanical fastening with Bolts and Rivets
The two dissimilar metals (steel and

aluminium) are separated from each other
with an inert neoprene joint. The rivet/bolt
is driven through the metals, but is
separated from it by a neoprene tube.
Similarly, the bolt and nut surfaces are also
separated from the dissimilar metals.
Modern Welding Techniques-
Modern welding techniques like ‘friction stir

pot welding’ are being developed that will
allow the direct welding of steel to
aluminium.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ALUMINIUM IN SHIPBUILDING:
Aluminium alloys are tested & graded by classification society surveyors in the
same manner as mild steel.
Advantages:
1. Light weight. Its density is 2.72 t/cum as compared to 7.84 t/cum for Steel.
2. Saving in deadweight means more cargo carrying
capability. Superstructures made of aluminium had led to lowering of COG,
thereby improving stability.
3. Lower hull weight means less power required for propulsion or more speed
for the same power.
4. Strength-wise, it is comparable to steel. At lower temperatures, it is more
durable than steel. Steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, forming
cracks which rapidly propagate. Aluminium does not have this problem,
which makes it useful as a tank material on LPG and LNG carriers.
5. Aluminium has high corrosion resistant properties.
6. Aluminium is non magnetic. It will help the magnetic compass as there
won’t be induced magnetism.
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Disadvantages:
1. Aluminium has low melting point as compared to steel. In normal conditions
this temperature is sufficiently high. However in case of fire the aluminium
structure could melt & collapse.
2. Difficulty in welding aluminium is another factor against its use in
shipbuilding. The metals affinity for oxygen causes aluminium alloys in the
molten state to readily absorb oxygen, thereby weakening the metal. Only
MIG and TIG welding processes are suitable, thus making it a costly affair.
3. Aluminium is very expensive, almost ten times more expensive than steel.
4. Aluminium has to be insulated from steel to prevent a galvanic cell being set
up and bimetallic corrosion taking place.
STEEL v/s ALUMINIUM AS SHIP-BUILDING MATERIAL:

 The use of aluminium in ship building reduces the weight of the ship
structures by upto 50% compared to those made from low carbon steel.
 Aluminium requires lower maintenance cost in comparison to Mild steel.
 By reducing the vessel’s weight, the use of aluminium alloys allows for
higher speeds, greater cargo carrying capacity, lower fuel consumption,
longer distances and excellent manoeuvrability.
 The position of steel as the most widely used material in the shipbuilding
industry originates from its superior mechanical properties and low
manufacturing costs.
 Alloys Al-Mg and Al-Mg-Si were found to be reliable in marine service as well
as during the manufacturing. Aluminium alloys meet or exceed the
minimum yield strength requirements for normal strength steels (mild
steels) and could even compete with high strength steels. They also have a
superior corrosion resistance.
 The superstructure & other auxiliary equipments are made from aluminium
to save weight and increase the cargo carrying capacity of the ship.
 Aluminium ships have a clear advantage over steel ships with regards to
total ownership costs. This is due to the fact that aluminium ships are lighter
and use lesser fuel than steel ships. They also do not incur lifecycle
maintenance costs with painting and because they are generally smaller,
they require less manning.
 When aluminium reaches the end of its lifespan, it continues to provide
significant benefits as a result of its high recycling value.
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 With all the existing technologies and methods available for aluminium
shipbuilding, aluminium has the potential to replace steel in the future as
the main ship construction material. The use of aluminium alloys will
especially grow in smaller ships, while the bigger ships and tankers will
continue to be dominated by steel.
 All in all, the future of aluminium in shipbuilding looks bright.
ANNEALING:
 Annealing is a heat treatment method by which the properties of steels may
be altered greatly. The heat treatment brings about a change in the
mechanical properties principally by modifying the steel’s structure.
 The objects of annealing are to relieve any internal stresses, to soften the
steel, or to bring the steel to a condition suitable for a subsequent heat
treatment.
 In annealing, the steel is heated in the furnace at a slow rate to a
temperature of say 850°C to 950°C, and then cooled in the furnace at a very
slow rate. There are various types of annealing.
1. Full Annealing: The process involves heating of steel to 300C-500C above
the critical temperature of steel and maintaining the temperature for a
specified period of time, then allowing the material to cool down inside
the furnace itself without any forced means of cooling. It is mainly done
to increase the ductility of the material.
2. Process Annealing: It is also called intermediate annealing, sub-critical
annealing, or in-process annealing. The temperature range for process
annealing ranges from 260°C to 760°C, depending on the alloy. This
process is mainly suited for low-carbon steel. It is used to restore some
of the ductility to a product being cold-worked so it can be cold-worked
further without breaking. In this method, the material is heated up to a
temperature just below the lower critical temperature of steel.
3. Stress Relief Annealing: It is carried out to reduce internal residual
stresses without compromising strength, hardness or structural changes.
In this method, the casting or structure is heated to about 6500C and this
temperature is maintained constantly for a few hours and then allowed
to cool down slowly.
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4. Spherodized Annealing: This method is used to make steel more ductile

and machinable. It is conducted at temperatures that are slightly below
the lower critical temperature, about 7000C. The temperature is
maintained for about 8 hours followed by a slow cooling process.
NORMALIZING:
 This is carried out by heating the steel slowly to a temperature similar to
that for annealing and allowing it to cool in air. The resulting faster cooling
rate produces a harder stronger steel than annealing, and also refines the
grain size.
QUENCHING (OR HARDENING)

 Steel is heated to temperatures similar to that for annealing and
normalizing, and then quenched in water or oil. Quenching is the process of
cooling down of the material. The fast cooling rate produces a very hard
structure with a higher tensile strength. The microstructure of a quenched
or hardened steel part is usually accompanied by brittleness.
TEMPERING
 Quenched steels may be further heated to a temperature somewhat
between atmospheric and 680 °C, and some alloy steels are then cooled
fairly rapidly by quenching in oil or water. The object of this treatment is to
relieve the severe internal stresses produced by the original hardening
process and to make the material less brittle but retain the higher tensile
strength.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STEEL CASTING AND FORGING:

 Casting is the process where metal is heated until molten. While in the
molten or liquid state, it is poured into a mould to create a desire shape.
 Forging is the application of thermal and mechanical energy to steel billets
or ingots to cause the material to change shape while in a solid state.
 We use casting for components that are too large, complicated, intricate or
otherwise unsuitable for the forging process. By carefully choosing alloys
and applying heat treatment, we can produce castings of high quality and
strength. It can also be used where internal cavities are required.
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 The advantages of casting include –

1. No real upper size limit in casting weight.
2. Large range of alloys choices
3. Complicated / complex parts are no problem.
 Forging offers uniformity of composition, structure and grain refinement as

a result of the thermal and deformation process. This strengthens the
resulting steel product particularly in terms of impact and shear strength.
 Forged steel is usually stronger and more reliable than castings.
 Advantages of forging include –
1. Generally tougher and can handle impact better than castings
2. The nature of forging excludes occurrences of porosity, shrinkage,
cavities and cold pour issues.
3. The tight grain structure of forging makes it mechanically strong.
 Examples of forged components are: Shafts, gears, pistons, pinions, pintle

pins, couplings, etc.
 Examples of cast components are: Kenter shackle, bow shackles and
straight shackles for ship’s anchor chain, stern posts, stem posts, etc.
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NAVAL ARCH – II FIRE INTEGRITY
FIRE INTEGRITY
 The primary purpose of structural fire protection is to:
a) Provide a sufficient degree of protection within accommodation and
working spaces so as to enable the passengers and crew to evacuate the
immediate area and if necessary reach the muster station and then
abandon ship, should the fire become unmanageable.
b) Restrict the spread of fire and smoke.
 To achieve these, SOLAS Chapter II-2 lays down requirements on fire
protection, detection and extinction applicable to all ships built on or after
1st July 2002. It also lays down regulations for means of escape, operational
requirements and other special requirements.
 Two codes supplement these regulations, namely, the FSS Code
(International Code for Fire Safety Systems) and FTP Code (International
Code for the application of Fire test procedures).
 SOLAS regulations are incorporated by IACS in their construction rules
which ensure that the ships comply with the SOLAS regulations.
Basic Principles or functional requirements of fire protection system:

a) Division of the ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural
boundaries (Passenger ships).
b) Separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the ship by
thermal and structural boundaries.
c) Restricted use of combustible materials.
d) Detection of any fire in the zone of origin.
e) Containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin.
f) Protection of the means of escape or access for fire fighting.
g) Ready availability of fire extinguishing appliances.
h) Minimization of the possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapours.
Points a, b, c, e and f all require bulkheads, divisions, separators to achieve their

ends. These are of different types and are classified according to their resistance
to heat, fire and smoke.
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DIVISIONS
"A" Class Divisions:

 A-Class Divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads and decks that are
constructed of steel or other equivalent material, suitably stiffened and
insulated with approved non-combustible materials such that the average
temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more than 140ºC above the
original temperature, nor will the temperature, at any one point, including
any joint, rise more than 180ºC above the original temperature, within the
time listed below:
Class "A-60" = 60 min
Class "A-0" = 0 min
 They are constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of smoke
and flame to the end of the one-hour standard fire test.
 The Administration requires testing of a prototype bulkhead or deck in
accordance with the Fire Test Procedures Code to ensure that it meets the
above requirements for integrity and temperature rise.
"B" Class Divisions

 B-Class Divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings or
linings which are constructed of approved non-combustible materials, may
include combustible veneers, and must have an insulation value such that
the average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more than
140ºC above original temperature, nor will the temperature at any one
point, including any joint, rise more than 225ºC above the original
temperature, within the time listed below:
Class "B-15" = 15 min
Class "B-0" = 0 min
 They are constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of flame to
the end of the first half hour of the standard fire test.
 The Administration requires testing of a prototype division in accordance
with the Fire Test Procedures Code to ensure that it meets the above
requirements for integrity and temperature rise.
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"C" Class Divisions

 C-Class Divisions are divisions constructed of approved non-combustible
materials. They are neither required to meet requirements relative to the
passage of smoke and flame nor limitations of the temperature rise.
 Combustible veneers are permitted provided that they meet the
appropriate requirements.
Non Combustible Material

 It is the one which neither burns nor gives off flammable vapours in
sufficient quantity for self-ignition when heated to approximately 7500C, as
indicated in the FTP Code.
 A & B class divisions shall be constructed of non-combustible materials with
the following exceptions:
a) Adhesives and vapour barriers, but they should have low flame spread
characteristics.
b) Sealing materials used in penetration systems.
c) Seal for gas/weather/water tight doors.
Standard Fire Test

 A standard fire test is a test in which specimens of the relevant bulkhead or
decks are exposed in a test furnace to temperatures corresponding
approximately to the standard time-temperature curve in accordance with
the test method specified in the FTP Code.
 The specimen must have an exposed surface of 2.44m width and 2.5m
height. In case of decks and ceilings, they must be of 2.44mm width and
3.04m length. When the maximum overall height in practice is to be less
than that given above, then the test specimen shall be of the maximum
height to be used in practice.
 Orientation of the test piece shall be maintained. A bulkhead shall be tested
vertically and a deck or ceiling shall be tested horizontally.
 Class A and B Class bulkheads and doors shall be tested from each side.
 A-Class un-insulated steel bulkheads and decks without openings shall be
treated as A-0 and no test is required. All other divisions, including class "A-
0" divisions with a structural core of aluminum, are required to be tested.
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 Constructions shall be tested without paint or other superimposed finishes,

subject to the approval of the Administration.
 The specimen being tested should resemble as closely as possible the
intended construction and include atleast one joint, where applicable.
 Temperature thermocouples are placed at various points on the specimen
to be tested as per FTP Code. During the test, temperatures are recorded at
intervals not exceeding 1 minute.
 The average temperature of the furnace as derived from the furnace
thermocouples shall be monitored and controlled such that it follows the
standard time-temperature curve. (This is a smooth curve drawn using
furnace temperature points measured at 5m, 10m, 15m, 30m and 60m
starting from the initial furnace temperature.)
 The average temperature rise on the unexposed surface shall be calculated
as the average of the rises recorded by the individual thermocouples to
check if the specimen complies with the requirement on temperature rise.
 If there is any flaming seen on the unexposed side, the duration and the
location shall be recorded. In cases where it is difficult to identify whether
or not there are flames then the cotton-wool pad shall be applied to see if
ignition of the pad can be initiated.
 For all "A" class divisions, including those with doors, the test shall continue
for a minimum of 60 min. For all "B" class divisions, including those with
doors, the test shall continue for a minimum of 30 min.
SERVICE SPACES:
 Service spaces are those spaces used for galleys, pantries containing
cooking appliances, Iockers, store-rooms, workshops, etc. other than those
forming part of the machinery spaces, and similar spaces and trunks to such
spaces. Service spaces are divided into two categories:
a) Service spaces (Low Risk) include lockers and store rooms not having
provisions for the storage of flammable liquids and having areas of less
than 4m3 and drying rooms and laundries.
b) Service spaces (High Risk) include galley, pantries containing cooking
appliances, paint lockers, lockers and store rooms having area of 4m3 or
more, spaces for the storage of flammable liquids, saunas and
workshops other than those spaces forming part of machinery spaces.
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SPECIAL CATEGORY SPACES:
 Special category spaces are those enclosed vehicle spaces above and below
the bulkhead deck, into and from which vehicles can be driven and to which
passengers have access. Special category spaces may be accommodated on
more than one deck provided that the total overall clear height for vehicles
does not exceed 10 m.
 In passenger ships carrying more than 36 passengers, the bulkheads and
decks of special category spaces shall be insulated to'A-60" class standard.
 In passenger ships, indicators shall be provided on the navigation bridge to
indicate when any fire door leading to or from the special category spaces is
closed.
 In special category spaces to which any passengers carried can have access,
the number and locations of the means of escape shall be to the satisfaction
of the Administration. Walkways to the means of escape must be provided
with a breadth of at least 600 mm. The parking arrangements for vehicles
shall maintain the walkways clear at all times.
 The ventilation system for special category spaces must be sufficient to
provide 10 air changes per hour.
 An efficient fire patrol system shall be maintained in special category
spaces. If an efficient fire patrol system is maintained by a continuous fire
watch at all times during the voyage, a fixed fire detection and fire alarm
system is not required.
 Special category spaces shall be fitted with a fixed water-based fire-fighting
system with provision of manual operation, which shall protect all parts of
any deck and vehicle platform of such spaces. A sufficient number of
drainage valves must be provided to ensure complete drainage of the
system. Also, means shall be provided to prevent the blockage of drainage
arrangements.
 There are additional requirements for special category spaces of Ro-Ro
Passenger ships. For example, CCTV surveillance and a water leakage
detection system is required to be fitted to provide an indication to the
navigation bridge and to ECR of any leakage through the bow or stern doors
which could lead to flooding of special category spaces or ro-ro spaces.
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FIRE PROTECTION & DETECTION IN PASSENGER SHIPS

Fire Detection
 A fixed fire detection and fire alarm system shall be so installed and
arranged as to provide smoke detection in service spaces, control stations
and accommodation spaces. Smoke detectors need not be fitted in private
bathrooms and galleys. Spaces having little or no fire risk such as voids,
public toilets, CO2 rooms and similar spaces need not be fitted with a fixed
fire detection and alarm system. Detectors fitted in cabins, when activated,
shall also be capable of emitting an audible alarm within the space where
they are located.
 A fixed fire detection and fire alarm system shall also be provided for
protection of cargo spaces in passenger ships.
 Manually operated call points complying with the FSS Code shall be installed
throughout the accommodation spaces, service spaces and control stations.
One manually operated call point shall be located at each exit. Manually
operated call points shall be readily accessible in the corridors of each deck
such that no part of the corridor is more than 20 m from a manually
operated call point.
 Fire patrols – For ships carrying more than 36 passengers, an efficient patrol
system shall be maintained so that an outbreak of fire may be promptly
detected. Each member of the fire patrol shall be trained and familiar with
the arrangements of the ship as well as the location and operation of any
equipment he may be called upon to use. Each member of the fire patrol
shall be provided with a two-way portable radiotelephone apparatus.
 The entire main vertical zone containing the atrium shall be protected
throughout with a smoke detection system.
 Passenger ships shall at all times when at sea, or in port (except when out of
service), be so manned or equipped as to ensure that any initial fire alarm is
immediately received by a responsible member of the crew.
 A special alarm, operated from the Navigation Bridge or fire control station,
shall be fitted to summon the crew. This alarm may be part of the ship's
general alarm system and shall be capable of being sounded independently
of the alarm to the passenger spaces.
 Fire detection systems should be tested after installation under various
conditions of ventilation and at periodic intervals. Heat, flame and smoke
detectors must be tested using hot air, smoke or aerosol particles.
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Fire Protection
 In ships carrying more than 36 passengers, the hull, superstructure and

deckhouses shall be subdivided into main vertical zones by 'A-60" class
divisions.
 Passenger ships of 4000 GT and upwards shall have at least three fire
pumps and those of less than 4000 GT shall have at least two fire pumps.
 Passenger ships shall be provided with fire hoses, the number and diameter
of which shall be to the satisfaction the Administration. At least one fire
hose must be provided for each of the required hydrant.
 Machinery spaces of passenger ships shall be protected by a fixed fire-
extinguishing system such as a fixed gas fire-extinguishing system or a fixed
high-expansion foam fire-extinguishing system or a fixed pressure water-
spraying fire-extinguishing system. Apart from this, for passenger ships
carrying more than 36 passengers, the machinery space should be further
protected by at least two suitable water fog applicators. All of the above
systems must comply with the requirements of the FSS Code.
 Fixed local application fire-extinguishing systems should be provided to
protect areas such as main engines, aux. engines, boiler fronts, fire hazard
portions of incinerators and purifiers. Activation of any local application
system shall give a visual and distinct audible alarm in the protected space
and at continuously manned stations, indicating the location the system has
activated.
 Passenger ships shall carry two fire-fighter's outfits. For every 80m lengths
of all passenger spaces and service spaces, they shall carry two fire-fighter's
outfits additionally. In passenger ships carrying more than 36 passengers,
two additional fire-fighter's outfits shall be provided for each main vertical
zone. On ships carrying more than 36 passengers, for each pair of breathing
apparatus, one water fog applicator which shall be stored adjacent to such
apparatus.
 Two spare charges shall be provided for each required breathing apparatus.
Passenger ships carrying less than 36 passengers that are equipped with
suitably located means for fully recharging the air cylinders free from
contamination can carry only one spare charge for each required apparatus.
In passenger ships carrying more than 36 passengers, at least two spare
charges for each breathing apparatus shall be provided.
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SPRINKLER SYSTEM ON PASSENGER SHIPS:

 Passenger ships carrying more than 36 passengers shall be equipped with
an automatic sprinkler, fire detection and fire alarm system of an approved
type complying with the requirements of the FSS Code, in all control
stations, accommodation and service spaces, including corridors and
stairways. At control stations, where water may cause damage to essential
equipment, an alternative approved fixed fire-extinguishing system of
another type may be provided. Spaces having little or no fire risk such as
voids, public toilets, CO2 rooms and similar places need not be fitted with an
automatic sprinkler system.
 There shall be not less than two sources of power supply for the sprinkler’s
sea water pump and automatic alarm and detection system. One of the
sources for power shall be an emergency source.
 The automatic sprinkler system consists of sprinklers, pressure tanks,
sprinkler pumps, alarms and indications.
 Sprinklers:
a) The sprinklers in accommodation and service spaces shall come into
operation within the temperature range from 680C to 790C, except that
in locations such as drying rooms.
b) Spare sprinkler heads shall be provided as per requirement for all types
installed on the ship.
c) Sprinkler head consists of a quartzoid bulb which bursts when the
temperature increases beyond the limit and water starts flowing from
the sprinkler head. Quartzoid bulbs are colour coded in red, yellow and
green depending on their activating temperature.
d) Whenever the sprinkler comes into operation, the pressure in the tank
drops and an alarm is activated for the particular section.
 Pressure tank:
a) A pressure tank having a volume equal to at least twice that of the
charge of water required shall be provided.
b) Suitable means of replenishing the air under pressure and of replenishing
the fresh water charge in the tank shall be provided.
c) A glass gauge shall be provided to indicate the correct level of the water
in the tank.
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 Sprinkler pump:
a) Sprinkler pumps shall be independent power pumps and be used solely
for the purpose of continuing automatically the discharge of water from
the sprinklers.
b) The pump shall be brought into action automatically by the pressure
drop in the system before the standing fresh water charge in the
pressure tank is completely exhausted.
 Alarms and indications:
a) Sprinklers shall be grouped into separate sections, each of which shall
contain no more than 200 sprinklers. Each section of sprinklers shall be
capable of being isolated by one stop valve only, readily accessible in a
location outside of the associated section.
b) Each section of sprinklers shall include means for giving a visual and
audible alarm signal automatically whenever any sprinkler comes into
operation. It must also indicate in which section the sprinkler is activated.
c) The alarm and indication must be provided at the navigating bridge or in
a continuously manned station.
 Testing: A test valve shall be provided for testing the automatic alarm for
each section of sprinklers. Also, means shall be provided for testing the
automatic operation of the pump on reduction of pressure in the system.
 The sprinkler pump and tank shall be situated in a position reasonably
remote from any machinery space or any space required to be protected by
the sprinkler system.
 Any parts of the system which may be subjected to freezing temperatures in
service shall be suitably protected against freezing.
MMD QUESTIONS:
1. Write short notes on: (A) Non-combustible material (B) A-Class Divisions
2. Write short notes on Standard Fire Test and types of Bulkhead/Divisions
3. Write short notes on: (A) Services spaces (B) Special Category spaces
4. Describe the functional requirements of fire protection and detection systems.
5. Explain in brief the sprinkler type fixed fire extinguishing system used on Passenger ships.
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NAVAL ARCH – II LOADLINE AND TONNAGE
LOADLINE AND TONNAGE

Sub-Division Requirement
Type-A Ships:
 Ships designed to carry liquid cargoes in bulk such as oil tankers, chemical
carriers and LPG and LNG carriers. They have only small access openings of
cargo compartments, closed with gasketted steel covers and have low
permeability of cargo compartments.
 There is No sub-division requirement if the ship is of less than 150m in
length. Type-A ships of over 150m in length but less than 225m, when loaded
shall be able to withstand flooding of one compartment with an assumed
permeability of 0.95 and shall remain afloat in a satisfactory condition of
equilibrium.
 Type A ships greater than 225m have the same requirement as above, but
machinery space must be treated as a floodable compartment with
permeability of 0.85.
 Type-A vessel has a smaller freeboard compared to a Type-B vessel of
equivalent length, because of the structural layout & type of cargo carried.
 When a loaded Type-A vessel is bilged, the oil will run out resulting in
reduction of displacement and increase in freeboard.
 Because of the large free surface effects possible with liquid cargoes, type
‘A’ ships must have a high degree of subdivision, both longitudinally and
transversely. This subdivision limits the volume of lost buoyancy when a
compartment becomes bilged, unlike the relatively large hold of a cargo
vessel (type ‘B’ ship).
 Greater sub-division improves the stability characteristics in the damaged
condition when damage is in way of a transverse bulkhead causing the
flooding of two adjacent loaded compartments. It also reduces the effect of
trim when near end compartments become bilged.
 In conclusion, advantages of Type-A vessels are that the exposed deck has
small access openings fitted with gasketted steel covers, low permeability,
and high degree of sub-division both longitudinally and transversely.
 Cargo pumps are very effective if the damaged compartment is bilged.
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Type-B ships:
 Type B ships are those which do not fall under the Type-A ship category.
 Type-B ships have large hatch openings which can be only made
weathertight. Also, permeability of the holds is high.
 There is no sub-division requirement for ships of less than 100m in length.
 Type-B ships that exceed 100m and are fitted with steel hatch covers and
have sufficient sub-division then may be allowed a reduction in freeboard
(B60 and B100). For this, they must conform to all or some of the properties
of the Type-A ship to be assigned lower freeboards.
 When a type B ship is bilged, seawater will run into the damaged
compartment increasing the displacement and reducing the Freeboard.
 If a Type-B ship satisfies the additional conditions of assignment of
freeboard with respect to structure and damage stability, then there is a
reduction of Freeboard as follows:
1. Type B-60 – where the reduction in freeboard is 60% of the difference
between the tabulated values indicated in Table A and B.
2. Type B-100 – where the reduction in freeboard is 100% of the difference
between the tabulated values indicated in Table A and B. In other words,
the freeboards of Type A and B-100 are the same.
For example, a ship of 140m length, Type A = 1803mm. Type B = 2109 mm.
Difference = 306 mm.
Type B-60 = 2109 – (0.6 x 306) = 1925 mm.
Type B-100 = 2109 – (1 x 306) = 1803 mm.
 Additional Condition of assignments for Type B-60:

1. Applicable for ships over 100m in length.
2. Protection of crew on exposed deck such as raised cat-walk or under-
deck walkways.
3. Freeing water off the deck such as having railings, instead of bulwarks.
4. Steel hatch covers with special care for sealing and securing.
5. Ships of more than 100m, but less than 225m, must be able to withstand
flooding of atleast one compartment within the cargo hold length, with
assumed permeability of 0.95 and shall remain afloat.
6. If ship is over 225m in length, then machinery space to be treated as
floodable compartment with permeability of 0.85.
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 Additional Condition of assignment for Type B-100:

1. Applicable for ships over 100m in length.
2. Condition of assignment applicable for Type-A ship and Type B-60 ship.
3. Ships of length over 100m but less than 225m, must be able to withstand
flooding of any two adjacent fore and aft compartments. (not including
machinery spaces) with assumed permeability of 0.95 and shall remain
afloat.
4. If ship is over 225m in length, then machinery space to be treated as one
of the floodable compartment with permeability of 0.85.
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CONDITIONS OF ASSIGNMENT OF FREEBOARDS:

 When inspecting the conditions of assignment of freeboards, the following
areas are referred to:
1. Position 1 (P1) – exposed freeboard, raised quarter deck and
superstructure within 25% of L from the FP.
2. Position 2 (P2) - exposed freeboard, raised quarter deck and
superstructure outside of 25% of L from the FP.
 Conditions of assignment deal with the following:

1. The construction and design of the ship must be such that the stability in
all loading conditions is sufficient for freeboard assigned.
2. Access openings in bulkheads – Height of sills of openings shall be atleast
380mm above the deck.
3. Hatchways at P1 and P2 closed by portable covers and secured
weathertight by tarpaulins and battening devices, minimum height of
hatchways shall be 600mm in P1 and 450mm in P2. Weather tightness of
covers and tarpaulins & strength of beams and fittings must be ensured.
4. Hatchways at P1 and P2 closed by weathertight covers of steel fitted with
gaskets and clamping devices, minimum height of hatchways shall be
600mm in P1 and 450mm in P2. This height may be reduced or omitted
altogether if the Administration is convinced that the safety of the ship is
not impaired. Weather tightness of steel gasketted covers and strength
of beams and fittings must be ensured.
5. Machinery space openings and miscellaneous openings in freeboard and
superstructure decks shall have the sill heights of watertight doors
atleast 600mm in P1 and 380mm in P2 and suitably plated for strength.
Manholes shall be closed with substantial weathertight covers.
6. Ventilators on freeboard and superstructure decks shall be provided with
strong bracketed coaming of 900mm height in P1 and un-bracketed
760mm in P2. Also, means of closure shall be provided if coaming height
is less than 4.5m in P1 and less than 2.3m in P2.
7. Air pipes shall have a height of atleast 760mm above the freeboard decks
and atleast 450mm above the superstructure decks. They must have
permanent means of closure.
8. Cargo ports and other side openings - No doors shall be fitted below the
load line decks. Structural and water tight integrity of the hull must be
maintained, if any W/T door is fitted below the freeboard deck.
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9. Scuppers, inlets and discharges – If from enclosed spaces either above or

below the freeboard deck, they must be provided with non-return
(storm) valves, with accessible controls and position markings in engine
room. Scuppers from open spaces shall lead directly overboard.
10. Side scuttles – If below freeboard deck and in superstructures, they shall
have efficient hinged water tight deadlights. There shall be no side
scuttles below 500mm or 2.5% of ship’s breadth, whichever greater,
above the summer load line.
11. Freeing ports – Sufficient freeing ports must be provided where
bulwarks can cause wells to be formed on exposed deck. The lower edge
of the freeing port should be as close as possible to the deck to allow
drainage of most of the accumulated water. Height of opening shall not
be more than 230mm, and if flaps are provided, they must be of the non-
jamming types.
12. Protection of the crew – Exposed freeboard and superstructure decks
shall have guard rails or bulwarks to a minimum height of 1000mm.
Lower most rail spacing shall not exceed 230mm, and others 380mm.
Gangways and walkways (cat-walks) are to be provided where necessary
(e.g. tankers)
 The details of the Conditions of Assignment of freeboard which are checked
during a Load Line survey are given in a separate attachment and form part
of the Load Line certification.
MULTIPLE LOAD LINES:

 Issuance of multiple load lines was a result of commercial considerations.
Many ports have deadweight restrictions on ships that call on them. These
restrictions have no bearing on vessel’s safety, draft, etc. To get around the
deadweight restriction, shipowners petitioned their governments and
obtained permission to have several sets of marks, with a Load line
certificate issued by RO for each set. None of these additional sets of load
line can be higher than the minimum freeboard assigned under the
International Load Line Rules. The Rules allow only one set to be in use at
any one time, so that the ship may arrive in port using one set, but sail out
using another. Any marks not in use should be painted out to hide them.
 Indian Rules on Multiple Load Lines are as follows:
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1. The Owner must make a request in writing to the Indian Register of

Shipping (IRS) indicating the required deadweights (or drafts) for which the
multiple load lines are to be assigned.
2. The request will be evaluated and if found acceptable, a memorandum of
freeboard (MOF) will be issued by IRS, under intimation of the Naval
Architecture branch of DG.
3. The following condition will be verified by IRS before issuing a multiple load
line certificate:
a) The Load Line marks corresponding to the deepest drafts of the vessel,
as well as other assigned marks are permanently marked on the side
shell.
b) The vessel is issued with a ‘multiple load line assignment booklet’ by the
Assigning Authority, (ship’s copy) in order to keep the records of the use
of multiple load lines. A copy of this booklet shall be retained by the
Owner/Company as the ‘company copy’ for records.
c) Stability information for the relevant statutory loading conditions
corresponding to each load line mark is approved by IRS and is available
on board.
4. Company’s SMS shall have clear procedures for changing of load line marks
and maintenance of records of the same.
5. The GT and NT of the vessel shall remain unaltered and shall be those
corresponding to the deepest draft.
6. All statutory certificates must show only the greatest deadweight of the
ship.
TONNAGE MEASUREMENT OF SHIPS:
 ‘Tonnage’ broadly is a measure of a ship’s size, which can be expressed in

terms of either volume or weight.
 Under IMO, the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of
ships (1969) entered into force in 1982.
 Gross tonnage (GT) forms the basis for manning regulations, safety rules
and registration fees. Both GT and NT are used to calculate port dues.
 The GT is a function of the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the
ship. The NT is produced by a formula which is a function of the moulded
volume of all cargo spaces of the ship.
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 In simple words, GT is the overall size of the ship, whereas NT is the useful
capacity of a ship.
 The determination of GT and NT shall be carried out by the Administration
which may entrust this responsibility to such persons or organizations
recognized by it. In every case, the Administration concerned shall accept
full responsibility for the determination of GT and NT.
 The formulae for determining GT and NT are as follows:
𝐺𝑇 = 𝐾1 𝑉
Where,
V = total volume of all enclosed spaces in m3.
K1 = 0.2 + 0.02Log10V (or as tabulated in Appendix 2 of the Convention)
4𝑑 2 𝑁2
𝑁𝑇 = 𝐾2 𝑉𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐾3 𝑁1 +
3𝐷 10
Where,
Vc = volume of cargo space in m3.
K2 = 0.2 + 0.02 Log10 Vc (or as tabulated in Appendix 2 of the Convention)
K3 = 1.25 (GT+10000)
10000
D = moulded depth in mtrs.

d = moulded draft amidships in mtrs. (summer load line draft or deepest
subdivision load line draft for passenger ships)
N1 = number of passengers in cabins with less than 8 berths
N2 = number of passengers not belonging to the N1 category.
The term 4d/3D shall not be taken as more than 1.

NT shall not be taken as less than 0.3 GT.
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Some Definitions used in the Convention:

 Upper Deck – The upper deck is the uppermost complete deck exposed to
weather and sea, which has permanent means of weathertight closing of all
openings in the weather part thereof, and below which all openings in the
sides of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight closing.
 Moulded Depth – is the vertical distance measured from the top of the keep
to the underside of the upper deck at side.
 Breadth – is the maximum breadth of the ship, measured amidships.
 Enclosed spaces – all those spaces which are bounded by the ship’s hull, by
fixed or portable partitions or bulkheads, by decks or coverings other than
permanent or movable awnings.
 Excluded Spaces – Notwithstanding the provisions of the above paragraph,
the spaces referred in sub-paragraphs (a) to (e) shall be called excluded
spaces and shall not be included in the volume of enclosed spaces, except
that any such space that fulfills atleast one of the following three conditions
shall be treated as an enclosed space.
1. The space is fitted with shelves or other means for securing cargo and/or
stores.
2. The openings are fitted with any means of closure.
3. The construction provides any possibility of such openings being closed.
A space shall be considered an ‘Excluded space’ in the following cases:

a) A space within an erection opposite to an end opening extending from
deck to deck.
b) A space under an overhead deck covering, open to the sea and weather,
with no other connection to the ship side other than stanchions.
c) A space in a side-to-side erection directly in way of opposite side
openings.
d) A space in erection immediately below an uncovered opening in the deck
overhead, which is exposed to weather.
e) A recess in the boundary bulkhead of an erection which is exposed to the
weather and the opening of which extends from deck to deck without
means of closing.
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O = Excluded Space,
C = Enclosed Space,
I = space to be considered as an enclosed space.
B = breadth of the deck in way of the opening.
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 Passenger – a passenger is every person other than the Master and

members of the crew and a child under one year of age.
 Cargo spaces – cargo spaces to be included in the computation of NT are

enclosed spaces appropriated for the transportation of cargo which is to be
discharged from the ships provided that such spaces have been included in
the computation of GT.
 Weathertight – means that in any sea condition, water will not penetrate
the ship.
DEFINITIONS AS PER LOADLINE CONVENTION:
 Length: The length (L) shall be taken as 96 per cent of the total length on a
waterline at 85 per cent of the least moulded depth measured from the top
of the keel, or as the length from the fore side of the stem to the axis of the
rudder stock on that waterline, if that be greater. In ships designed with a
rake of keel the waterline on which this length is measured shall be parallel
to the designed waterline.
 Freeboard Deck: The freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete

deck exposed to weather and sea, which has permanent means of closing
all openings in the weather part thereof, and below which all openings in
the sides of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight closing.
 Superstructure: A superstructure is a decked structure on the freeboard

deck, extending from side to side of the ship or with the side plating not
being inboard of the shell plating more than 4 per cent of the breadth (B). A
raised quarter deck is regarded as a superstructure.
 An enclosed superstructure: It is a superstructure with:

1. Enclosing bulkheads of efficient construction;
2. Access openings, if any, in these bulkheads fitted with weathertight
doors complying with the requirements of the Convention
3. All other openings in sides or ends of the superstructure fitted with
efficient weathertight means of closing.
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 Weathertight: Weathertight means that in any sea conditions water will not
penetrate into the ship
 Deck Line: It is a line is a horizontal line 300mm in length and 25 mm in

breadth, normally marked amidships on each side of the ship, with its upper
edge at the same level of the upper surface of the freeboard deck.
 Correction for Block Coefficient: Where the block coefficient (Cb) exceeds
0.68, the tabular freeboard as given in the Convention must be multiplied by
a factor given by (Cb + 0.68)/1.36. The greater the Cb over 0.68, the greater
will be the freeboard assigned.
CRITERIA FOR TONNAGE CONVENTION TO COME INTO FORCE:
The Tonnage Convention came into force twenty-four months after the date on
which not less than 25 Governments of States, the combined merchant fleets of
which constitute not less than 65% of the gross tonnage of the world's merchant
shipping had signed without reservation (ratified).
CRITERIA FOR LOADLINE CONVENTION TO COME INTO FORCE:
The Load Line Convention came into force twelve months after the date on which
not less than fifteen governments of States, including seven each with not less
than one million gross tonnage of shipping, had signed without reservation.
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NAVAL ARCH – II PASSENGER SHIP SUB-DIVISION
PASSENGER SHIP SUB-DIVISION
Watertight Bulkheads:
 Watertight bulkheads are vertically designed water tight divisions within the
ship’s structure, starting from the ship’s double bottom top up to the
bulkhead deck.
 These bulkheads avoid ingress of water in a compartment if the adjacent
compartment is flooded due to damage in the ship’s hull structure, etc.
 The main hull transverse and longitudinal bulkheads divide the ship into a
number of watertight compartments.
 The watertight bulkheads shall be capable of supporting atleast the
pressure due to a head of water upto the bulkhead deck.
 Further they not only serve as a hull strength member against ship’s vertical
loading but also resist any tendency for transverse deformation of the ship.
 They also prove to be a very effective barrier against the spread of a hold or
machinery space fire.
 Main Watertight bulkheads include the Fwd Collision bulkhead, aft peak
bulkhead that enclose the stern tubes in a watertight compartment and
Machinery bulkheads that provide a self-contained compartment for
engines and boilers preventing damage to these vital components of the
ship by flooding in an adjacent hold. A minimum number of watertight
bulkheads will only be found in smaller cargo ships. As the size increases,
the classification society will recommend additional bulkheads, partly to
provide greater transverse strength, and also to increase the amount of
subdivision
 For cargo ships, the aft peak bulkhead may terminate at the first deck above
the load waterline provided this is made watertight to the stern, or to a
watertight transom floor. But in passenger ships, the aft peak bulkhead
shall also be fitted and made watertight upto the bulkhead deck.
 Where a vessel requires a passenger certificate (carrying more than 12
passengers), it is necessary for that vessel to comply with the requirements
of the SOLAS which specifies the requirements on subdivision of passenger
ships. This is checked and controlled by the authorities of the maritime
countries who are signatories to the convention.
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SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
 Subdivision length (Ls) of the ship is the greatest projected moulded length
of that part of the ship at or below deck or decks limiting the vertical extent
of flooding with the ship at the deepest subdivision draught.
 Deepest subdivision draught (ds) is the waterline which corresponds to the

summer load line draught of the ship.
 Light service draught (dl) is the service draught corresponding to the lightest
anticipated loading condition, including, ballast as may be necessary for
stability and/or immersion. Passenger ships should include the full
complement of passengers and crew on board.
 Permeability (μ) of a space is the proportion of the immersed volume of that

space which can be occupied by water.
 Weathertight means that in any sea conditions water will not penetrate into
the ship.
 Watertight means having scantlings and arrangements capable of

preventing the passage of water in any direction under the head of water
likely to occur in intact and damaged conditions. In the damaged condition,
the head of water is to be considered in the worst situation at equilibrium,
including intermediate stages of flooding.
 Bulkhead deck in a passenger ship means the uppermost deck at any point in
the subdivision length (Ls) to which the main bulkheads and the ship’s shell
are carried watertight and the lowermost deck from which passenger and
crew evacuation will not be impeded by water in any stage of flooding. The
bulkhead deck may be a stepped deck. It is the deck to which the transverse
watertight bulkheads are carried. In a cargo ship, the freeboard deck may
be taken as the bulkhead deck.
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SUBDIVISION
 Ships shall be as efficiently subdivided as is possible having regard to the
nature of the service for which they are intended. The degree of subdivision
shall vary with the subdivision length (Ls) of the ship and with the service, in
such manner that the highest degree of subdivision corresponds with the
ships of greatest subdivision length (Ls), primarily engaged in the carriage
of passengers.
 ‘Bulkhead deck’ is the uppermost continuous deck to which the transverse
watertight bulkheads are carried. If the bulkhead deck submerges, then
progressive flooding takes place.
 ‘Margin line’ is an imaginary line which is 76mm below the bulkhead deck. If
the bulkhead deck is not continuous, the margin line is assumed as a
continuous line much below the bulkhead deck, provided there is
watertightness of those compartments which are above the margin line to
the higher deck. In the pre 2009 rules, in damaged condition the margin line
may not submerge. With new ‘probabilistic’ stability rules, the margin line
has lost its important from the point of view of subdivision.
 ‘Permeability’ is the ratio of the maximum flooded water volume (in
damaged condition) to the volume of the space. It is used in the damaged
stability calculation. For example, the permeability of stores is 0.6 i.e. when
a 100m3 store is flooded, 60m3 of water is assumed in damaged stability
calculations. For engine rooms, the permeability is 0.85 and for tanks,
cofferdams and voids, it is 0.95.
 ‘Floodable length’ at any point within the length of the ship is the maximum
portion of the length, having its centre at the point of flooding, which can
be symmetrically flooded at the prescribed permeability, without immersing
the margin line. The floodable length at any point in the length of the ship is
determined by taking into account the draught and other characteristics of
the ship. The floodable length is not the actual length between two
bulkheads. Floodable length curves are made including the allowed
permeability of the spaces being covered. Since the forward and aft parts of
the ship are more prone to change of trim, the floodable length is shorter.
Whereas in the middle portion the floodable length is larger as flooding
causes more of bodily sinkage. Also, the bow and stern areas give a larger
floodable length since there parts are narrow than other areas.
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 The concept of floodable length and subdivision (deterministic method) is

an old one and has been replaced by the Probabilistic Damage Assessment
method. Here various damage scenarios are considered and the probability
of them occurring is obtained. These are all put together to determine the
vessel’s attained ‘subdivision index’. If this is greater than the required
subdivision index (Class requirement) then the subdivision model of the ship
is considered to be acceptable.
 ‘Permissible Length’ or the maximum permissible length of a compartment

having its centre at any point in the ship's length is obtained from the
floodable length by multiplying the latter by an appropriate factor called the
factor of subdivision. The factor of subdivision depends on the length of the
ship, and for a given length it shall vary according to the nature of the
service for which the ship is intended. It decreases in a regular and
continuous manner as the length of the ship increases. The factor of
subdivision will always be equal to or less than 1. Thus, the permissible
length will always be lesser than the floodable length.
Deterministic method v/s Probabilistic method
 The deterministic regulations for passenger ships in SOLAS were based on

the assumed damaged scenario i.e. one or group of flooded compartments,
according to the ship’s factor of subdivision, maximum permissible length
and type of service. Subdivision is obtained that ensures the ship remains
afloat and stable i.e. the margin line does not immerse. (Margin line
concept)
 The probabilistic method is now in force and requires the calculation of the
‘attained subdivision index A’. It is calculated as the summation of (pi x si),
where ‘pi’ is the probability that the one compartment or group of
compartments in question may be flooded and ‘si’ is the probability of
survival after flooding of the compartment or group of compartments in
question. The subdivision of a ship is considered sufficient if the attained
subdivision index A is not less than the required subdivision index R, both
calculated in accordance with SOLAS regulations.
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Sub-division load lines for Passenger Ships

 ‘Subdivision load line’ is a water line used in determining the sub-division of
the ship. Deepest subdivision load line is the waterline which corresponds to
the greatest draught permitted by the applicable subdivision requirements.
 In order that the required degree of subdivision shall be maintained, a load
line corresponding to the approved subdivision draught shall be assigned
and marked on the ship’s sides.
 These subdivision load lines indicate the depth to which a passenger ship
may be loaded having regard to the extent to which the ship is subdivided.
 Every ship shall be marked with the subdivision load lines assigned to it.
They shall be 25 mm in breadth and 230 mm in length and be painted in
white or yellow on a dark background or in black on a light background.
 The subdivision load lines assigned and marked shall be recorded in the
Passenger Ship Safety Certificate, and shall be distinguished by the notation
C1 for the principal passenger condition, and C2, C3, etc., for the alternative
conditions.
 If the owner desires, he may have more than one load line arranged.
However, in no case shall any subdivision load line mark be placed above the
deepest load line in salt water determined as per Load line Convention.
 Also, in no case shall a ship be so loaded that when it is in salt water the
subdivision load line mark appropriate to the particular voyage and service
configuration is submerged.
 The subdivision load lines are in addition to the ship's ordinary load lines.
C1 = Deepest Subdivision Load Line
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DOUBLE BOTTOMS IN PASSENGER SHIPS (and cargo ships other than tankers)
 A double bottom shall be fitted extending from the collision bulkhead to the
afterpeak bulkhead, as far as this is practicable and compatible with the
design and proper working of the ship.
 Where a double bottom is required to be fitted, the inner bottom shall be
continued out to the ship's sides in such a manner as to protect the bottom
at the turn of the bilge. To provide adequate protection in this regard, the
height of the DB i.e. vertical distance of the inner bottom measured from
the keel line shall be not less than B/20, where B is the breadth of the ship.
 However, the height of the DB in no case shall be less than 760 mm, and
need not be more than 2m.
 Small wells constructed in the double bottom in connection with drainage
arrangements of holds, etc., shall not extend downward more than
necessary. In no case shall the vertical distance from the bottom of such a
well to a plane coinciding with the keel line be less than 500 mm.
 In the case of passenger ships engaged on short international voyages, the
Administration may permit a double bottom to be dispensed with if satisfied
that the fitting of a DB in that part would not be compatible with the design
and proper working of the ship.
 In the case of unusual bottom arrangements in a passenger ship, it shall be
demonstrated that the ship is capable of withstanding bottom damages.
 In case of large lower holds in passenger ships, the Administration may
require an increased double bottom height of not more than B/10 or 3 m,
whichever is less, measured from the keel line.
MMD QUESTIONS:
1. Define and distinguish between ‘Permissible length’ and ‘Floodable length’ of a

passenger ship w.r.t. Subdivision requirements under SOLAS. Which one will be
more? Explain with reasons.
2. Define: Floodable length, Factor of Subdivision, Bulkhead deck and Margin Line
3. With respect to the subdivision of passenger ships, explain the relationship
between the subdivision load line and floodable length.
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NAVAL ARCH – II INTACT STABILITY
INTACT STABILITY FOR PASSENGER AND

CARGO SHIPS
International Code on Intact Stability 2008
 Purpose: To present mandatory and recommendatory stability criteria and

other measures for ensuring the safe operation of ships, to minimize the
risk to such ships, to the personnel on board and to the environment.
 Parts: Introduction and part A of the Code address the mandatory criteria
and part B contains recommendations and additional guidelines.
 Application: The code applies to cargo and passenger ships of 24 m in

length and over. The Code contains intact stability criteria for cargo ships,
cargo ships carrying timber deck cargoes, passenger ships, fishing vessels,
special purpose ships, offshore supply vessels, mobile offshore drilling units,
pontoons and cargo ships carrying containers on deck and containerships.
 General Criteria for Intact Stability

a) On vessels fitted with anti-rolling devices, compliance is required even in
case power failure renders these devices inoperable.
b) Conditions like ice accretion and green seas on deck and the
consumption of fuel and stores should be taken into consideration, when
deciding compliance with the criteria.
c) Each ship shall have an approved stability booklet. If this is
supplemented by a loading instrument, then it shall be approved by the
Administration.
 Criteria regarding righting lever curve properties

a) The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) shall not be less than
0.055 metre-radians up to ϴ= 30° angle of heel and not less than 0.09
metre-radians up to ϴ= 40° or the angle of flooding ϴf (if this angle is less
than 40°). Additionally, the area under the GZ curve between the angles
of heel of 30° and 40° or between 30° and ϴf (if this angle is less than
40°), shall not be less than 0.03 metre-radians.
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b) The righting lever GZ shall be at least 0.2 m at an angle of heel of 30° or

more.
c) The maximum righting lever shall occur at an angle of heel not less than
25°. If this is not practicable, alternative criteria, based on an equivalent
level of safety, may be applied subject to the approval of Administration.
d) The initial GM shall not be less than 0.15 m.
 Additional Criteria for Passenger Ships

a) In addition, the angle of heel on account of crowding of passengers to
one side shall not exceed 10°. Assumed weight of each passenger shall be
75kgs & distribution of baggage shall be approved by the Administration.
Height of centre of gravity of passengers shall be 1m above deck for
standing passengers and 0.3m above the seat for seated passengers.
b) In addition, the angle of heel on account of turning shall not exceed 10°.
 Alternative Criteria for Cargo ships carrying timber deck cargoes

a) The area under the GZ curve shall not be less than 0.08 metre-radians up
to ϴ = 40° or the angle of flooding if this angle is less than 40°.
b) The maximum value of righting lever (GZ) shall be at least 0.25 m.
c) At all times during a voyage, the metacentric height GM shall not be less
than 0.1 m, taking into account the absorption of water by the deck
cargo and/or ice accretion on the exposed surfaces.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST CAPSIZING

 Capsizing of a ship means its overturning in the water. It occurs when the
vessel’s transverse stability i.e. the righting lever disappears and is replaced
by an upsetting lever. The GZ values increase with the angle of heel and
later drop as the angle of heel continues to increase. GZ becomes zero at a
certain angle of heel which we call ‘the point of vanishing stability’. From
this point onwards, an upsetting lever develops and continues heeling the
ship till it has capsized.
 Following are the conditions which can lead to the vessel’s capsizing:
a) Shifting of cargo, Liquefaction of cargo and Free Surface effect
b) Grounding / Flooding / Collision
c) Synchronous and parametric rolling
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 The International Code on Intact Stability lays down specific stability

parameters which the vessel is supposed to comply with, to prevent
capsize. It is wrong to assume that a vessel will not capsize if she complies
with the criteria since events like Fire, heavy weather damage and
grounding can reduce the vessel’s stability and still lead to capsize.
 Chapter 5 of the Code gives following guidelines to prevent capsizing:
General precautions against capsizing

a) Masters should exercise prudence and good seamanship having regard to
the season of the year, weather forecasts and the navigational zone and
should take the appropriate action as to speed and course as required by
the prevailing circumstances.
b) Before a voyage commences, care should be taken to ensure that the cargo,
cargo handling cranes & other equipments have been properly stowed or
lashed so as to minimize possibility of shifting at sea due to rolling -pitching.
c) The number of slack tanks should be kept to a minimum because of their
adverse effect on stability. Passenger ships with pools must should take into
account the Free surface effect created by them.
d) The stability criteria gives minimum values for GM, but no maximum values
are recommended. It is advisable to avoid excessive GM, since these might
lead to acceleration forces which could be detrimental to the ship. If high
GM is unavoidable, slack tanks can be used to compensate after carefully
considering the effects of ‘sloshing’.
e) Liquefaction of certain bulk cargoes can be catastrophic to the vessel.
Hence, attention should be paid to the IMO Code of Safe Practice for Solid
Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC Code) when carrying such cargoes.
Operational precautions in heavy weather

a) All doorways and other openings, through which water can enter into the
hull or deckhouses, forecastle, etc., should be suitably closed in adverse
weather conditions and accordingly all appliances for this purpose should
be maintained on board and in good condition.
b) Weathertight and watertight hatches, doors, etc., should be kept closed
except when necessarily opened for the working of the ship and should
always be ready for immediate closure.
c) All hatches on deck, deck scuttles and deadlights should be maintained in
good condition and securely closed in bad weather.
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d) Any closing devices provided for vent pipes to fuel tanks should be secured
in bad weather.
Ship handling in heavy weather

a) In all conditions of loading necessary care should be taken to maintain a
seaworthy freeboard.
b) In severe weather, the speed of the ship should be reduced if propeller
emergence, shipping of water on deck or heavy slamming occurs.
c) Special attention should be paid when a ship is sailing in following,
quartering or head seas because dangerous phenomena such as parametric
rolling, broaching to, and excessive rolling may occur creating a threat of
capsize. A ship's speed and/or course should be altered appropriately to
avoid the above-mentioned phenomena.
d) Reliance on automatic steering may be dangerous as this prevents ready
changes to course which may be needed in bad weather.
e) In severe weather, the lateral wind pressure may cause a considerable angle
of heel. If anti-heeling measures (e.g., ballasting, use of anti-heeling devices,
etc.) are used to compensate for heeling due to wind, changes of the ship's
course relative to the wind direction may lead to dangerous angles of heel
or capsizing. Therefore, heeling caused by the wind should not be
compensated with anti-heeling measures.
STABILITY INFORMATION AVAILABLE IN HYDROSTATIC PARTICULARS

Stability information should be provided to each vessel. It should provide the
following information:
1. Table of contents and Index
2. A general description of the ship
3. Instruction on how the booklet is to be used
4. Plans of General Arrangement
5. Cross curves of stability and Hydrostatic data in tabular or graphic form. The
data should cover all trims and displacement that the ship is expected to
have in normal operating conditions.
6. Capacity plans showing VCG of each space.
7. Sounding table showing capacity, VCG and free surface moments.
8. Maximum KG/Minimum GM curves or Tables that can be used to quickly
determine adherence to the intact stability criteria.
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9. Stability characteristics of typical loading conditions and data to enable the

master to access the stability in loading conditions that differ from the
typical loading conditions.
10. Information on the proper use of anti-rolling devices
11. Precautions to be taken to prevent unintentional flooding
12. Information regarding cross flooding arrangements if any.
13. Inclining test report
14. Information enabling Master to determine GM by means of a rolling test.
15. Rolling period tables
SEVERE WIND AND ROLLING CRITERION (WEATHER CRITERION)

The ability of a ship to withstand the combined effects of beam wind and rolling
shall be demonstrated by complying with the weather criterion given below:
 The ship is subjected to a steady wind pressure acting perpendicular to the
ship's centre line which results in a steady wind heeling lever (Lw1);
 From the resultant angle of equilibrium (φ0), the ship is assumed to roll to
windward due to wave action to an angle of roll (φ1). The angle of heel
under action of steady wind (φ0) should not exceed 16° or 80% of the angle
of deck edge immersion, whichever is less;
 The ship is then subjected to a gust wind pressure which results in a gust
wind heeling lever (Lw2) and under these circumstances, area b shall be
equal to or greater than area a, as indicated in figure below:
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Where;
φ0 = angle of heel under action of steady wind

φ1 = angle of roll to windward due to wave action
φ2 = angle of down-flooding (φF) or 500 or φC, whichever is less,
φC = angle of second intercept between lever Lw2 & GZ curve
 The wind heeling levers Lw1 and Lw2 are constant values at all angles of
inclination and shall be calculated as follows:
𝑃𝑥𝐴𝑥𝑍
𝐿𝑤1 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑤2 = 1.5 𝑥 𝐿𝑤1
1000 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ∆
Where;
P = wind pressure of 504 (Pa).
A = projected lateral area of the ship & deck cargo above the waterline (m2)
Z = vertical distance from the centre of A to the centre of the underwater
lateral area or approximately to a point at one half the mean draught (m)
∆ = displacement (t)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
 The wind velocity used in the tests shall be 26 m/s in full scale with uniform
velocity profile. The value of wind velocity used for ships in restricted
services may be reduced to the satisfaction of the Administration.
INCLINING EXPERIMENT
 Before the stability of a ship in any particular condition of loading can be
determined, the initial conditions must be known. This means the ship’s
lightweight and KG at this lightweight must be known. The Inclining
Experiment is performed in order to find this KG for the light condition. The
experiment is carried out by the builders when the ship is as near to
completion as possible; that is, as near to the light condition as possible.
 Before commencing the test, dock water density must be accurately
measured. Drafts must be accurately noted before and after the test.
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 The ship is forcibly inclined by shifting weights through a fixed distance

across the deck. The weights used are usually concrete blocks, and the
inclination is measured by the movement of plumb lines across specially
constructed battens which lie perfectly horizontal when the ship is upright.
Usually two or three plumb lines are used and each is attached at the centre
line of the ship at a height of about 10m above the batten. If two lines are
used then one is placed forward and the other aft. If a third line is used it is
usually placed amidships.
 For simplicity, let us consider only one weight and one plumb line. The
following conditions are necessary to ensure that the KG obtained is as
accurate as possible:
a) There should be little or no wind, as this may influence the inclination of
the ship. If there is any wind the ship should be head on or stern on to it.
b) The ship should be floating freely. This means that nothing outside the
ship should prevent her from listing freely. There should be no barges
alongside; mooring ropes must be slacked right down & there must be
sufficient UKC to ensure that at no time during the experiment will she
touch the ground.
c) Any loose weights within the ship should be removed or secured in place.
d) There must be no free surfaces within the ship. Bilges should be dry.
e) Boilers and tanks should be completely full or empty.
f) Any persons not directly concerned with the experiment must be sent
ashore.
g) The ship must be upright at the commencement of the experiment.
 When all is ready and the ship is upright, a weight is shifted across the deck
transversely, causing the ship to list. A little time is allowed for the ship to
settle and then the deflection of the plumb line along the batten is noted.
 If the weight is now returned to its original position the ship will return to
the upright position. She may now be listed in the opposite direction.
 From the deflections noted, the GM is obtained as follows.
a) In the figure below, let a mass of `w' tonnes be shifted across the deck
through a distance of `d' metres. This will cause the centre of gravity of the
ship to move from G to G1 parallel to the shift of the centre of gravity of the
weight.
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b) The ship will then list to bring G1 vertically under M, i.e. to ϴ degrees list. The
plumb line will thus be deflected along the batten from B to C. Since AC is
the new vertical, angle BAC must also be ϴ degrees.
𝐵𝐶
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶, tan 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
𝐺𝐺1
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐺𝐺1 𝑀, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐺𝑀
𝐵𝐶 𝐺𝐺1
∴ =
𝐴𝐵 𝐺𝑀
𝐴𝐵
∴ 𝐺𝑀 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝑥
𝐵𝐶
𝑤𝑥𝑑
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝐺𝐺1 =
𝑊
𝑤 𝑥 𝑑 𝐴𝐵
∴ 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑥
𝑊 𝐵𝐶
In this formula,
AB = length of the plumb line (known)
BC, the deflection along the batten (measured)
‘w’ = weight shifted (known)
‘d’ = distance through which weight is shifted (known)
‘W’ = ship's displacement (known)
c) Since all other information is available, the GM can therefore be calculated

using the formula.
d) The naval architects will already have calculated the KM for this draft and
hence the present KG is found. Further calculations have to be done to
calculate the Light KG by discharging all items that are not part of light ship
as defined, and adding any additional items which have yet to come on
board the ship.
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 The pendulums are of piano wires and bobs are attached to their ends. The
bobs are immersed in a trough filled with water or oil in order to damp their
oscillation. U-tubes or inclinometers may be used instead of pendulums at
the discretion of the Administration
 Six equal weights are placed on deck, three on each side. A dock crane is
used for shifting the weights, one at a time. Total weights should be
sufficient to provide inclination between 1 and 4 degrees.
 Eight distinct movements are recommended. A deflection of upto 15cm is
observed when the ship inclines.
 A graph is prepared
where X-axis represents
heeling moments P & S
(w x d) and Y-axis
represents tan ϴ
(deflection / length of
plumb line). A plot of all 8
readings (movements)
should lie as a straight
line passing through the
origin. This indicates a
perfect inclination i.e. no
free surface, bottom
touching or wind.
 Movement No.8, a recheck of the zero point may he omitted if a straight

line plot is achieved after movement No.7. If a straight line plot is not
achieved, those weight movements that did not yield acceptable plotted
points should be repeated.
 All the measurements, calculations, etc and the entire test itself is witnessed
by representatives of Flag State, Classification Society, Shipyard and Owners
and will be included in the approved stability particulars of the ship as a
proof that the light ship KG calculated in accurate and reliable.
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INCLINING EXPERIMENT NUMERICALS
============================================================
A mass of 25 T is shifted 15m transversely across the deck for a ship of
displacement 8000 T causing a deflection of 20cm and has a plumb line of length
4m. Calculate the light KG if KM is 7m.
W = 8000 T, d=15m, w=25 T,

Length of plum line AB=4m, deflection BC = 0.2m
𝑤 𝑥 𝑑 𝐴𝐵 25 𝑥 15 4
∴ 𝐺𝑀 𝑓 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 0.938𝑚
𝑊 𝐵𝐶 8000 0.2
GM (s) = GM (f) = 0.938m (since no FSC)

GM (s) = KM – KG
∴ KG = KM – GM(s) = 7.0 - 0.938 = 6.062m
Light KG of the ship is 6.062m.
====================================================================
From inclining experiment it was found that the initial GM is 1.0m. A mass of 10 T
is shifted 12m transversely causing a list of 3.50 and a deflection of 25cm was
observed. Find the ship’s displacement and length of plumb line.
GM (f) = 1.0m, w=10 T, d = 12m, ϴ = 3.50, BC = 0.25m
𝑤𝑥𝑑 10 𝑥 12
tan 𝜃 = ∴ tan 3.5° =
𝑊 𝑥 𝐺𝑀(𝑓) 𝑊 𝑥 1.0
∴ W = 1962 T
𝑤 𝑥 𝑑 𝐴𝐵 10 𝑥 12 𝐴𝐵
∴ 𝐺𝑀 𝑓 = 𝑥 ∴ 1.0 = 𝑥 ∴ 𝐴𝐵 = 4.087𝑚
𝑊 𝐵𝐶 1962 0.25
Ships displacement is 1962 T and length of plumb line is 4.087m.

====================================================================
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====================================================================
M.V. Hindship floating with all compartments empty except as follows:
No 2 DB (P&S) filled with Ballast water
No 1 DB contains 100t HFO
An inclining experiment conducted in this condition, where a mass of 10T, KG
10.2m is shifted transversely through a distance of 17.6m, caused a deflection of
8.3cm for plumb line of 8.5m. Calculate the GM (s) and KG of the light ship.
Present displacement = Light ship + Ballast + HFO + test weight

= 5499.8 + 414.92 + 100 + 10
= 6024.72 t
AB = 8.5m, BC = 0.083m, w=10T, d=17.6m
𝑤 𝑥 𝑑 𝐴𝐵 10 𝑥 17.6 8.5
∴ 𝐺𝑀 𝑓 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 2.992𝑚
𝑊 𝐵𝐶 6024.72 0.083
FSM for 1 DB tank = i x di = 419 x 0.95 = 398.05m4
𝐹𝑆𝑀 398.05
𝐹𝑆𝐶 = = = 0.066𝑚
𝑊 6024.72
GM(s) = GM (f) + FSC = 2.992 + 0.066 = 3.058m
For final displacement 6024.72 t, KM = 11.113m
∴ Final KG = KM – GM(s) = 11.113 – 3.058 = 8.055m
Remarks Weight (t) KG (m) Vertical Moments

Light Ship 5499.8 “x” 5499.8x
No.2 DB 414.92 0.65 +269.698
No.1 DB 100 1.14 +114
Inc. Weight 10 10.2 +102 .
6024.72 5499.8x + 485.69
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝐺 =
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
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5499.8𝑥 + 485.69
∴ 8.055 =
6024.72
∴ 𝑥 = 8.735 𝑚
Light KG of the ship is 8.735m
Light GM = Light KM – Light KG = 11.652-8.735 = 2.917m
GM(s) of light ship is 2.917m and KG of light ship is 8.735m.
====================================================================
M.V. Hindship floating with all compartments empty except as follows

No 7 (P&S) DB – 28 t each with Diesel Oil
Drinking water TD (P&S) tanks with 12 t each of Fresh Water
Inclining experiment was conducted in this condition where weight of 5.75 t KG
10.2m was shifted transversely through 16.95m causing a deflection of 5cm for a
plumb line of 8m. Calculate the GM and KG of the light ship.
Present displacement = Light ship + DO + FW + test weight

= 5499.8 + (28x2) + (12x2) + 5.75
= 5585.55 t
AB = 8.0m, BC = 0.05m, w=5.75 t, d=16.95m
𝑤 𝑥 𝑑 𝐴𝐵 5.75 𝑥 16.95 8.0

∴ 𝐺𝑀 𝑓 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 2.792𝑚
𝑊 𝐵𝐶 5585.55 0.05
FSM for 7P DB tank = i x di = 50 x 0.88 = 44 m4

FSM for 7S DB tank = i x di = 33 x 0.88 = 29.04 m4
FSM for 1P DB tank = i x di = 37 x 1 = 37 m4
FSM for 1s DB tank = i x di = 42 x 1 = 42 m4
Total FSM = 44 + 29.04 = 152.04 m4
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑆𝑀 152.04

𝐹𝑆𝐶 = = = 0.027𝑚
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑊 5585.55
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GM(s) = GM (f) + FSC = 2.792 + 0.027 = 2.819 m
For final displacement 5585.55 t, KM = 11.561m
∴ Final KG = KM – GM(s) = 11.561 – 2.819 = 8.744m
Remarks Weight (t) KG (m) Vertical Moments

Light Ship 5499.8 “x” 5499.8x
No.7P DB 28 2.62 +73.36
No.7S DB 28 2.59 +72.52
DW TD (P) 12 11.19 +134.28
DW TD (S) 12 11.23 +134.76
Inc. Weight 5.75 10.2 +58.65 .
5585.55 5499.8x + 473.57
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝐺 =
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
5499.8𝑥 + 473.57
∴ 8.744 =
5585.55
∴ 𝑥 = 8.794 𝑚
Light KG of the ship is 8.794m
Light GM = Light KM – Light KG = 11.652-8.794 = 2.858 m
GM(s) of light ship is 2.858 m and KG of light ship is 8.794m.
---------------XXXXXXX--------------
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NAVAL ARCH – II DAMAGE STABILITY
DAMAGE STABILITY
 When a ship’s water tight hull is affected and allows the water to flood the
compartment within the ship’s hull, causing change in the stability
parameters (intact stability), it is termed as ‘damaged stability’.
 When a compartment is flooded (bilged) there is a change in the KB and the
BM. KB rises due to the mean sinkage, whereas BM reduces since it is a
function of the intact WPA.
 Due to the damage, there is a reduction in the freeboard and so a loss of the
reserve buoyancy. Even though the GM may be positive after the damage,
the reduction in freeboard to a point when the deck edge is immersed,
decreases the ship’s range of stability.
 The ship could now capsize due to external forces of wind and waves.
 IMO adopted guidelines for the mandatory carriage of damage stability

verification instruments (software, computer, etc) onboard all new and
existing tankers. New tankers to comply on delivery and existing tankers
will need to comply at the first scheduled renewal survey after 1st Jan 2016.
(1st July 2016 for gas carriers), but no later than 1st Jan 2021.
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 All tanker vessels on international voyages must meet the IMO requirement
for damage stability. The regulations are contained in MARPOL for general
purpose tankers, IBC/BCH code for bulk chemical carriers and IGC/GC Code
for Gas carriers.
Loading Computer Software:

 Loading computer software approved for stability calculations could be any
of the following types:
1. Type 1: Software calculates intact stability only through the use of
required maximum GM/KG curve.
2. Type 2: Software calculates intact stability and checks damaged stability
using a combined intact and damage stability required GM/KG curve.
3. Type 3: Software calculates intact stability and damaged stability by
direct application of pre-programmed damage cases for each loading
condition. (DDS – direct damage stability)
Damaged Stability for Bulk Carriers:
 The great majority of bulk carriers are designed to be reduced to B-60

freeboard. Compliance with the damage stability is checked only at the
summer load line draft with holds loaded at their 100% homogenous load
VCG and permeability 90%.
 This is considered by a ‘design only’ requirement and once the damage
analysis for all damage is met for this design case, the ship is not required to
meet any damage stability requirements.
 The principle is that the loading computer software shall reflect the
onboard documentation. The Bulk carrier DDS put to use includes direct
damage stability that has simple run through damage cases for each bulk
cargo hold to verify compliance with damage stability.
 SOLAS XII/4 states that all bulk carriers over 150m in length and build after
1st July 1998 must when loaded to the summer load line, withstand flooding
of any one hold in all conditions and remain afloat.
Permeability of compartments – it is the percentage of space that can be

occupied by water. Surface permeability is the area of a water plane that can be
occupied by water.
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Criterion of Service –
 It is a numerical intended to express the degree to which a vessel is a
passenger vessel. It is also called the ‘Criterion Numeral’.
 It is used to determine the appropriate factor of subdivision for a passenger
ship of a given length.
 The numerical is based on the relation between the volume of the spaces
allocated to passengers and machinery and the total volume. It is calculated
using a formula, which has limiting values. Values of Cs less than 23 shall be
taken as 23 and values of Cs greater than 123 shall be taken as 123.
 The greater the volume for passengers and machinery, the greater is the
value of Criterion of Service (Cs).
 A numerical 23 corresponds to a vessel carrying mainly cargo but has
accommodation for a smaller number of passengers.
 A numerical 123 corresponds to a vessel solely engaged in carrying
passengers.
Curve of Floodable Length:
 This is a curve which at every point in its length has an ordinate representing
the length of the ship which may be flooded with the centre of the length at
that point, without the margin line being submerged.
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 This curve is used for the sub-division of a ship in order to divide the ship
into watertight compartments. For this, the placement of the transverse
watertight bulkheads must be such that they meet the damage stability
requirement for that ship.
 To check whether a particular compartment plan (a longitudinal distribution
of watertight bulkheads along the ship’s length) is safe, designers follow
the steps:
Step 1: The floodable length curve is plotted. (as shown above)
Step 2: Watertight bulkheads are placed at random, but known positions
along the length of the ship, thus dividing it into a number of watertight
compartments.
Step 3: Triangles are drawn for each compartment such that the height of
each triangle is equal to the length of the compartment.
Step 4: As per the compartment standard, the designer must now check if it
complies with the floodable length curve. For a single Compartment
Standard, (withstanding one compartment flooding), the triangles are
drawn between bulkheads as shown above. For double compartment
standard (withstanding two adjacent compartments flooding), triangles are
drawn for two adjacent compartments. (AB & BC, BC & CD, CD & DE and so
on) All the triangles must have their tips below the floodable length curve. If
not, the bulkheads are shifted closer in order to comply.
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Above diagram shows the curve of floodable length for ‘One compartment
standard’ with permeability factors considered.
CALCULATING DAMAGED STABILITY:

 To check if your vessel would float in a damaged condition, we need to
know the Reserve Buoyancy and the angle of immersion.
 Reserve buoyancy = Freeboard x TPC
 If displacement of the damaged compartment is more than the Initial
Reserve buoyancy, the ship will sink.
 Angle of deck edge immersion can be read from the GA plan using the new
draft after the damage.
 Damage stability information for Master includes –
1. Minimum GM v/s Draft or Maximum KG v/s Draft
2. Operation of cross flooding arrangements
3. Other data and aids which may be required for maintaining stability after
damage.
CONTENTS OF DAMAGE STABILITY BOOKLET:
1. Introduction
2. Principal particulars
3. Extent of damage
4. Damage criteria description (SOLAS requirements, Sub-division index R)
5. Capacity table of damage compartment
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6. Damage Cases Description: Damage cases are divided into one, two or more
compartments damaged. Each compartment zone is numbered with
dimensions indicated.
7. Description of openings.
8. Representative of damage stability calculation
9. Summary of damage stability calculation and damage cases.
10. Minimum GM curves complying with damage stability
DAMAGE STABILITY CRITERIA FOR PASSENGER SHIPS:
 Longitudinal extent of damage: 3m + 3% of L or 11m, whichever is lesser,

where the required factor of subdivision is 0.33 or less, the longitudinal
extent must be increased to include flooding of any 3 consecutive
compartments.
 Transverse extent of damage: 20% of B measured inboard from the ship’s
side at right angles to the centre line at the level of the deepest subdivision
load waterline taken parallel to the keel.
 Vertical extent of damage: From the baseline upwards without limit.
 Any other damage: If any damage of a lesser extent would cause a more
severe condition regarding heel or loss of GM, such damage shall be
assumed for the purpose of the calculations.
 Residual area under curve: At least 0.015mr measured from the angle of
equilibrium to the lesser of ϴf or 220 from upright (one flooded
compartment) or 270 from upright (two or more flooded compartments)
 Range of positive stability: At least 150 beyond angle of equilibrium.
 Maximum GZ: Residual righting lever (GZ) value to occur within the range of
positive stability when determined by the formula;
GZ(m) = heeling moment / displacement (+ 0.04)
When the heeling moment is taken as the greater value of any one of the
following effects;
– Crowding of passengers to one side of the ship
– Launching of all fully loaded, davit launched survival craft on one side of
the ship
– Pressure of wind on the side of the ship
In no case shall the GZ value so determined be less than 0.1m.
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 Assumed flooding: Sufficient intact stability in all conditions to withstand

flooding of any 1 main compartment. Where factor of subdivision is 0.33 –
0.5 to withstand the flooding of any 2 adjacent compartments or where
factor of subdivision is 0.33 or less to withstand the flooding of any 3
adjacent main compartments.
-------------XXXXXX------------
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NAVAL ARCH – II HEEL DUE TO TURN
HEEL DUE TO TURN
 When a body moves in a circular path, there is an acceleration towards the

centre equal to v2/r where ‘v’ represents the velocity of the body and ‘r’
represents the radius of the circular path.
 The force required to produce this acceleration, called a ‘Centripetal’ force,
is equal to Mv2/r, where M is the mass of the body.
 In the case of a ship turning in a circle, the centripetal force is produced by
the water acting on the side of the ship away from the centre of the turn.
The force is considered to act at centroid of the underwater area of the
ship's side away from the centre of the turn. The centroid of this area is
considered to be at the level of the centre of buoyancy.
 For equilibrium there must be an equal and opposite force, called the
‘Centrifugal’ force. This force is considered to act at the centre of mass (G).
 These two forces produce a couple which tends to heel the ship outwards
i.e. away from the centre of the turn.
𝑀𝑣 2
𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 𝑥 𝐵1 𝑍
𝑟
View from aft – Ship turning to Port
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 Equilibrium is produced by a righting couple equal to W x GZ, where W is the

weight of the ship, where W = Mass (M) x Acceleration due to gravity (g).
𝑀𝑣 2
∴ 𝑀. 𝑔 𝑥 𝐺𝑍 = 𝑥 𝐵1 𝑍
𝑟
𝑣2
∴ 𝐺𝑍 = 𝑥 𝐵1 𝑍
𝑟. 𝑔
At small angles, GZ = GM sin ϴ

From the diagram, B1Z = BG cos ϴ
𝑣2
∴ 𝐺𝑀 sin 𝛳 = 𝑥 𝐵𝐺 cos 𝛳
𝑟. 𝑔
𝒗𝟐 𝒙 𝑩𝑮
∴ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜭 =
𝒓. 𝒈. 𝑮𝑴
Since B is at about half the draft, we can write,
𝒅
𝒗𝟐 𝒙 (𝑲𝑮 − )
∴ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜭 = 𝟐
𝒓. 𝒈. 𝑮𝑴
 By this formula we can calculate the angle of heel due to turn. However, this
is the heel caused by the centrifugal force and the value obtained will be
slightly higher than the actual heel. This is because a slight heel is produced
by the rudder force in the opposite direction to the heel produced by the
centrifugal force.
 In normal cases, G is above B and the ship will heel away from the centre of
the turn. If G is below B (in very rare cases) then the ship will heel on the
same side of the turn.
(NOTE: For numericals, speed must be converted to m/s)
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 For passenger ships, the following expression is used
0.02 𝑥 𝑣 2 𝑥 𝐾𝐺 − 𝐾𝐵 𝑥 𝑊
∴ 𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐿
Where, ‘v’ is speed in m/s, W is displacement, if KB not indicated then

assume it to be half of draft.
𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛳 = =
𝐺𝑀 𝑊 𝑥 𝐺𝑀
NUMERICALS ON HEEL DUE TO TURN:
(Type 1: General Questions)
A vessel turns in a circle of radius 100m at a speed of 15 knots. KG=6m, KB=5m,

GM=0.6m. Find the heel to which the vessel will settle during the turn.
1852
𝑣 = 15 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 15 𝑥 = 7.717 𝑚/𝑠
3600
𝑣 2 𝐵𝐺 7.7172 𝑥 (6 − 5)
tan 𝜃 = = = 0.1013
𝑔. 𝑟. 𝐺𝑀 9.81 𝑥 100 𝑥 0.6
∴ 𝜃 = 5.78°
Thus, during the turn, the vessel will settle at a heel to 5.780 on the side away from
the turn.
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A ship has KM=7.2m, KG=6.7m, BM=4.2m. Calculate the heel produced if she turns
to port in a circle of radius 530m at a speed of 15 knots. To which side would the
vessel heel?
GM=KM-KG = 7.2 – 6.7 = 0.5m and BM = 4.2 m

∴ BG = BM-GM = 4.2 – 0.5 = 3.7m
1852
𝑣 = 15 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 15 𝑥 = 7.717 𝑚/𝑠
3600
𝑣 2 𝐵𝐺 7.7172 𝑥 3.7
tan 𝜃 = = = 0.08476
𝑔. 𝑟. 𝐺𝑀 9.81 𝑥 530 𝑥 0.5
∴ 𝜃 = 4.84° S
Since G is above B, the vessel will heel to the side opposite the side of turning.
Hence, a heel of 4.840 to starboard will be produced.
A ship has KM=7m, KG=6.5m, draft 7m. Calculate the heel produced if she turns in
a circle of radius 500m at a speed of 12 knots.
GM=KM-KG = 7.0– 6.5 = 0.5m

KB = D/2 = 7/2 = 3.5m
BG = KG-KB = 6.5-3.5 = 3m
1852
𝑣 = 12 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 12 𝑥 = 6.173 𝑚/𝑠
3600
𝑣 2 𝐵𝐺 6.1732 𝑥 3
tan 𝜃 = = = 0.0466
𝑔. 𝑟. 𝐺𝑀 9.81 𝑥 500 𝑥 0.5
∴ 𝜃 = 2.67°
A heel of 2.670 will be produced to the side opposite to the side of turning.
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(Type 2: M.V. Hindship Questions)
M.V. Hindship with drafts F:7.23m, A:8.79m, KG 7.42m, FSM 1732 tm, turns in a
circle of radius 380m at a speed of 13.2 knots. Calculate the angle of heel due to
turning.
1852
𝑣 = 13.2 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 13.2 𝑥 = 6.791 𝑚/𝑠
3600
F = 7.23m A = 8.79m ∴ Trim = 1.56m
Mean draft = 8.01m

LCF for mean draft = 70.586m
𝐿𝐶𝐹 70.586
∴ 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 𝑥 1.56 = 0.769𝑚
𝐿𝐵𝑃 143.16
∴ Hydrostatic draft = Aft draft – Ta = 8.79-0.769 = 8.021m
For hydrostatic draft 8.021m,

Displacement = 16685.5 t
KM = 8.252m
KB = 4.263m
𝐹𝑆𝑀 1732
𝐹𝑆𝐶 = = = 0.104𝑚
𝑊 16685.5
GM(s) = KM – KG = 8.252 – 7.42 = 0.832m

GM(f) = GM(s) – FSC = 0.832 – 0.104 = 0.728m
BG = KG – KB = 7.42 – 4.263 = 3.157m
𝑣 2 𝐵𝐺 6.7912 𝑥 3.157
tan 𝜃 = = = 0.0536
𝑔. 𝑟. 𝐺𝑀 9.81 𝑥 380 𝑥 0.728
∴ 𝜃 = 3.07°
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M.V. Hindship has a fwd draft 5.0m and aft draft 5.8m, KG 7.5m, FSM 1300tm,
floating in water of RD 1.005 turns in a circle of radius 400m at a speed of 12
knots. Calculate the angle of heel due to turning.
1852
𝑣 = 12 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 12 𝑥 = 6.173 𝑚/𝑠
3600
F = 5.0m A = 5.8m ∴ Trim = 0.8m
Mean draft = 5.4m

LCF for mean draft = 72.761m
𝐿𝐶𝐹 72.761
∴ 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 𝑥 0.8 = 0.407𝑚
𝐿𝐵𝑃 143.16
∴ Hydrostatic draft = Aft draft – Ta = 5.8-0.407 = 5.393m
For hydrostatic draft 5.393m,

Equivalent weight in SW = 10658.5 t
∴ Displacement in DW = 10450.5 t
KM = 8.668m
KB = 2.892m
𝐹𝑆𝑀 1300
𝐹𝑆𝐶 = = = 0.124𝑚
𝑊 10450.5
GM(s) = KM – KG = 8.668 – 7.5 = 1.168m

GM(f) = GM(s) – FSC = 1.168 – 0.124 = 1.044m
BG = KG – KB = 7.5 – 2.892 = 4.608m
𝑣 2 𝐵𝐺 6.1732 𝑥 4.608
tan 𝜃 = = = 0.0429
𝑔. 𝑟. 𝐺𝑀 9.81 𝑥 400 𝑥 1.044
∴ 𝜃 = 2.45°
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(Type 3: Passenger ship Questions)
A passenger ship of length 210m, displacement 20800 t, draft 9.8m, KG 7.9m, KM

8.8m, speed 24 knots. Does the ship satisfy the intact stability criteria regarding
heel due to turn?
1852
𝑣 = 24 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 24 𝑥 = 12.347 𝑚/𝑠
3600
GM = KM – KG = 8.8-7.9 = 0.9m
For passenger ships,

𝑑
0.02 𝑥 𝑣 2 𝑥 𝐾𝐺 − 𝑥𝑊
𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 2
𝐿
9.8
0.02 𝑥 12.3472 𝑥 7.9 − 𝑥 20800
= 2 = 905.979 𝑡𝑚
210
𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 905.979

∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛳 = = = = 0.0484
𝐺𝑀 𝑊 𝑥 𝐺𝑀 20800 𝑥 0.9
∴ 𝜃 = 2.77°
Since heel due to turn is less than 100 the vessel satisfies the intact stability criteria
regarding heel due to turning for passenger ships.
A passenger ship of length 220m, displacement 21000t, draft 10m, KG 8m, KM

8.8m at a service speed of 18 knots. Does this ship satisfy the intact stability
criteria regarding heel due to turning?
1852
𝑣 = 18 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 18 𝑥 = 9.26 𝑚/𝑠
3600
GM = KM – KG = 8.8-8.0 = 0.8m
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For passenger ships,
𝑑
0.02 𝑥 𝑣 2 𝑥 𝐾𝐺 − 𝑥𝑊
𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 2
𝐿
10
0.02 𝑥 9.26 𝑥 8 −
2
𝑥 21000
= 2 = 491.1 𝑡𝑚
220
𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 491.1

∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛳 = = = = 0.0292
𝐺𝑀 𝑊 𝑥 𝐺𝑀 21000 𝑥 0.8
∴ 𝜃 = 1.67°
Since heel due to turn is less than 100 the vessel satisfies the intact stability criteria
regarding heel due to turning for passenger ships.
------------XXXXXX-------------
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NAVAL ARCH – II ROLLING PERIOD
ROLLING PERIOD
Rolling period formula is given by:
2𝜋𝐾
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 =
𝑔. 𝐺𝑀
Where, K is the radius of gyration, g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)

and GM is the metacentric height.
(Radius of gyration is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to a point
where the total mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated, so that the
moment of inertia about the axis may remain the same. Simply, gyration is the
distribution of the components of an object.)
Factors on which the period of roll depends:

1. Time period of roll is completely independent of actual amplitude of the roll
so long as it is a small angle.
2. Time period of roll is directly proportional to ‘K’ i.e. the radius of gyration.
Hence, if the radius of gyration is increased, then the time period is also
increased. ‘K’ may be increase by moving weights away from the axis of
oscillation.
3. Time period is inversely proportional to square root of the initial GM.
Therefore, ships with large GM will have a short period of roll and those
with a small GM will have a long period of roll.
4. The period of roll will change when weights are loaded, discharged or
shifted within a ship as this would affect the radius of gyration and the GM.
Rolling Period Test

 The GM can be determined approximately by the means of a rolling period
test. It is performed by measuring rolling period of the vessel. The rolling
period test is a frequently used method to determine the stability of smaller
vessels. Stiff vessels have a high GM and a short rolling period, while tender
vessels have a low GM and a long rolling period.
 Rolling period test can be performed at any time and the crew can perform
it themselves. The test can be performed in the following way:
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a) Mooring lines should be slack and the vessel should not be too near to the
harbour.
b) The vessel is made to roll. When the vessel’s roll is sufficient (approximately
2-60) to each side, the vessel is allowed to roll freely and naturally.
c) The time taken for the vessel to complete approximately 4 oscillations is
noted. One complete oscillation will have been made when the vessel has
moved from one extreme end right across to the other extreme end and
back to the original starting point.
d) The time in seconds (T) for one oscillation is found by dividing the total time
with the number of oscillations made.
e) If the calculated value of (T) in seconds in less than the breadth of the vessel
in metres, it is likely that the initial stability is sufficient and the vessel has
high freeboard.
f) As the vessel’s supplies decrease, the rolling period (T) becomes longer
since the vessel’s COG becomes higher and GM becomes smaller. In such
circumstances, it is recommended that the calculated value of T in seconds
should not be more than 1.2 times the breadth of the vessel in metres.
NUMERICALS ON ROLLING PERIOD:
Find the rolling period of a ship having radius of gyration 6m, GM 0.5m
2𝜋𝐾 2 𝑥 3.14 𝑥 6
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 = = = 17.07𝑠
𝑔. 𝐺𝑀 9.81 𝑥 0.5
∴ 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 17.07 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
Find the still water period of roll for a ship having radius of gyration 5m and GM
0.25m
2𝜋𝐾 2 𝑥 3.14 𝑥 5
𝑔. 𝐺𝑀 9.81 𝑥 0.25
∴ 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 20.05 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
Page 80 of 95
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A vessel of displacement 10000t, GMT = 0.5m, period of roll is 20 seconds. Find

the new period of roll if 50t is discharged 14m above the original centre of
gravity.
2𝜋𝐾
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 =
𝑔. 𝐺𝑀
2 𝑥 3.14 𝑥 𝐾
∴ 20 =
9.81 𝑥 0.5
∴ K = 7.05m
𝑤𝑥𝑑 50 𝑥 14
𝐺𝐺1 ↓ = = = 0.07𝑚
𝑊 (10000 − 50)
New GM = GMT + GG1 = 0.5 + 0.07 = 0.57m
2𝜋𝐾 2 𝑥 3.14 𝑥 7.05

𝑔. 𝐺𝑀 9.81.0.57
∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 18.72 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
--------XXXXXX--------
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NAVAL ARCH – II CONSTRUCTION THEORY
CONSTRUCTION THEORY
Advantages & Disadvantages of Double Hull & Single Hull Oil Tanker
 Double hulls provide the ability to a ship to prevent or reduce oil spill in the
event of collision or grounding. Because of this, the MARPOL convention
makes double hull mandatory for oil tankers.
 The biggest advantage of double hull is that it protects the ship against
minor collision & grounding as long as the inner bottom remains intact.
 Also, it is easier to clean cargo tanks of a double hull tanker as compared to
the cargo tanks of a single hull tanker.
 It also helps to reduce the pollution from the minor grounding and collision
incidents which usually occur within port limits when ship is under pilotage.
 The structure in the double hull spaces is far more accessible than the
ballast tank of a single hull ship.
 Double hull tankers can still be prone to catastrophic structural failures if
not maintained and operated to high standards.
 The obvious hazard which all ship operators of double hull tankers will have
to guard against is that of cargo leakage into the ballast spaces.
 Ballast piping system in double hull tankers will be fully segregated from the
cargo piping system. This reduces the risk of cargo contamination.
 Double hull tanker will carry less cargo than single hull tanker of same size.
 Also, a double hull tanker does not need longitudinal bulkheads for
longitudinal strength as the inner hull already provides this. Eliminating
longitudinal bulkheads would result in much wider tanks, significantly
increasing the free surface effect. However, this problem is corrected with
the addition of anti-slosh baffles and partial bulkheads.
 Another disadvantage of a double hull tanker is that the stability can be less
than a single hull tanker as the double hull raises the COG of the cargo and
so the GM is reduced.
 In a Single Hull Tanker, the ballast pipes run through cargo tanks and
become a potential source of pollution. It also increases risk of cargo
contamination. The cargo carrying capacity is more. However, the tank
structure is such that cleaning becomes difficult and tank cleaning time is
increased. Since longitudinal bulkheads are present and spaced at
comparatively less distance, FSE is kept to a minimum. Also, stability is
improved as the COG of cargo is calculated from the keel.
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WIDTH OF SIDE TANKS AND HEIGHT OF DOUBLE BOTTOM:
 MARPOL Annex 1, Regulation 19 stipulates the requirements on the height

of double bottoms and width of side tanks for a double hull oil tanker.
 The regulation applies to all oil tankers of 600 T DWT or more, delivered on
or after 6th July 1996.
 The entire cargo tank length shall be protected by ballast tanks or spaces
other than tanks that carry oil.
Width of Side Tanks:
 Wing tanks or spaces shall extend either for the full depth of the ship's side
or from the top of the double bottom to the uppermost deck. Wing tanks
shall extend for the full depth of the vessel and where ‘w’ is the width of the
tank between the cargo tank and side shell plating,
For vessels of 5000 T DWT and above,

𝐷𝑊𝑇
w = 0.5 + 𝑜𝑟 2𝑚 (whichever less) with a minimum value of w = 1m.
20000
For vessels of less than 5000 T DWT,

2.4 𝑥 𝐷𝑊𝑇
w = 0.4 + with a minimum value of w = 0.76m.
20000
Height of Double Bottom:
 Double bottom shall be at a height ‘h’ measured between the bottom of the
cargo tank and the bottom shell plating.
For vessels of 5000 T DWT and above,

𝐵
ℎ = 𝑜𝑟 2𝑚 (whichever less) With a minimum value of h = 1m.
15
For vessels of less than 5000 T DWT,

𝐵
ℎ= With a minimum value of h = 0.76m.
15
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HATCHCOVERLESS CELLULAR

CONTAINER SHIP OVER NORMAL CONTAINER SHIP
Advantages:
 The risk of losing containers overboard from open-top container ships is
greatly reduced as the ship sides are extended upwards.
 The considerable weight of hatch covers has been eliminated, thus
increasing the deadweight.
 Absence of hatch covers would mean lesser cost during construction. Also,
cost for installing hatch cover operating mechanisms is also saved.
 The elimination of the hatch covers also excludes the need to open and
close same. This speeds-up port turn-around time and has the potential for
reducing cargo operation costs.
 Furthermore, since the hatch covers were located high in the ship, their
removal (removal of their weight) significantly improves stability.
 More number of containers can be stowed on deck.
 The fixed container guides do not terminate at the hatch coaming as in a
conventional container ship. Instead, they extend above the deck to the full
permissible height of the deck cargo. This provides better securing for the
containers stowed above deck and eliminates the need for manually
securing the containers.
 Individual vertical stacks of containers are always accessible totally
independent of the other stacks. This contrasts with a conventional
container ship where containers on deck must be moved to permit a hatch
cover to be lifted so as to give access to a container in a stack below deck.
 The maintenance of hatch covers, hatch clamps, coaming gaskets, and other
hatch securing gear becomes unnecessary.
Disadvantages:
 Increase in depth would result in a greater draft and so may have draft
limitations at certain ports.
 The increased weight of the containers on deck will results in a reduction of
stability (smaller GM) & may require ballast to be taken for an adequate GM.
 Open ships naturally allow a certain amount of water to enter the holds.
This may be rainwater in a tropical rainstorm, seas or spray on deck.
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 These ships require additional independent bilge pumps to pump out water
in case of water ingress in the holds.
 These ships cannot be fitted with the common fire-fighting equipment such
as CO2 system. They are instead protected by a fixed water spray system
which sprays water into the cargo hold from deck level downward.
 The majority of dangerous goods is carried on deck. Since open-top
container ships do not have a separation (hatch covers), dangerous goods
may leak into the cargo hold.
 Also, IMDG goods that require ‘on deck only’ stowage cannot be carried on
the hatch coverless ships. This reduces the flexibility for the operator to
carry containers with dangerous goods.
LNG TANKER CARGO CONTAINMENT SYSTEM

 A feature of LNG ships is their double hull construction within which the
cargo tanks and the secondary barrier system are fitted.
 IGC Code requires all cargoes colder than -550C to be a carried in a tank
which has a secondary barrier. For cargoes carried at temperatures between
-10°C and -55°C, the ship's hull may act as the secondary barrier and be a
boundary of the hold space.
 There are four most commonly used containment systems for LNG vessels.
Two of the designs are of the self-supporting type, while the other two are
of the membrane type. The patents are owned by Gaz Transport &
Technigaz (GTT). Today membrane tanks with two different membranes are
preferred over self supporting tanks. This is most likely because prismatic
membrane tanks utilize the hull shape more efficiently & thus have less void
space between the cargo-tanks and ballast tanks. However, self-supporting
tanks are more robust & have greater resistance to sloshing forces.
1. Spherical IMO type B LNG tanks (Moss tanks)

a) Moss tanks are the Spherical IMO type B LNG tanks are spherical in
shape. Most Moss type vessels have 4 or 5 tanks. The outside of the
tank has a thick layer of foam insulation. The tank is supported around
its circumference by the equatorial ring which is supported by a large
circular skirt which takes the weight of the tank down to the ships
structure. This skirt allows the tank to expand and contract during
cool-down and warm-up operations.
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b) This type of containment system is the subject of much more detailed

stress analysis compared to Type-A systems including investigation of
fatigue and a crack propagation analysis. Because of the enhanced
design factors, a Type 'B' tank requires only a partial secondary barrier
in the form of a drip tray.
c) The hold space in this design is normally filled with dry inert gas. Dry
air may be used provided that inerting of the space can be achieved if
the vapour detection system shows cargo leakage.
d) The Type 'B' spherical tank is almost exclusively applied to LNG ships;
seldom featuring in the LPG trade.
2. Prismatic IMO type B LNG tanks

a) These self-supporting, independent prismatic type B tanks are not
common like the spherical type B tanks. They however maximize ship-
hull volumetric efficiency and have the entire cargo tank beneath the
main deck. Where the prismatic shape is used, the maximum design
vapour space pressure is limited to 0.7 bar g.
b) Type B tanks being independent limit sloshing problems, unlike
membrane tanks which may break due to sloshing impact, thereby
destroying the ship's hull.
3. TGZ Mark III

a) These are non-spherical tanks designed by Technigaz. These tanks are
of the membrane type. The membrane consists of stainless steel with
'waffles'/corrugations to absorb the thermal contraction when the
tank is cooled down. The primary barrier made of corrugated stainless
steel of about 1.2 mm thickness is in direct contact with the cargo.
b) This is followed by a primary insulation which in turn is covered by a
secondary barrier made of a material called "triplex". This is again
covered by a secondary insulation (balsa wood insulation) which in
turn is supported by the ship's hull structure from the outside.
4. GT96
a) These are non-spherical tanks designed by Gaz Transport. These tanks
are also of the membrane type. The tanks consist of a thin primary
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and secondary membrane made of 0.7mm ‘Invar’ which has almost no

thermal contraction.
b) The insulation is made out of plywood boxes filled with perlite and
continuously flushed with nitrogen gas. The integrity of both
membranes is monitored by detection of hydrocarbon in the nitrogen.
c) The IG pressure in the inter-barrier spaces should not be more than
the tank pressure otherwise the membrane will collapse.
Notes:
CS1 - CS1 stands for Combined System Number One. It was designed by the now
merged Technigaz and Gaz Transport companies and consists of best components
of both TGZ Mark 3 and GT96 systems. The primary barrier is made of 0.7 mm
invar and secondary membrane from Triplex. The primary and secondary
insulation consists of polyurethane foam panels.
In LNG carriers, the entire cargo is not discharged. About 5-6% of the total cargo is
retained. This is used to keep the tanks cool during the ballast passage by spraying
the cargo through headers inside the tank. This retained cargo is known as ‘heel’
or ‘Owner’s cargo’.
---------XXXX---------
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NAVAL ARCH – II MISC. TOPICS
MISC. TOPICS
SYNCHRONOUS ROLLING
 Every vessel has a natural rolling period which is inversely proportional to

the square root of the GM and directly proportional to the beam of the ship.
 Synchronous rolling is caused when the rolling period becomes
‘synchronous’ with the period of wave encounter. When this occurs, the
ship will heel over and in exceptional circumstances be rolled further over
by the action of the wave.
 If the vessel encounters a series of swell in such a manner that the wave
period matches the natural rolling period, the vessel will have no time
righting itself before the next wave strikes. This situation if not corrected,
can result in capsizing of the ship.
 The vessel encountering synchronous rolling is in a serious danger that she
may heel over beyond a point from which it cannot return to the upright
condition. She may end up with negative stability & eventually capsize.
 Synchronous rolling can be experienced regardless of the direction of sea
w.r.t. the ship’s heading. But it is most likely to happen when natural rolling
period of the ship is short or when sailing in high beam or quartering seas.
 Other danger associated with it is that of cargo shifting that can result in
loss of stability and capsizing. Also, cargo lashings may give way because of
the excessive rolling and cause damage to the cargo and in some cases,
structural damage to the ship.
 A vessel which has suffered engine failure is most vulnerable to
synchronized rolling and efforts to bring the vessel’s head into the wind
should be made while she still has headway.
 To reduce synchronous rolling, following actions are suggested:
1. Use ballast changes to alter KG and so the GMT of the vessel. By doing so,
the rolling period will change making it of a non-synchronous value.
2. Change the course of the ship so as to effectively change the period of
wave encounter and eliminate the condition.
3. Alter the speed of the ship until the synchronous rolling ceases to exist.
 It is imperative that the OOW recognizes the condition of synchronization
immediately and immediately alters course to change the period of wave
encounter and eliminates the condition.
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PARAMETRIC ROLLING:
 Parametric rolling occurs when the pitching period is either equal to or half
of that of the rolling period. Large roll angles may occur quickly in head or
stern seas or nearly head or stern seas. The roll angle may increase from a
few degrees to over 30 degrees in only a few cycles.
 It is caused due to the combination of various factors such as low initial
stability, large flare around the water line, waves as long as ship’s length,
sufficiently large wave amplitudes, period of encounter half the rolling
period and low hydrodynamic roll damping.
 Parametric rolling is produced by the pitching motion on vessels which have
a very fine bow together with very wide and flat stern like large container
ships which have a large flare forward and a flat after ship.
 Parametric rolling is more when a ship is operating in heavy sea condition.
Such conditions can generate extremely high loads on the lashings and
containers. It can even exceed the breaking load of the container lashings.
As a result, the cargo & vessel could be damaged & containers could be lost.
 Parametric rolling causes heavy stresses in the ship’s structure especially
fore and aft parts. It also causes variation in the load of ship’s main engines.
If not tackled quickly, it can also result in the capsizing of the vessel.
 As the stern dips into the waves, it produces a rolling action. The rolling
action is different at the stern than to those at the bow which causes a
twisting along the ship leading to the extra rolling motion.
 IMO suggests that parametric rolling is dangerous when the wavelength is
one to 1.5 times the ship’s length.
 Ships which have a high GM will have a shorter roll period and unlikely to
have parametric rolling in head/stern seas. Ships which have a low GM will
have a long rolling period and are likely to have parametric rolling in
head/stern seas.
 To reduce parametric rolling, following actions are suggested:
1. Use ballast changes to alter KG and so the GMT of the vessel. By doing so,
the rolling period will change making it of a non-synchronous value.
2. Anti-rolling stability tanks to be provided to transfer water across the
ship. A quick response time is vital to counteract this rolling.
3. Hydraulic fin stabilizers would help to reduce parametric rolling.
4. Slow down and alter to a more favourable course to ease vessel's motion
by breaking resonance between rolling period & wave encounter period.
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VENTILATION ARRANGEMENT FOR OIL TANKERS:

 Cargo pump-rooms shall be mechanically ventilated and discharges from the
exhaust fans shall be led to a safe place on the open deck.
 The ventilation of these rooms shall have sufficient capacity to minimize the
possibility of accumulation of flammable vapours.
 The number of air changes shall be at least 20 per hour, based upon the
gross volume of the space.
 The air ducts shall be arranged so that all of the space is effectively
ventilated. The ventilation shall be of the suction type using fans of the non-
sparking type.
CENTRAL CONTROL STATION:

Central control station is a control station in which the following control and
indicator functions are centralized:
1. Fixed fire detection and fire alarm systems
2. Automatic sprinkler, fire detection and fire alarm systems
3. Fire door indicator panels
4. Fire door closure
5. Watertight door indicator panels
6. Watertight door closures
7. Ventilation fans
8. General/fire alarms
9. Communication systems including telephones
10. Microphones to public address systems
MAIN VERTICAL ZONES:

 Main vertical zones are those sections into which the hull, superstructure
and deckhouses are divided by "A" class divisions, the mean length and
width of which on any deck does not in general exceed 40 m.
 It is a requirement for passenger ships carrying more than 36 passengers
that the hull, superstructure and deckhouses must be subdivided into main
vertical zones by 'A-60" class divisions. Steps and recesses shall be kept to a
minimum, but where they are necessary they shall also be "A-60" class
divisions. These divisions shall have insulation values as given in the relevant
tables in SOLAS.
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 As far as practicable, the bulkheads forming the boundaries of the main

vertical zones above the bulkhead deck shall be in line with watertight
subdivision bulkheads situated immediately below the bulkhead deck. The
length and width of main vertical zones may be extended to a maximum of
48 m in order to bring the ends of main vertical zones to coincide with
watertight subdivision bulkheads.
EFFECT OF INCREASE IN BEAM ON GZ CURVE:
An increase in beam leads to an increase of initial GM and of GZ values generally.
𝐼 𝐿 𝑥 𝐵3 𝐵2
𝐵𝑀 = = = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑥 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙)
𝑉 12 𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝐵 𝑥 𝑑 12𝑑
As we can see from the formula, with increase in beam, the BM will increase by a
large amount.
Since KM = KB + BM,
With increase in BM, the KM will also increase consequently.
Since GM = KM – KG,
The GM will also subsequently increase. This holds good even for ship-shaped
vessel.
Since GZ = GM sinϴ,
If we keep the angle of heel constant, GZ is directly proportional to GM.
Therefore, increase in beam results in increase in the GZ values at various angles
of heel.
Even if we consider the wall sided formula for GZ,

GZ = sinϴ (GM + ½ BM tan2ϴ)
Again, as BM and GM are both increasing with the beam, GZ also increases.
In conclusion, an increase in beam causes higher values of GZ throughout the

curve, an improved range of stability and increased dynamical stability at all
stages.
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HOGGING AND SAGGING:
 Hogging: If the buoyancy amidships exceed the weight due to loading or

when the wave crest is amidships, the ship will Hog, as a beam supported at
mid length and loaded at the end.
 Sagging: If the weight amidships exceed the buoyancy or when the wave
trough amidships the ship will sag, as a beam supported at the ends and
loaded at mid length.
 The deck and bottom shell, longitudinals, deck girders, etc. contribute
significantly to counteracting the bending stresses. Bending stresses are
greater over the middle portion of the length and hence required greater
scantlings.
RACKING STRESS:
 When a ship is rolling, the deck tends to move laterally relative to the
bottom structure and the shell on one side tends to move vertically relative
to the other side. This type of deformation is referred to as ‘racking’.
 Transverse bulkheads primarily resist such transverse deformation. Where
transverse bulkheads are widely spaced, deep web frames and beams may
be introduced to compensate.
TORSIONAL STRESS:
 When a body is subject to a twisting moment which is commonly referred to

as torque, that body is said to be in ‘torsion’. A ship heading obliquely (45°)
to a wave will be subjected to righting moments of opposite direction at its
ends twisting the hull and putting it in ‘torsion’.
 In most ships, these torsional moments and stresses are negligible but in
ships with extremely wide and long deck openings they are significant. A
particular example is the larger container ship where at the topsides a heavy
torsion box girder structure including the upper deck is provided to
accommodate the torsional stresses.
 Torsional stresses also occur due to unsymmetrical loading along the centre
line of the vessel. (For example, too much load on the fwd-port side and at
the aft-stbd side)
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LOFTING:
 Shipbuilders before beginning work must resort to a practice of lofting or
laying down the lines of the ship. Lofting consists of preparing a full size or
an exact skeleton plan of the hull to be built.
 Computers and dedicated programs for ship building are used to draw a full
scale plan. This plan is saved as a ‘wire frame model’ in the computer and
can be rotated and viewed from any angle. CAD (computer aided design) is
used for shipbuilding design and lofting process.
LINES PLAN:
 The form of the ship can be determined by passing a set of parallel planes
through the hull at regular intervals and measuring the outlines on these
planes. The plan that defines the ‘form’ of the ship by use of such planes is
known as the ‘lines plan’.
 When the planes are vertical and parallel to the centerline, a ‘sheer plan’ or
side view is obtained.
 When the planes are horizontal and parallel to the waterline, a ‘half breadth
plan’ or bird eye view is obtained.
 When the plan is vertical and perpendicular to the centerline a ‘body plan’ or
an end view is obtained.
 The lines plan help in the calculation of various parameters such as:
1. Block co-efficient, prismatic co-efficient and WPA co-efficient.
2. Displacement at various drafts
3. Transverse and longitudinal COB
4. Cross curves of stability
5. Capacity of Holds
MORE ABOUT FLOODABLE LENGTH:

 Floodable length is the length of the compartment which if flooded will
cause the ship to sink up to the margin line.
 The floodable length is not the same at all points along the ship’s length.
Closer to the midship area the floodable length is larger. This is because if
the midship compartment is flooded, the ship will sink bodily (with least
trim). But as we move away from the midship, the flooded compartment
will trim the vessel. This would cause the ship to sink up to the margin line.
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 Hence, the floodable lengths away from midship are smaller. Thus, the
floodable length changes along the length of the ship.
 Floodable length curve represents the maximum floodable length of the
ship along the ship’s length. This curve is obtained by vertically plotting the
floodable length along the ship’s length.
 To check if the ship would comply with this damage stability requirement,
the floodable length curve is superimposed on the ship’s plan.
 Then one compartment by one, the damage stability compliance is checked.
The length of the assumed damaged compartment is plotted vertically at
the center of the compartment. If this length is below the floodable length
curve, this compartment complies with the damage stability requirements
of one compartment standard. Same is done with other compartments.
 As we can see, all the length triangles are within the floodable length curve
of the ship. This means that this ship complies with one compartment
standards of the damage stability.
 For two compartment standards, the triangle will be bigger as the height of
triangle would be the combined length of two compartments.
 The floodable length curve is drawn and provided to the ship by the Naval
Architects.
PERMEABILITY AS PER SOLAS:

 Stores = 0.6
 Dry Cargo Spaces, Accommodation & Void Spaces = 0.95
 Machinery Spaces = 0.85
 Intended for liquids = 0 or 0.95 (Whichever results in the more severe
requirement)
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FORCED ROLLING:
Forced rolling is a function that comes standard with a stabilizing / damping

system. The forced roll mode is basically a testing mode that makes the ship roll
even when there are no waves. Forced rolling is used for testing the effectiveness
of the roll damping system. In other cases, it is a system that is used by technicians
to measure the ship's roll-period and the roll damping percentage.
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NAVAL ARCHITECTURE – II (THEORY TOPICS)

Sr. No CONTENTS Page Nos.

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA (i)

Downloaded by Vinay Kadyan (vkadyan22@gmail.com)

NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

(A) LINES PLAN

 The lines plan (lines drawing) consists of projections of the intersections of

 In other words, a lines plan is a drawing, to a suitable scale, of the moulded

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

Only For Understanding

SHEER OR PROFILE PLAN:

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

(B) SHELL EXPANSION PLAN

METHOD OF SHIPBUILDING: ‘WIRE FRAME METHOD’ / COMPUTER

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

SHIP BUILDING – BLOCK DIAGRAMS

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

 Draughtsman – is a person who makes detailed technical plans or drawings

 Loftsman – is a person who draws up full-size outlines from the drawing or

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIPYARD PRACTICES

1. What is a ‘wire frame model’?

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

SHIP-BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

‘Plasticity’ is the quality of being easily shaped or moulded. Both properties of

Tensile Strength: It is the property of a material to resist tearing when subject to

Hardness: It is the measure of resistance to change in shape and form under

Toughness: It is the ability of a material to absorb energy (impact), undergo a

Stress/Brittle Fracture/ Fatigue:

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

A typical curve (say of mild steel)

The diagram alongside shows the

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

TESTING OF SHIP BUILDING MATERIAL

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS

 A sample is pressed by a radiused piece and measurements are taken which

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NAVAL ARCH – II SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS & TESTS