5 - State-Variable/ Biquad Filters The state-variable filter is something of an oddball design, with several different versions of the basic

circuit being available, and different formulae being described to calculate the gain and Q. All of the frequency calculations I've seen are correct, but some imply that multiple resistors are involved to change frequency. This is not the case - two resistors affect the frequency, and these can be in the form of a dual-gang pot. This makes the filter tunable, unlike any of the others so far. In addition, the state-variable filter provides 3 simultaneous outputs - high pass, low pass and bandpass. All have the same frequency (-3dB or peak for the bandpass) and the same Q. Gain and Q cannot be separated - so as one is varied, the other varies as well. Q and gain can be made independent by adding a fourth opamp. This is desirable (and commonly applied) in parametric equalisers.

Figure 7 - State-Variable Filter

This is an extremely versatile filter, and its usefulness is often overlooked. Some reference material suggests that there's no real reason to even use the design, but I disagree with this assessment. Since both low and high pass outputs are available simultaneously, it can be used as a variable crossover (with some changes). While higher orders can be made, they become more and more complex, and for this article only the second order filter is discussed. In the example above, R1 changes gain and Q. Increasing R1 reduces gain, and increases the filter's Q, although the change of Q is relatively small compared to the gain change. R2 changes Q, but leaves gain unchanged (contrary to the myriad claims that the two are inseparable without the fourth opamp). Increasing R2 reduces Q, and vice versa. Rt and Ct are the tuning components, and as shown give a frequency of 1.59kHz. The two Rt resistors can be replaced by a dual-gang pot, allowing a continuous variation of frequency. A series resistor must still be used, typically one tenth of the pot value. In the above circuit, Rt could be replaced by a 100k pot in series with a 10k resistor, giving a range from 145Hz to 1.59kHz. When the frequency of a state variable filter is changed, the Q remains the same. This means that as frequency is increased, the bandwidth is decreased.

It is beyond the scope of this article to cover the complete design process, and in particular the process for setting the filter Q to a specific value. There are countless examples and design notes available on the Net, and those interested in exploring further are encouraged to do a search for material that gives the information needed. Biquad Filter The biquad in its pure form is somewhat remarkable in that it can only be made as a low pass or bandpass filter. There is no ability to use the traditional approach of swapping the positions of tuning resistors and capacitors to obtain a high pass filter. This limits its usefulness, but it is still very usable as a bandpass filter. Like the state-variable, both outputs are available simultaneously. In addition, there is an inverted copy of the low pass output, however this is probably of limited usefulness.

Figure 8 - Biquad Filter

While the circuit looks similar to the state variable, it is very different. Again, a complete discussion of the calculations is outside the scope of this article, but R2 is used to set Q and gain, while R3 & R4 and C1 & C2 are the tuning components. When the frequency of a biquad filter is changed, Q also changes, so a bandpass implementation has a constant bandwidth. Q increases with increased frequency. Use as a low pass filter is rather pointless, since there is no high pass equivalent, and the Q changes with frequency anyway.